Yazarlar Valon bölgesi, Belçika SENSOTEM ve NANOTIC araştırma projeleri çerçevesinde yanı sıra ulusal fon için bilimsel araştırma (F.R.S.-F.N.R.S) finansal destek için kabul.

1. protein numune hazırlama
<ol><li>Üretmek ve hibrid protein Bağdat-taksi-Lys3 bizim önceki çalışma15' te bildirildiği gibi arındırmak. 50 mM fosfat tampon pH 7.4 ile aşağıdaki oluşturma protein saklayın: NaCl 8 g, KCl 0.2 g, Na2HPO4 1,44 g ve KH2PO4 800 mL distile su içinde çözünmüş 0,24 g gidermek 7,4 önce çözüm pH nihai çözüm 1 sesini L. filtre sterilize protein çözüm.</li>
	<li>Bir tavuk yumurta akı lizozim (HEWL) stok çözüm hazırlamak. 100 mg (40.000 adet/mg) ticari olarak satın alınan HEWL 10 ml (PBS bkz: adım 2.1.1) fosfat tampon salin geçiyoruz. Protein çözüm 0,22 mikron kesim ile filtreleri kullanarak filtreleme tarafından sterilize.</li>
</ol>2. Biyoalgılayıcı deneyleri
<ol><li>
Çözüm ve tampon hazırlama
	<ol>
<li>50 mM PBS NaCl 8 g, KCl 0.2 g, Na2HPO41,44 g ve KH2PO4 800 mL distile su içinde 0,24 g çözülerek hazırlayın. İçin pH 7.4 1 N HCl veya 1 N NaOH 1 L. filtre sterilize ve 4 ° C'de saklamak için çözüm sesini daha önce ayarlayın</li>
		<li>Kazein hidrolizat yukarıda açıklandığı gibi hazırlanan PBS 100 ml 3 g çözülerek doygunluk/engelleme çözüm hazırlamak (bkz. Adım 2.1.1). Filtre sterilize ve 4 ° C'de depolayın</li>
		<li>Kazein hidrolizat yukarıda açıklandığı gibi hazırlanan PBS 100 ml 1 g çözülerek bağlama çözüm hazırlamak (bkz. Adım 2.1.1). Filtre sterilize ve 4 ° C'de depolayın</li>
		<li>Bir çamaşır çözüm hazırlamak (% 0,1 ara - PBS) yukarıda açıklandığı gibi hazırlanan PBS 100 ml Tween 20 (% 100) 100 μL ekleyerek (bkz. Adım 2.1.1). 4 ° C'de mağaza</li>
		<li>Bir elektrot hazırlık çözüm hazırlamak (%1 Triton X-100-PBS) Triton X-100 (% 100) 1 mL 100 ml yukarıda açıklandığı gibi hazırlanan PBS ekleyerek (bkz. Adım 2.1.1). 4 ° C'de mağaza</li>
		<li>Bir elektrot rejenerasyon çözüm (3.5 M KCl) 26 g KCl son hacim için distile suda çözülerek hazırlamak 100 mL. Filtre sterilize ve mağaza 4 ° C'de</li>
		<li>5 mM NaCl çözüm 0,29 gr NaCl son hacmi 1 L. filtre sterilize ve 4 ° C'de depolamak için distile suda çözülerek hazırlamak Sonra bir algılama çözüm (4 mM benzylpenicillin) benzylpenicillin 20 ml 5 mm NaCl çözüm 26.7 mg çözülerek hazırlayın. Filtre sterilize ve -20 ° C'de depolayın</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>
Sensör hazırlık ve rejenerasyon Not: Polyaniline cips geliştirilmiş olup, lütfen Dr. P. Bogaerts, Dr. S. Yunus ve Prof. Y. Glupczynski'nın (Katolik Üniversitesi of Louvain-la-Neuve - CHU Mont-Godinne) tarafından sağlanan sensör kaplı. Bu sensörler sentezlemek için kullanılan polyaniline elektro-polimerizasyon protokolleri yanı sıra sensör açıklaması onların önceki iş17' ayrıntılı. Kısaca, bu sistem ile klasik baskılı devre kartı (PCB) tekniklerle üretilen sekiz bireysel fiş yeniden kullanılabilir sensörleri kullanır. Bireysel cips üç elektrot oluşan lekeler yuvarlak. Üsttekini çalışma elektrot olan elektro sentezlenmiş hangi polyaniline üzerinde yapıldı. Orta bir referans elektrot ve alt elektrot sayaç elektrot oluşturmaktadır. Hem, başvuru ve sayaç elektrotlar katı Ag/AgCl amalgam karbon tabaka üzerine kullanarak functionalized.<ol>
<li>Elektrot 3 yıkama ipuçları 300 µL/iyi elektrot hazırlık çözüm içeren bir 96-şey plaka kuyu daldırma tarafından gerçekleştirmek (%1 Triton X-100-PBS, bkz: adım 2.1.5.). Her yıkama nazik oda sıcaklığında karıştırma ile 2 min için gerçekleştirin.</li>
		<li>Elektrotlar 300 µL/iyi nazik oda sıcaklığında karıştırma ile 2 min için distile su içeren bir 96-şey plaka kuyu içine belgili tanımlık keyif daldırma tarafından durulayın.</li>
		<li>Elektrotlar ipuçları 300 µL/iyi rejenerasyon çözüm içeren bir 96-şey plaka kuyu daldırma tarafından yeniden (3.5 M KCl, bkz: adım 2.1.6) gecede 4 ° C veya oda sıcaklığında 1 h.</li>
		<li>Elektrot 3 yıkama ipuçları 300 µL/iyi fosfat tampon tuz içeren bir 96-şey plaka kuyu daldırma tarafından gerçekleştirmek (bkz. Adım 2.1.1.). Her yıkama nazik oda sıcaklığında karıştırma ile 2 dakika boyunca gerçekleştirin.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>
Tahlil bağlama sensör üzerinde gerçekleştirilen
	<ol>
<li>Kat HEWL 40 µg/mL HEWL elektrot yüzeyine PBS içinde hazırlanan bir 15 µL damla yatırma tarafından elektrot PANI (polyaniline) yüzeyine. Gecede 4 ° C veya oda sıcaklığında 1 saat kuluçkaya.</li>
		<li>Elektrot fosfat tampon salin ile üç yıkama gerçekleştirmek (bkz. Adım 2.1.1) sensör cips elektrot bölümlerini 300 µL/iyi fosfat tampon tuz içeren bir 96-şey plaka kuyu daldırma tarafından. Her yıkama nazik oda sıcaklığında karıştırma ile 2 min için gerçekleştirin.</li>
		<li>Elektrotlar engelleme çözüm bir 50 µL damla ekleyerek emdirmek (bkz. Adım 2.1.2) elektrot yüzeyine. Oda sıcaklığında 1 h için kuluçkaya. O zaman üç kez önceki açıklandığı gibi yıkama (bkz. Adım 2.3.2) adım.</li>
		<li>Bağdat-taksi-Lys3 çözüm çözüm bağlama içinde 20 µg/ml seyreltik (bkz. Adım 2.1.3) ve 15 µL damla elektrotlar üzerine seyreltilmiş Bu çözümün uygulama. Oda sıcaklığında 10 dakika için kuluçkaya. Antijen-nanobody reaksiyon sonra yıkama çözüm kullanarak önceki adımda üç kez açıklanan yıkayın (bkz. Adım 2.1.4). Elektrot kez PBS ile yıkayın (bkz. Adım 2.1.1).</li>
		<li>Tespiti için dijital multimetre için bakır-devreleri bölümü üzerinden sensör çip takın. Sonra bir 50 µL damla algılama çözüm uygulayarak sensör yanıt başlatmak (bkz. Adım 2.1.7) üzerine pozitif elektrotlar ve NaCl 5 mM çözüm (bkz. Adım 2.1.7) negatif elektrot üzerine bir 50 µL damla uygulanıyor. Oda sıcaklığında 30 dk için kuluçkaya. Gürültülerinden dijital multimetre ile izleyin. Not: Multimetre Dr. P. Bogaerts, Dr. S. Yunus ve Prof. Y. Glupczynski'nın (Katolik Üniversitesi of Louvain-la-Neuve - CHU Mont-Godinne. tarafından sağlanan Bu potansiyostat bilgisayar kontrollü yolu ile a USB liman ve aynı anda sekiz farklı fiş sensörün analiz eder. Yunus ve meslektaşları17 tarafından oluşturulan yazılım zamana karşı başvuru ve örnek elektrot arasındaki gürültülerinden farkı ölçümleri temsil eden gerçek zamanlı bir çizim oluşturur.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
</ol>

