We acknowledge funding from the European Research Council (FP7/260916), the Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung (Sofja Kovalevskaja), and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DE1951 and SFB889).

All animal experiments described here were performed in accordance with the guidelines for German animal welfare.
NOTE: The timeline and main steps of the protocol are illustrated in Figure 1.
1. Preparations
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the following solutions.
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare DMEM+ for culturing polygonal MD astrocytes: DMEM with 10% FCS, 100 U penicillin and 100 &#181;g/mL streptomycin.</li>
		<li>Prepare NB+H for culturi...

<ol>
	<li>Puschmann, T. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bioactive+3D+cell+culture+system+minimizes+cellular+stress+and+maintains+the+in+vivo-like+morphological+complexity+of+astroglial+cells.">Bioactive 3D cell culture system minimizes cellular stress and maintains the in vivo-like morphological complexity of astroglial cells.</a> Glia. 61 (3), 432-440 (2013).</li><li>Puschmann, T. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HB-EGF+affects+astrocyte+morphology,+proliferation,+differentiation,+and+the+expression+of+intermediate+filament+proteins.">HB-EGF affects astrocyte morphology, proliferation, differentiation, and the expression of intermediate filament proteins.</a> J Neurochem. 128 (6), 878-889 (2014).</li><li>Foo, L. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+a+method+for+the+purification+and+culture+of+rodent+astrocytes.">Development of a method for the purification and culture of rodent astrocytes.</a> Neuron. 71 (5), 799-811 (2011).</li><li>Wolfes, A. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+method+for+culturing+stellate+astrocytes+reveals+spatially+distinct+Ca2++signaling+and+vesicle+recycling+in+astrocytic+processes.">A novel method for culturing stellate astrocytes reveals spatially distinct Ca2+ signaling and vesicle recycling in astrocytic processes.</a> J Gen Physiol. 149 (4), (2016).</li><li>McCarthy, K. D., de Vellis, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparation+of+separate+astroglial+and+oligodendroglial+cell+cultures+from+rat+cerebral+tissue.">Preparation of separate astroglial and oligodendroglial cell cultures from rat cerebral tissue.</a> J Cell Biol. 85 (3), 890-902 (1980).</li><li>Krencik, R., Zhang, S. -. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Directed+differentiation+of+functional+astroglial+subtypes+from+human+pluripotent+stem+cells.">Directed differentiation of functional astroglial subtypes from human pluripotent stem cells.</a> Nat Protoc. 6 (11), 1710-1717 (2011).</li><li>Morita, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dual+regulation+of+calcium+oscillation+in+astrocytes+by+growth+factors+and+pro-inflammatory+cytokines+via+the+mitogen-activated+protein+kinase+cascade.">Dual regulation of calcium oscillation in astrocytes by growth factors and pro-inflammatory cytokines via the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade.</a> J Neurosci. 23 (34), 10944-10952 (2003).