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E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Potentiometric+enzyme+immunoassay+using+miniaturized+anion-selective+electrodes+for+detection.">Potentiometric enzyme immunoassay using miniaturized anion-selective electrodes for detection.</a> Analyst. 134, 1601-1607 (2009).</li><li>Ding, J., Wang, X., Qin, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pulsed+galvanostatic+control+of+a+polymeric+membrane+ion-selective+electrode+for+potentiometric+immunoassays.">Pulsed galvanostatic control of a polymeric membrane ion-selective electrode for potentiometric immunoassays.</a> ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 5, 9488-9493 (2013).</li><li>Wang, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+polymeric+liquid+membrane+electrode+responsive+to+3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine+oxidation+for+sensitive+peroxidase/peroxidase+mimetic-based+potentiometric+biosensing.">A polymeric liquid membrane electrode responsive to 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine oxidation for sensitive peroxidase/peroxidase mimetic-based potentiometric biosensing.</a> Anal Chem. 86, 4416-4422 (2014).</li><li>Grieshaber, D., MacKenzie, R., Voros, J., Reimhult, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrochemical+Biosensors+-+Sensor+Principles+and+Architectures.">Electrochemical Biosensors - Sensor Principles and Architectures.</a> Sensors (Basel). 8, 1400-1458 (2008).</li><li>Bakker, E., Pretsch, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nanoscale+potentiometry.">Nanoscale potentiometry.</a> Trends Analyt Chem. 27, 612-618 (2008).</li><li>Zhang, D., Liu, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biosensors+and+bioelectronics+on+smartphone+for+portable+biochemical+detection.">Biosensors and bioelectronics on smartphone for portable biochemical detection.</a> Biosens Bioelectron. 75, 273-284 (2016).</li><li>Nemiroski, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Universal+mobile+electrochemical+detector+designed+for+use+in+resource-limited+applications.">Universal mobile electrochemical detector designed for use in resource-limited applications.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 111, 11984-11989 (2014).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Socio-economic impact of mHealth- An assessment report for the European Union. , (2013).</li></ol>

Yazarlar ifşa gerek yok.

Bu çalışmada biz Bağdat β-lactamase bir taşıyıcı protein kullanarak bir nanobody functionalize için bir yöntem mevcut ve biz başarılı bir şekilde potentiometric sensör assay olarak elde edilen melez protein uygulayabilirsiniz göstereceğiz. Kovalent kaplin elektrik sinyali üretir enzimatik aktivite için antikor bölümünün diğer Biyoalgılayıcı deneyleri için karşılaştırıldığında çalışmalarımızın ana yenilik yönüdür. Bu sözde protein ekleme teknoloji avantajları ve bu bölümü...