</li><li>Saura, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microglial+cells+in+astroglial+cultures:+a+cautionary+note.">Microglial cells in astroglial cultures: a cautionary note.</a> J Neuroinflammation. 4, 26 (2007).</li><li>Raponi, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=S100B+expression+defines+a+state+in+which+GFAP-expressing+cells+lose+their+neural+stem+cell+potential+and+acquire+a+more+mature+developmental+stage.">S100B expression defines a state in which GFAP-expressing cells lose their neural stem cell potential and acquire a more mature developmental stage.</a> Glia. 55 (2), 165-177 (2007).</li><li>Royo, N. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Specific+AAV+serotypes+stably+transduce+primary+hippocampal+and+cortical+cultures+with+high+efficiency+and+low+toxicity.">Specific AAV serotypes stably transduce primary hippocampal and cortical cultures with high efficiency and low toxicity.</a> Brain Res. 1190, 15-22 (2008).</li><li>Malarkey, E. B., Parpura, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Temporal+characteristics+of+vesicular+fusion+in+astrocytes:+examination+of+synaptobrevin+2-laden+vesicles+at+single+vesicle+resolution.">Temporal characteristics of vesicular fusion in astrocytes: examination of synaptobrevin 2-laden vesicles at single vesicle resolution.</a> J Physiol. 589, 4271-4300 (2011).</li><li>Zamanian, J. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genomic+analysis+of+reactive+astrogliosis.">Genomic analysis of reactive astrogliosis.</a> J Neurosci. 2 (18), 6391-6410 (2012).</li><li>Srinivasan, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ca(2+)+signaling+in+astrocytes+from+Ip3r2(-/-)+mice+in+brain+slices+and+during+startle+responses+in+vivo.">Ca(2+) signaling in astrocytes from Ip3r2(-/-) mice in brain slices and during startle responses in vivo.</a> Nat Neurosci. 18 (5), 708-717 (2015).</li><li>Shigetomi, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+calcium+microdomains+within+entire+astrocyte+territories+and+endfeet+with+GCaMPs+expressed+using+adeno-associated+viruses.">Imaging calcium microdomains within entire astrocyte territories and endfeet with GCaMPs expressed using adeno-associated viruses.</a> J Gen Physiol. 141 (5), 633-647 (2013).</li><li>Srinivasan, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=New+Transgenic+Mouse+Lines+for+Selectively+Targeting+Astrocytes+and+Studying+Calcium+Signals+in+Astrocyte+Processes+In+Situ+and+In+Vivo.">New Transgenic Mouse Lines for Selectively Targeting Astrocytes and Studying Calcium Signals in Astrocyte Processes In Situ and In Vivo.</a> Neuron. 92 (6), 1181-1195 (2016).</li><li>Otsu, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calcium+dynamics+in+astrocyte+processes+during+neurovascular+coupling.">Calcium dynamics in astrocyte processes during neurovascular coupling.</a> Nat Neurosci. 18 (2), 210-218 (2015).</li><li>Agarwal, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transient+Opening+of+the+Mitochondrial+Permeability+Transition+Pore+Induces+Microdomain+Calcium+Transients+in+Astrocyte+Processes.">Transient Opening of the Mitochondrial Permeability Transition Pore Induces Microdomain Calcium Transients in Astrocyte Processes.</a> Neuron. 93 (3), 587-605 (2017).</li></ol>