Biyosensörler fiziksel veya kimyasal sinyal aygıtları için güç çeviriciler1adlandırılan biyo moleküler bir etkileşim birleştirmek analitik cihazlar vardır. Kaydedilen sinyalleri yorumlanır ve immobilize ve ücretsiz ortakları arasındaki etkileşimleri izlemek için dönüştürülür. Biyosensörler çoğu analitler hormonlar veya farklı patojen işaretleri2gibi algılamak için bir antikor kullanımı gerektirir. Farklı sensör biçimleri kullanılabilir ve kitle tabanlı, manyetik, optik ve elektrokimyasal biyosensörler içerir. İkincisi arasında en sık kullanılan sensörler vardır ve bir bağlama olayı elektrik sinyaline dönüştürerek işlev. Performansları ve hassasiyetleri tüm antikor tabanlı biyosensörler, güçlü aslında iki parametre üzerinde bağlıdır: i) antikor ve II)2sinyal oluşturmak için kullanılan sistem özelliklerini kalitesi.
Antikorlar iki ağır zincir ve iki hafif zincirleri oluşan yüksek moleküler kütlesi dimerik (150-160 kDa) proteinlerdir. Hafif ve ağır zincirleri arasındaki etkileşimi çoğunlukla hidrofobik etkileşimler yanı sıra bir korunmuş disülfür bağ stabil. Her zincir antijen aslında tamamlayıcı belirlenmesi bölgeleri (CDR1-2-3) adlı üç hypervariable bölgeler ile etkileşim bir değişken etki alanı içerir. Alan, tam uzunlukta antikorlar düşük maliyetli ifade sistemleri (örneğin, E. coli) ile büyük ölçekli bir ifade çok sayıda gelişmeler rağmen genellikle istikrarsız ve toplanan protein üretimi için açar. Bu yüzden3 (ScFvs ≈ 25 kDa) tek-zinciri değişken parçaları gibi çeşitli antikor parçaları mühendislik. Bunlar sırasıyla bir ağır ve kovalent sentetik amino asit dizisi tarafından bağlanan bir hafif zincirleri değişken etki alanından oluşur. Ancak, bu parçaları kez zavallı bir istikrar görüntülemek ve toplamak, onların hidrofobik bölgeler solvent4büyük bir bölümünü ortaya çıkarmak bu yana eğilimi var. Bu bağlamda, tek zincir Devegiller antikor parçaları, nanobodies veya VHHs, olarak anılacaktır ScFvs mükemmel alternatifler görünmektedir. Bu etki alanları Devegiller tek zincir antikorlar değişken adlarına karşılık. Geleneksel antikorlar, aksine Devegiller antikorlar yoksun hafif zincirleri yüklenir ve yalnızca iki ağır zincir5içerir. Bu nedenle, nanobodies en küçük monomeric antikor (12 kDa) geleneksel antikorlar6için benzer bir ilgi ile bir antijen bağlamak mümkün oluşuyor. Ayrıca, geliştirilmiş kararlılık ve diğer tam uzunlukta antikorlar veya antikor parçaları ile karşılaştırıldığında çözünürlük mevcut. Son olarak, kendi küçük boyutları ve genişletilmiş kendi CDR3 döngüleri onları şifreli epitopları tanımak ve enzim etkin sitelere7,8' e bağlamak izin verir. Günümüzde, bu etki alanlarının büyük ilgi alıyorsanız ve Biyoalgılayıcı teknoloji kombine edilmiştir. Örneğin, Huang ve ark. nanobody tabanlı Biyoalgılayıcı algılama ve miktar insan Prostat spesifik antijen (PSA)9için geliştirdik.
Bahsedilen-yukarıda olarak, elektrik sinyal oluşturmak için kullanılan sistemin verimliliği Biyoalgılayıcı deneyleri önemli bir parametre belirtilir. Bu nedenle, elektrokimyasal biyosensörler enzim tabanlı artan ilgisini çekti var ve sağlık, gıda güvenliği ve çevre izleme gibi çeşitli uygulamalar için yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır. Bu biyosensörler bir substrat katalitik hidroliz üzerinde elektrik sinyali oluşturmak için sana bir enzim tarafından güveniyor. Bu bağlamda, β-laktamaz daha belirli, daha duyarlı ve kolaylaştırmak alkalen fosfataz veya horseradish peroksidaz10gibi birçok diğer enzimler deneysel olarak gösterilmiştir. Β-laktamaz onları hidrolize tarafından Beta-laktam antibiyotik bakteriyel direnç sorumlu olan enzimlerdir. Onlar monomeric, çok kararlı, verimli ve küçük boyutu var. Ayrıca, etki alanı/peptid eklemeleri β-laktamaz içine protein-ligand etkileşimleri eğitim için verimli araçlar olmak gösterildi BI fonksiyonel chimeric proteinleri üretir. Gerçekten de, son yıllarda yapılan çalışmalarda TEM1 β-lactamase sonuçları antikor değişken parçaları bu ekleme onun hedef antijen için yüksek benzeşimli bağlamak mümkün kalır bir chimeric protein göstermiştir. İlginçtir, antijen bağlayıcı TEM1 katalitik aktivitesi11,12allosteric yönetmelik ikna etmek için gösterildi. Ayrıca, protein etki alanı ekleme izin veren bir döngü Bacillus licheniformis Bağdat β-lactamase protein-ligand etkileşimleri13 izlemek için uygundur fonksiyonel chimeric proteinler oluşturduğu çeşitli çalışmalarda gösterdi ,14. Biz son zamanlarda taksi-Lys3, Bağdat15bu keyfi ekleme site adında bir nanobody takılı. Bu nanobody tavuk-yumurta-beyaz lizozim (HEWL) bağlamak için ve onun enzimatik aktivite16etkisizleştirmek için gösterildi. Biz Bağdat-taksi-Lys3, adında oluşturulan melez protein yüksek özgüllük muhafaza / β-lactamase aktivite kaldı HEWL karşı benzeşme değişmeden gösterdi. Sonra başarıyla hibrid β-lactamase teknolojisi bir elektrokimyasal Biyoalgılayıcı için kombine ve üretilen elektrik sinyal miktarı Bağdat-taksi-Lys3 ve bir elektrot üzerinde immobilize HEWL arasındaki etkileşimin bağımlı olduğunu gösterdi. Nitekim, β-laktam antibiyotik Bağdat tarafından hidroliz nicel bir elektrik sinyali dönüştürülebilir bir proton açıklaması neden olmaktadır. Bu birleşimi bir elektrokimyasal Biyoalgılayıcı hibrid β-lactamase teknolojisiyle hızlı, hassas, nicel ve üretilen sinyal gerçek zamanlı ölçüm sağlar. Bu metodoloji burada açıklanmıştır.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1471">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:515px;">Reagents</td>
			<td style="width:215px;"></td>
			<td style="width:128px;"></td>
			<td style="width:615px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">KH2PO4</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldricht</td>
			<td>V000225&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">K2HPO4</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldricht</td>
			<td>1551128</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">NaCl</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldricht</td>
			<td>S7653</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tris&#8211;HCl</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>10812846001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">EDTA&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldricht</td>
			<td>E9884</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">KCl</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldricht</td>
			<td>P9541</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Na2HPO4&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldricht</td>
			<td>NIST2186II</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">2-mercaptoethanol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldricht</td>
			<td>M6250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">alanine</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldricht</td>
			<td>A7627</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">HClO4</td>
			<td>Fluka</td>
			<td>34288</td>
			<td>1M HClO4 solution, distributor : Sigma-Aldricht</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">casein hydrolysate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldricht</td>
			<td>22090</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">benzylpenicillin sodium</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldricht</td>
			<td>B0900000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:515px;">hen egg white lysozyme</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>10837059001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:515px;">heptane</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldricht</td>
			<td>246654</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:515px;">methanol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldricht</td>
			<td>322415</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ammonium hydroxide solution</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldricht</td>
			<td>380539</td>
			<td>28% NH3&#160;in H2O, purified by double-distillation (concentrated?)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Laboratory consumables</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">6-well plate&#160;</td>
			<td>Greiner Bio-One</td>
			<td>657165</td>
			<td>CELLSTAR 6-Well Plate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">pH meter</td>
			<td>WTW</td>
			<td>1AA110</td>
			<td>Lab pH meter inoLab pH 7110</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">vacuum and filtration system</td>
			<td>Nalgene</td>
			<td>NALG300-4100</td>
			<td>Filter holders with receiver, distributor : VWR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:515px;">potentiometric sensor chips</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>manufactured by Yunus and colleagues (ref 16)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PGSTAT30 Autolab</td>
			<td>Metrohm Autolab</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>discontinued, succesor Autolab PGSTAT302N</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">digital multimeter, METRAHit 22M</td>
			<td>Gossen Metrawatt</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>discontinued, successor Metrahit Base</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

the use of a &#946;-lactamase-based conductimetric biosensor assay to detect biomolecular interactions

Biyosensörler patojen algılama, moleküler tanı, çevresel izleme ve gıda güvenliği denetimi gibi çeşitli alanlarda uygulanan ve giderek daha önemli hale gelmektedir. Bu bağlamda, çeşitli protein-protein etkileşim çalışmaları verimli muhabir enzimler olarak β-laktamaz kullanılır. Ayrıca, eklemeleri ve peptidler yapısal proteinler/etki alanlarının kuvvetle kabul yeteneğini chimeric proteinleri oluşturmak için bu enzimler kullanımı teşvik eder. Bir son çalışmada, Bacillus licheniformis Bağdat β-lactamase bir tek etki alanı antikor parçası eklenir. Nanobodies, adı da verilen bu küçük etki alanları üzerinden Devegiller tek zincir antikorların antijen bağlayıcı etki alanları olarak tanımlanır. Ortak çift zincir antikorlar gibi gösteriyorlar yüksek benzeşim ve özelliklerine kendi hedefleri için. Elde edilen chimeric protein β-lactamase aktivite korurken hedefine karşı yüksek bir yakınlık sergiledi. Bu nanobody ve β-lactamase moieties işlevsel kalır göstermektedir. Mevcut çalışma, biz Biyoalgılayıcı teknoloji hibrid β-lactamase sistemi birleştirir detaylı bir protokol raporu. Nanobody hedefine için özel bağlayıcı enzimin katalitik aktivitesi tarafından yayımlanan proton conductimetric bir ölçüm sayesinde tespit edilebilir.

Tasarım ve mühendislik chimeric protein Bağdat-taksi-Lys3
Şekil 1 BalP A sınıfı β-lactamase izin veren bir döngü içine taksi-Lys3 ekleme Bacillus licheniformistemsil eder. Ekleme Asp198 ve Lys199 kalıntıları arasında gerçekleştirildi. Trombin bölünme site taksi-Lys3 her tarafında kullanılmaya başlandı. Bağdat-taksi-Lys3 chimeric protein kodlama bir bünye ifade plazmid ile dönüştürülmüş hücr...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about The Use of a ÃŽÂ²-lactamase-based Conductimetric Biosensor Assay to Detect Biomolecular Interactions at JoVE.com

The Use of a &#946;-lactamase-based Conductimetric Biosensor Assay to Detect Biomolecular Interactions

Bu çalışmada, protein-protein etkileşimleri hibrid β-lactamase teknolojisini temel alan bir conductimetric Biyoalgılayıcı kullanarak eğitim için yeni bir yöntem rapor. Bu yöntem proton β-lactams hidroliz üzerine sürümü kullanır.