Four steps within the protocol are critical: 1) preparing the HBEGF concentration to precisely 5 ng/mL, since small increases in the concentration can lead to immature cultures, e.g., 10 ng/mL HBEGF will de-differentiate astrocytes4; 2) avoiding bubbles in the solutions that contain tissue or cells, which can change the pH and impede astrocyte health; 3) pre-equilibrating media to achieve the optimal pH and temperature for growing healthy astrocytes; 4) exchanging only half the medium onc...

Astrocytes influence brain function through trophic support, blood flow, synaptic signaling and plasticity, and intercellular communication - all of which are mechanisms that center around the thin astrocytic processes. The AWESAM protocol described here allows the study of these processes without interference from neurons and other glia, which is useful e.g., because the expression of many proteins and even Ca2+ signaling overlap across different brain cell types. Further, this method overcomes limitations of previously available techniques. In particular, our protocol provides in vivo-like morphology (stellate astrocytes with thin processes) and gene expression in a quick, easy, and cheap manner.
Cell morphology, gene expression, and many other regulatory processes are directly influenced by the environment. In a culture dish, this refers to factors released by surrounding cells, but also the medium in which the cells are grown. For astrocytes, HBEGF was previously reported to induce a stellate morphology1 but was also found to de-differentiate astrocytes2. However, lower concentrations of HBEGF were later used for generating more in vivo-like astrocytes as identified via RNA sequencing in two different protocols3,4. Moreover, astrocyte morphology changes with the medium composition, regardless of the protocol4: Neurobasal medium with a low concentration of HBEGF is optimal for growing stellate astrocytes, while other medium compositions (e.g., serum-containing DMEM) produce polygonal cells (even in astrocytes freshly isolated by immunopanning).
The AWESAM protocol overcomes disadvantages of previous techniques for growing astrocyte monocultures4. Previous techniques for growing astrocyte monocultures have the following disadvantages: polygonal morphology, which is uncharacteristic of stellate astrocytes in vivo (MD method)5; the length and cost of protocol (preparing astrocytes from induced pluripotent stem cells takes three months and requires many reagents, including expensive growth factors)6; the low amounts of material (immunopanning method)3; and the de-differentiation of astrocytes and requirement of a 3D matrix (Puschmann et al.)1,2. In contrast, the AWESAM protocol provides: in vivo-like morphology (stellate astrocytes with thin processes); a quick, easy, and cheap method; large quantities of material; and the most in vivo-like gene expression compared with immunopanned and MD astrocytes. Additionally, 2D culture allows for the study of Ca2+ signaling and vesicle recycling in thin processes, and in events close to the membrane (e.g., TIRF microscopy is not possible in 3D cultures).
The MD method has been extensively used since its publication in 19805, offering a simple and fast technique for polygonal astrocyte monocultures. In brief, the MD method entails growing mixed brain cells in fetal calf serum (FCS)-containing DMEM, followed by shaking steps that enrich for astrocytes (as all other brain cell types detach from the dish) and further culture in the same medium. DMEM supplemented with FCS is used for many other cell types, ranging from fibroblasts and adipocytes to different cancer cell lines, all of which share the polygonal morphology exhibited by MD astrocytes in culture. Until the early 2000s7, little thought had been given to media tailored to astrocytes, specifically to favor their typical stellate morphology found in vivo. One protocol published in 2011 does achieve such stellate morphology: Called the immunopanning method, it employs serum-free medium optimized for culturing astrocytes3. Using this method, freshly isolated brain cells are exposed to a series of dishes coated with antibodies that target cell type-specific cell surface proteins, to enrich for astrocytes. Despite the more in vivo-like morphology and expression profile of immunopanned astrocytes, the majority of in vitro studies still rely on the MD astrocyte method. The MD method is simple and fast, while the immunopanning method comprises more complex and time-consuming steps on the first day of culture (such as longer enzyme digestion periods, careful layering of solutions of different density, immunopanning itself, and several centrifugation steps - all before plating). However, by using more specialized medium, the AWESAM method offers both the speed of the MD method and the in vivo-like morphology of the immunopanning protocol.
Overall, the AWESAM protocol is useful for studying more in vivo-like astrocytes in 2D monocultures isolated from neurons and other glia (as previously characterized4 by immunostainings, immunoblots, and RNA sequencing). It allows for the study of thin astrocytic processes, and provides great accessibility for visualizing spontaneous Ca2+ signaling and events close to the membrane (e.g., imaged by TIRF microscopy).

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="898">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:216px;">0.05% trypsin-EDTA</td>
			<td style="width:171px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">25300054</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">warm in 37 &#186;C waterbath before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">0.25% trypsin-EDTA</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>25200-056</td>
			<td>warm in 37 &#186;C waterbath before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">B-27 supplement</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>17504-044</td>
			<td>50X stock</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Glutamax</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>35050-061</td>
			<td>100X stock</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Penicillin / streptomycin</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15070-063</td>
			<td>50 stock; penicillin: 5000 U/ml; streptomycin: 5000 &#181;g/ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Neurobasal medium</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>21103049</td>
			<td>without L-glutamine</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">DMEM</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>41966029</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">HBEGF</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>4643</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">HEPES</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15630080</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">HBSS</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>14170112</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">FCS</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>10437028</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">PBS</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>10010049</td>
			<td>1X</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">100 &#956;m nylon cell strainer</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">352360</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Trypan Blue</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T8154&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Cell culture incubator</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>Hera Cell 240i cell culture incubator</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Laboratory shaker</td>
			<td>Heidolph</td>
			<td>Rotamax 120&#160;</td>
			<td>use inside cell culture incubator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5810 R&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

culturing in vivo-like murine astrocytes using the fast, simple, and inexpensive awesam protocol