Biyomoleküler etkileşimleri algılamak için bir Conductimetric Biyoalgılayıcı β-lactamase tabanlı tahlil kullanımı

Biosensors are becoming increasingly important and implemented in various fields such as pathogen detection, molecular diagnosis, environmental ...

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8.9K Görüntüleme.  University of Liège. Bu çalışmada, protein-protein etkileşimleri hibrid β-lactamase teknolojisini temel alan bir conductimetric Biyoalgılayıcı kullanarak eğitim için yeni bir yöntem rapor. Bu yöntem proton β-lactams hidroliz üzerine sürümü kullanır.

Video: The Use of a β-lactamase-based Conductimetric Biosensor Assay to Detect Biomolecular Interactions

Micropatterned Surfaces to Study Hyaluronic Acid Interactions with Cancer Cells

Cancer invasion and progression involves a motile cell phenotype, which is under complex regulation by growth factors/cytokines and extracellular matrix (ECM) components within the tumor microenvironment. Hyaluronic acid (HA) is one stromal ECM component that is known to facilitate tumor progression by enhancing invasion, growth, and angiogenesis1. Interaction of HA with its cell surface receptor CD44 induces signaling events that promote tumor cell growth, survival, and migration, thereby increasing metastatic spread2-3. HA is an anionic, nonsulfated glycosaminoglycan composed of repeating units of D-glucuronic acid and D-N-acetylglucosamine. Due to the presence of carboxyl and hydroxyl groups on repeating disaccharide units, native HA is largely hydrophilic and amenable to chemical modifications that introduce sulfate groups for photoreative immobilization 4-5. Previous studies involving the immobilizations of HA onto surfaces utilize the bioresistant behavior of HA and its sulfated derivative to control cell adhesion onto surfaces6-7. In these studies cell adhesion preferentially occurs on non-HA patterned regions.
To analyze cellular interactions with exogenous HA, we have developed patterned functionalized surfaces that enable a controllable study and high-resolution visualization of cancer cell interactions with HA. We utilized microcontact printing (uCP) to define discrete patterned regions of HA on glass surfaces. A "tethering" approach that applies carbodiimide linking chemistry to immobilize HA was used 8. Glass surfaces were microcontact printed with an aminosilane and reacted with a HA solution of optimized ratios of EDC and NHS to enable HA immobilization in patterned arrays. Incorporating carbodiimide chemistry with mCP enabled the immobilization of HA to defined regions, creating surfaces suitable for in vitro applications. Both colon cancer cells and breast cancer cells implicitly interacted with the HA micropatterned surfaces. Cancer cell adhesion occurred within 24 hours with proliferation by 48 hours. Using HA micropatterned surfaces, we demonstrated that cancer cell adhesion occurs through the HA receptor CD44. Furthermore, HA patterned surfaces were compatible with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and allowed high resolution imaging of cancer cell adhesive protrusions and spreading on HA patterns to analyze cancer cell motility on exogenous HA.

A novel approach that allows the high-resolution analysis of cancer cell interactions with exogenous hyaluronic acid (HA) is described. Patterned surfaces are fabricated by combining carbodiimide chemistry and microcontact printing.

Micropatterned Yüzeyler Kanser Hücreleri ile Hyaluronik Asit Etkileşimleri Eğitim

Cancer invasion and progression involves a motile cell phenotype, which is under complex regulation by growth factors/cytokines and extracellular matrix ...

Biyomühendislik

Biomolecular Detection employing the Interferometric Reflectance Imaging Sensor (IRIS)

The sensitive measurement of biomolecular interactions has use in many fields and industries such as basic biology and microbiology, environmental/agricultural/biodefense monitoring, nanobiotechnology, and more. For diagnostic applications, monitoring (detecting) the presence, absence, or abnormal expression of targeted proteomic or genomic biomarkers found in patient samples can be used to determine treatment approaches or therapy efficacy. In the research arena, information on molecular affinities and specificities are useful for fully characterizing the systems under investigation.
Many of the current systems employed to determine molecular concentrations or affinities rely on the use of labels. Examples of these systems include immunoassays such as the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques, gel electrophoresis assays, and mass spectrometry (MS). Generally, these labels are fluorescent, radiological, or colorimetric in nature and are directly or indirectly attached to the molecular target of interest. Though the use of labels is widely accepted and has some benefits, there are drawbacks which are stimulating the development of new label-free methods for measuring these interactions. These drawbacks include practical facets such as increased assay cost, reagent lifespan and usability, storage and safety concerns, wasted time and effort in labelling, and variability among the different reagents due to the labelling processes or labels themselves. On a scientific research basis, the use of these labels can also introduce difficulties such as concerns with effects on protein functionality/structure due to the presence of the attached labels and the inability to directly measure the interactions in real time.
Presented here is the use of a new label-free optical biosensor that is amenable to microarray studies, termed the Interferometric Reflectance Imaging Sensor (IRIS), for detecting proteins, DNA, antigenic material, whole pathogens (virions) and other biological material. The IRIS system has been demonstrated to have high sensitivity, precision, and reproducibility for different biomolecular interactions [1-3]. Benefits include multiplex imaging capacity, real time and endpoint measurement capabilities, and other high-throughput attributes such as reduced reagent consumption and a reduction in assay times. Additionally, the IRIS platform is simple to use, requires inexpensive equipment, and utilizes silicon-based solid phase assay components making it compatible with many contemporary surface chemistry approaches.
Here, we present the use of the IRIS system from preparation of probe arrays to incubation and measurement of target binding to analysis of the results in an endpoint format. The model system will be the capture of target antibodies which are specific for human serum albumin (HSA) on HSA-spotted substrates.

Biomolecular Detection employing the Interferometric Reflectance Imaging Sensor IRIS

Quantitative, high-throughput, real-time, and label-free biomolecular detection (DNA, protein, etc.) on SiO2 surfaces can be achieved using a simple interferometric technique which relies on LED illumination, minimal optical components, and a camera. The Interferometric Reflectance Imaging Sensor (IRIS) is inexpensive, simple to use, and amenable to microarray formats.

Biyomoleküler Algılama istihdam İnterferometrik Yansıtma Görüntüleme Sensörü (IRIS)

The sensitive measurement of biomolecular interactions has use in many fields and industries such as basic biology and microbiology, ...

Fabrication of Electrochemical-DNA Biosensors for the Reagentless Detection of Nucleic Acids, Proteins and Small Molecules

As medicine is currently practiced, doctors send specimens to a central laboratory for testing and thus must wait hours or days to 
receive the results. Many patients would be better served by rapid, bedside tests. To this end our laboratory and others have developed a versatile, reagentless 
biosensor platform that supports the quantitative, reagentless, electrochemical detection of nucleic acids (DNA, RNA), proteins (including antibodies) and small 
molecules analytes directly in unprocessed clinical and environmental samples. In this video, we demonstrate the preparation and use of several biosensors in this 
"E-DNA" class. In particular, we fabricate and demonstrate sensors for the detection of a target DNA sequence in a polymerase chain reaction mixture, an HIV-specific antibody and the drug cocaine. The preparation procedure requires only three hours of hands-on effort followed by an overnight incubation, and their use requires only minutes.

"E-DNA" sensors, reagentless, electrochemical biosensors that perform well even when challenged directly in blood and other complex matrices, have been adapted to the detection of a wide range of nucleic acid, protein and small molecule analytes. Here we present a general procedure for the fabrication and use of such sensors.

Nükleik Asitler, Proteinler ve Küçük Moleküller Reagentless Algılama Elektrokimyasal DNA Biyosensörler Fabrikasyon

As medicine is currently practiced, doctors send specimens to a central laboratory for testing and thus must wait hours or days to 
receive the results. ...

Design of a Cyclic Pressure Bioreactor for the Ex Vivo Study of Aortic Heart Valves

The aortic valve, located between the left ventricle and the aorta, allows for unidirectional blood flow, preventing backflow into the ventricle. Aortic valve leaflets are composed of interstitial cells suspended within an extracellular matrix (ECM) and are lined with an endothelial cell monolayer. The valve withstands a harsh, dynamic environment and is constantly exposed to shear, flexion, tension, and compression. Research has shown calcific lesions in diseased valves occur in areas of high mechanical stress as a result of endothelial disruption or interstitial matrix damage1-3. Hence, it is not surprising that epidemiological studies have shown high blood pressure to be a leading risk factor in the onset of aortic valve disease4. 
The only treatment option currently available for valve disease is surgical replacement of the diseased valve with a bioprosthetic or mechanical valve5. Improved understanding of valve biology in response to physical stresses would help elucidate the mechanisms of valve pathogenesis. In turn, this could help in the development of non-invasive therapies such as pharmaceutical intervention or prevention. Several bioreactors have been previously developed to study the mechanobiology of native or engineered heart valves6-9. Pulsatile bioreactors have also been developed to study a range of tissues including cartilage10, bone11 and bladder12. The aim of this work was to develop a cyclic pressure system that could be used to elucidate the biological response of aortic valve leaflets to increased pressure loads. 
The system consisted of an acrylic chamber in which to place samples and produce cyclic pressure, viton diaphragm solenoid valves to control the timing of the pressure cycle, and a computer to control electrical devices. The pressure was monitored using a pressure transducer, and the signal was conditioned using a load cell conditioner. A LabVIEW program regulated the pressure using an analog device to pump compressed air into the system at the appropriate rate. The system mimicked the dynamic transvalvular pressure levels associated with the aortic valve; a saw tooth wave produced a gradual increase in pressure, typical of the transvalvular pressure gradient that is present across the valve during diastole, followed by a sharp pressure drop depicting valve opening in systole. The LabVIEW program allowed users to control the magnitude and frequency of cyclic pressure. The system was able to subject tissue samples to physiological and pathological pressure conditions. This device can be used to increase our understanding of how heart valves respond to changes in the local mechanical environment.

Design of a Cyclic Pressure Bioreactor for the Ex Vivo Study of Aortic Heart Valves

A cyclic pressure bioreactor capable of subjecting heart valve tissue to physiological and pathological pressure conditions has been designed. A LabVIEW program allows users to control pressure magnitude, amplitude and frequency. This device can be used to study the mechanobiology of heart valve tissue or isolated cells.

Devirli Basınç Biyoreaktör Tasarım Ex vivo</emAort Kalp Vanalar> Eğitim

The aortic valve, located between the left ventricle and the aorta, allows for unidirectional blood flow, preventing backflow into the ventricle. Aortic ...