The AWESAM (a low-cost easy stellate astrocyte method) protocol entails a fast, simple, and inexpensive way to generate large quantities of in vivo-like mouse and rat astrocyte monocultures: Brain cells can be isolated from different brain regions, and after a week of cell culture, non-astrocytic cells are shaken off by placing the culture dishes on a shaker for 6 h in the incubator. The remaining astrocytes are then passaged into new plates with an astrocyte-specific medium (termed NB+H). NB+H contains low concentrations of heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HBEGF), which is used in place of serum in medium. After growing in NB+H, AWESAM astrocytes have a stellate morphology and feature fine processes. Moreover, these astrocytes have more in vivo-like gene expression than astrocytes generated by previously published methods. Ca2+ imaging, vesicle dynamics, and other events close to the membrane can thus be studied in the fine astrocytic processes in vitro, e.g., using live cell confocal or TIRF microscopy. Notably, AWESAM astrocytes also exhibit spontaneous Ca2+ signaling similar to astrocytes in vivo.

Astrocytes that are co-cultured with neurons and grown in NB+ medium appear stellate after 2 weeks of culture (Figure 2). In addition to NB+ medium, the co-cultured astrocytes are also exposed to unknown neuron-derived factors that likely contribute to their survival and morphology. In contrast, MD astrocytes grown in DMEM+ as monocultures (after shaking off other cell types before passage) appear polygonal after 2 weeks. AWESAM astrocytes grown in NB+H after...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Culturing In Vivo-like Murine Astrocytes Using the Fast, Simple, and Inexpensive AWESAM Protocol at JoVE.com

Culturing In Vivo-like Murine Astrocytes Using the Fast, Simple, and Inexpensive AWESAM Protocol

The AWESAM protocol described here is optimal for culturing murine astrocytes in isolation from other brain cells in a fast, simple, and inexpensive manner. AWESAM astrocytes exhibit spontaneous Ca2+ signaling, morphology, and gene expression profiles similar to astrocytes in vivo.

Culturing In Vivo-like Murine Astrocytes Using the Fast, Simple, and Inexpensive AWESAM Protocol