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced birth defects and many later studies afterwards proved the opposite. Today several harmful xenobiotics like nicotine, heroin, methadone or drugs as well as environmental pollutants were described to overcome this barrier. With the growing use of nanotechnology, the placenta is likely to come into contact with novel nanoparticles either accidentally through exposure or intentionally in the case of potential nanomedical applications. Data from animal experiments cannot be extrapolated to humans because the placenta is the most species-specific mammalian organ 1. Therefore, the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion, developed by Panigel et al. in 1967 2 and continuously modified by Schneider et al. in 1972 3, can serve as an excellent model to study the transfer of xenobiotics or particles.
Here, we focus on the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion protocol and its further development to acquire reproducible results.
The placentae were obtained after informed consent of the mothers from uncomplicated term pregnancies undergoing caesarean delivery. The fetal and maternal vessels of an intact cotyledon were cannulated and perfused at least for five hours. As a model particle fluorescently labelled polystyrene particles with sizes of 80 and 500 nm in diameter were added to the maternal circuit. The 80 nm particles were able to cross the placental barrier and provide a perfect example for a substance which is transferred across the placenta to the fetus while the 500 nm particles were retained in the placental tissue or maternal circuit. The ex vivo human placental perfusion model is one of few models providing reliable information about the transport behavior of xenobiotics at an important tissue barrier which delivers predictive and clinical relevant data.

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

The ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion model can be used to investigate the transfer of xenobiotics and nanoparticles across the human placenta. In this video protocol we describe the equipment and techniques required for a successful execution of a placenta perfusion.

Plasenta karşısında Ksenobiyotik ve Nanomalzemelerin Ulaştırma Hızı belirlenmesi kullanarak<em&gt; Ex vivo</em&gt; İnsan Plasental Perfüzyon Modeli

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced ...

Use of Label-free Optical Biosensors to Detect Modulation of Potassium Channels by G-protein Coupled Receptors

Ion channels control the electrical properties of neurons and other excitable cell types by selectively allowing ions to flow through the plasma membrane1. To regulate neuronal excitability, the biophysical properties of ion channels are modified by signaling proteins and molecules, which often bind to the channels themselves to form a heteromeric channel complex2,3. Traditional assays examining the interaction between channels and regulatory proteins require exogenous labels that can potentially alter the protein&#39;s behavior and decrease the physiological relevance of the target, while providing little information on the time course of interactions in living cells. Optical biosensors, such as the X-BODY Biosciences BIND Scanner system, use a novel label-free technology, resonance wavelength grating (RWG) optical biosensors, to detect changes in resonant reflected light near the biosensor. This assay allows the detection of the relative change in mass within the bottom portion of living cells adherent to the biosensor surface resulting from ligand induced changes in cell adhesion and spreading, toxicity, proliferation, and changes in protein-protein interactions near the plasma membrane. RWG optical biosensors have been used to detect changes in mass near the plasma membrane of cells following activation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), receptor tyrosine kinases, and other cell surface receptors. Ligand-induced changes in ion channel-protein interactions can also be studied using this assay. In this paper, we will describe the experimental procedure used to detect the modulation of Slack-B sodium-activated potassium (KNa) channels by GPCRs.

Optical biosensor techniques can detect changes in mass near the plasma membrane in living cells and allow one to follow cellular responses in both individual cells and populations of cells. This protocol will describe detection of the modulation of potassium channels by G-protein coupled receptors in intact cells using this approach.

G-protein bağlı reseptörler ile Potasyum kanallarının modülasyonunu Algılama Label içermeyen optik Biyosensör kullanımı

Ion channels control the electrical properties of neurons and other excitable cell types by selectively allowing ions to flow through the plasma ...

Use of a High-throughput In Vitro Microfluidic System to Develop Oral Multi-species Biofilms

There are few high-throughput in vitro systems which facilitate the development of multi-species biofilms that contain numerous species commonly detected within in vivo oral biofilms. Furthermore, a system that uses natural human saliva as the nutrient source, instead of artificial media, is particularly desirable in order to support the expression of cellular and biofilm-specific properties that mimic the in vivo communities. We describe a method for the development of multi-species oral biofilms that are comparable, with respect to species composition, to supragingival dental plaque, under conditions similar to the human oral cavity. Specifically, this methods article will describe how a commercially available microfluidic system can be adapted to facilitate the development of multi-species oral biofilms derived from and grown within pooled saliva. Furthermore, a description of how the system can be used in conjunction with a confocal laser scanning microscope to generate 3-D biofilm reconstructions for architectural and viability analyses will be presented. Given the broad diversity of microorganisms that grow within biofilms in the microfluidic system (including Streptococcus, Neisseria, Veillonella, Gemella, and Porphyromonas), a protocol will also be presented describing how to harvest the biofilm cells for further subculture&#160;or DNA extraction and analysis. The limits of both the microfluidic biofilm system and the current state-of-the-art data analyses will be addressed. Ultimately, it is envisioned that this article will provide a baseline technique that will improve the study of oral biofilms and aid in the development of additional technologies that can be integrated with the microfluidic platform.

Use of a High-throughput In Vitro Microfluidic System to Develop Oral Multi-species Biofilms

The goal of this methods paper is to describe the use of a microfluidic system for the development of multi-species biofilms that contain species typically identified in human supragingival dental plaque.&#160;Methods to describe biofilm architecture, biofilm viability, and an approach to harvest biofilm for culture-dependent or culture-independent analyses are highlighted.

Yüksek verimli bir kullanımı<em&gt; İn Vitro</em&gt; Mikroakışkan Sistemi Ağız Çok türler biyofilm Geliştirmek İçin

There are few high-throughput in vitro systems which facilitate the development of multi-species biofilms that contain numerous species commonly detected ...

Use of a Rat Model to Study Ventral Abdominal Hernia Repair

Ventral abdominal hernia is a relatively common clinical condition that sometimes requires herniorraphy (surgical repair). The repair of ventral abdominal hernia typically requires implantation of a material to serve as a mechanical bridge across the defect in the abdominal wall. Biomaterials, such as porcine small intestinal submucosa (SIS), also serve as a lattice for cell growth into the implant and can naturally incorporate into the host tissue. Development of such repair materials benefits from use of animal models in which experimental abdominal wall defects are easily created and are amenable to repair in a reproducible fashion. The method offered here describes surgical creation and repair of ventral abdominal hernia in a rat model. When SIS is used to repair an experimental ventral abdominal hernia in this model, it is rapidly incorporated into host tissue within 28 days of implantation. Histologically, incorporation of their implanted material into host tissue is characterized by a robust fibrovascular response. Future refinements and applications of the rat abdominal hernia model may likely involve diabetic and/or obese animals as a means to more closely mimic common co-morbidities of man.

This manuscript describes methods associated with creation and repair of a ventral abdominal wall defect (hernia). This model can be used to study repair strategies such as those that use implanted materials. In this manuscript, repair of the experimental hernia with porcine small intestinal submucosa is presented as an example.

Ventral karın fıtık onarımı çalışmaya bir fare modeli kullanımı

Ventral abdominal hernia is a relatively common clinical condition that sometimes requires herniorraphy (surgical repair). The repair of ventral abdominal ...

PIP-on-a-chip: A Label-free Study of Protein-phosphoinositide Interactions

Numerous cellular proteins interact with membrane surfaces to affect essential cellular processes. These interactions can be directed towards a specific lipid component within a membrane, as in the case of phosphoinositides (PIPs), to ensure specific subcellular localization and/or activation. PIPs and cellular PIP-binding domains have been studied extensively to better understand their role in cellular physiology. We applied a pH modulation assay on supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) as a tool to study protein-PIP interactions. In these studies, pH sensitive ortho-Sulforhodamine B conjugated phosphatidylethanolamine is used to detect protein-PIP interactions. Upon binding of a protein to a PIP-containing membrane surface, the interfacial potential is modulated (i.e. change in local pH), shifting the protonation state of the probe. A case study of the successful usage of the pH modulation assay is presented by using phospholipase C delta1 Pleckstrin Homology (PLC-&#948;1 PH) domain and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P2) interaction as an example. The apparent dissociation constant (Kd,app) for this interaction was 0.39 &#177; 0.05 &#181;M, similar to Kd,app values obtained by others. As previously observed, the PLC-&#948;1 PH domain is PI(4,5)P2 specific, shows weaker binding towards phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate, and no binding to pure phosphatidylcholine SLBs. The PIP-on-a-chip assay is advantageous over traditional PIP-binding assays, including but not limited to low sample volume and no ligand/receptor labeling requirements, the ability to test high- and low-affinity membrane interactions with both small and large molecules, and improved signal to noise ratio. Accordingly, the usage of the PIP-on-a-chip approach will facilitate the elucidation of mechanisms of a wide range of membrane interactions. Furthermore, this method could potentially be used in identifying therapeutics that modulate protein&#39;s capacity to interact with membranes.

Here we present a supported lipid bilayer in the context of a microfluidic platform to study protein-phosphoinositide interactions using a label-free method based on pH modulation.

PIP-on-a-chip: Protein-fosfoinositid Etkileşimlerinin Etiketsiz Bir Çalışması

Numerous cellular proteins interact with membrane surfaces to affect essential cellular processes. These interactions can be directed towards a specific ...

Dry Film Photoresist-based Electrochemical Microfluidic Biosensor Platform: Device Fabrication, On-chip Assay Preparation, and System Operation

In recent years, biomarker diagnostics became an indispensable tool for the diagnosis of human disease, especially for the point-of-care diagnostics. An easy-to-use and low-cost sensor platform is highly desired to measure various types of analytes (e.g., biomarkers, hormones, and drugs) quantitatively and specifically. For this reason, dry film photoresist technology - enabling cheap, facile, and high-throughput fabrication - was used to manufacture the microfluidic biosensor presented here. Depending on the bioassay used afterwards, the versatile platform is capable of detecting various types of biomolecules. For the fabrication of the device, platinum electrodes are structured on a flexible polyimide (PI) foil in the only clean-room process step. The PI foil serves as a substrate for the electrodes, which are insulated with an epoxy-based photoresist. The microfluidic channel is subsequently generated by the development and lamination of dry film photoresist (DFR) foils onto the PI wafer. By using a hydrophobic stopping barrier in the channel, the channel is separated into two specific areas: an immobilization section for the enzyme-linked assay and an electrochemical measurement cell for the amperometric signal readout.
The on-chip bioassay immobilization is performed by the adsorption of the biomolecules to the channel surface. The glucose oxidase enzyme is used as a transducer for electrochemical signal generation. In the presence of the substrate, glucose, hydrogen peroxide is produced, which is detected at the platinum working electrode. The stop-flow technique is applied to obtain signal amplification along with rapid detection. Different biomolecules can quantitatively be measured by means of the introduced microfluidic system, giving an indication of different types of diseases, or, in regard to therapeutic drug monitoring, facilitating a personalized therapy.

A microfluidic biosensor platform was designed and fabricated using low-cost dry film photoresist technology for the rapid and sensitive quantification of various analytes. This single-use system allows for the electrochemical readout of on-chip-immobilized enzyme-linked assays by means of the stop-flow technique.

Kuru zar elektrokimyasal mikrosıvısal Biyoalgılayıcı fotorezist tabanlı Platform: Cihaz imalat, On-chip tahlil hazırlama ve sistemin çalışması

In recent years, biomarker diagnostics became an indispensable tool for the diagnosis of human disease, especially for the point-of-care diagnostics. An ...