The AWESAM (a low-cost easy stellate astrocyte method) protocol entails a fast, simple, and inexpensive way to generate large quantities of in vivo-like ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to produce in vivo like astrocyte monocultures using a simple, fast, and economical method. This method can help answer key questions in the astroglibiology field, such as what are the economics of astrocyte physical release or uptake. The main advantage of this technique is the resulting cells closely resemble astrocytes in vivo by morphology, mRNA and protein expression, and intercellular calcium fluctuations.To begin this procedure, prepare the dissection area by placing two 10 cm petri dishes filled with dissection medium on ice in a laminar flow dissection hood. For each brain area to be isolated, prepare a 15 mL tube filled with 14 mL of dissection medium and keep on ice. Next, spray the dissection tools with 70%ethanol and place them next to the dissection microscope in the hood.If working with embryonic tissue, first remove the embryos from the uterus and open the embryonic sacs. Immediately, cut off the heads with scissors. When all heads are cut off, transfer them into pre-cooled dissection medium.Once the heads are submerged in the medium, open the skin and skull with forceps and pinch off the cerebellum. Then carefully lever the rest of the brain up and out of the skull. After that, separate the cortex from the underlying mid-brain structure.Place the forceps within the longitudinal fissure between the hemispheres and move them in between the cortex and mid-brain structures of one hemisphere to pinch each hemisphere free. Subsequently, remove all meninges from each hemisphere and separate the hippocampi. If the hippocampal astrocytes are required, transfer each hippocampus into a 15 mL tube filled with 14 mL of dissection medium on ice.After that, cut any cortical tissue to be used for generating astrocytes into pieces no larger than one cubic milliliter. Then collect all pieces of cortical tissue in a separate 15 mL tube filled with dissection medium on ice. Once all tissue pieces are collected, wait for them to settle to the bottom of the tube.Then aspirate as much medium as possible. Following that, add 2-3 mL of 0.05%tripsen EDTA and incubate the samples in a 37 degree Celsius water bath for twenty minutes. Afterward, carefully aspirate the tripsen EDTA leaving tissue pieces in a minimum amount of liquid at the bottom of the tube.Next, add 5 mL of pre-cooled dissection medium to wash off the remaining tripsen EDTA and pipette to the side of the upper tube to achieve mixing of the tissue pieces. Then, aspirate the dissection medium and leave the tissue pieces in as little liquid as possible. Repeat this washing step with pre-cooled dissection medium twice.After the final washing step, add 1 mL of room temperature D-Mem Plus, and triturate the tissue by pipetting up and down without introducing bubbles. Astrocytes are quite sensitive to pH, so it's important to avoid producing bubbles as this may change the pH of the solution. Next, place a 100 micron cell strainer in the opening of a 50 mL tube and pre-wet the filter with 4.5 mL with pre-cooled D-Mem Plus.Pipette 1 mL of the dissociated tissue suspension onto the cell strainer and add another 4.5 mL of pre-cooled D-Mem Plus to wash the cells through it. On day in vitro seven after the dissection, place the 10 cm dishes with cells in D-Mem Plus on a shaker in the incubator and shake the dishes at 110 RPM for 6 hours. 20 to 30 minutes before the end of the six hours shaking, pre-warm 1 XPBS, D-Mem Plus, NB+H, and 0.25%tripsen EDTA to 37 degrees in the water bath.After 6 hours of shaking, take the culture dishes off the shaker and immediately replace the medium with 10 mL of pre-warmed 1 XPBS per dish. Subsequently, removed PBS and add 3 mL of pre-warmed tripsen EDTA per dish. Then incubate the samples for four minutes at 37 degrees Celsius.If preparing samples for Western Blot or RNA sequencing, do not add Tripsen EDTA. Instead, replace the PBS with 12 mL of pre-warmed NB+H, after which cultures can be placed back in the incubator. Next, add 5 mL of pre-warmed D-Mem Plus to 3 mL of tripsen EDTA in each dish.Pipette the cells off the dish and collect the cell suspension in a 50 mL tube. After that, centrifuge the cell suspension at 3220 times G at 20 degrees Celsius for 4 minutes. Then, remove the supernatant and re-suspend the cell palate in 1 mL of pre-warmed NB+H.These images show that G-camp transduced ausam astrocytes exhibit spontaneous calcium ion events throughout the astrocyte networks including in the thin processes. Here, a calcium ion wave travels through several astrocytes from left to right in the images of distinct time points, where light color depicts areas of high-calcium ion concentrations and black areas represent extra cellular regions. In this graph, calcium ion concentration changes in the color-coded regions over time, which are shown as G-camp fluorescent intensity traces, illustrating how a calcium ion signaling wave spreads across several astrocytes.Once mastered, this technique can be done in one hour and fifteen minutes if it is performed properly. Following this procedure, other methods like life cell imaging in combination with transfection or viral transduction experiments can be performed to answer additional questions like which events occur in astrocyte membranes. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to prepare in vivo like astrocyte motor cultures in a simple, fast, and economical way.

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8.3K Görüntüleme.  University of Oxford. The overall goal of this procedure is to produce in vivo like astrocyte monocultures using a simple, fast, and economical method. This method can help answer key questions in the astroglibiology field, such as what are the economics of astrocyte physical release or uptake. The main advantage of this technique is the resulting cells closely resemble astrocytes in vivo by morphology, mRNA and protein expression, and intercellular calcium fluctuations.To begin this procedure, prepare the ...