MCherry ifade Coxiella burnetiistokları sağlamak için Dr Robert Heinzen için minnettarız. Biz Dr Luis Teixeira omurgasız yanardöner virüs 6 ve Bloomington stok merkezi sinek stokları sağlamak için verdiğiniz için teşekkür ederiz. Bu projenin kısmen NIH hibe R00 AI106963 (A.G.G.) ve Washington State Üniversitesi tarafından finanse edildi.

1. ex vivo enfeksiyon
<ol><li>Orta ve donanımları<ol>
<li>Steril koşullarda, taze Drosophila Hemocyte izole Orta (% 75 Schneider'ın Drosophila içeren DHIM) hazırlamak orta % 25 ile Fetal sığır Serum (FBS) ve filtre bu sterilize.</li>
		<li>2-3 adet 10 cm x 10 cm parafin film bir stereomicroscope altında katman.</li>
		<li>Cam kılcal hazırlayın. Kapiller çektirme ısıtıcı maksimum % 55'i için ayarlayın. Kılcal tüp yaklaşık 10 µm keskin bir noktaya kadar çekin.</li>
		<li>Mineral yağ ile kılcal tamamlanmıyor.</li>
		<li>Dolu kılcal tüp nanoinjector (Şekil 1A) üzerine monte ve erimiş kılcal tüp İpucu İpucu off forseps ile (Şekil 1B) kırarak açık. Ucu dış çapı hemocytes kolay alımını için 100 µm olmalıdır.</li>
		<li>Kılcal tüp ucundan mümkün olduğunca çok yağ çıkarma sonra DHIM ile doldurun. Kenarlığı yukarı çekilen hemolymph ve yağ ile kolay görselleştirme için petrol ve DHIM arasında bir hava kabarcığı şunlardır (Şekil 1B').</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>Hemolymph ayıklama<ol>
<li>Al 3rd biçim Drosophila larva iç duvar gıda yavaşça forseps kullanarak tüp ve bir 100 µm süzgeç (Şekil 1C) koyun. 3rd INSTAR larvalar 3-6 gün yetişkin bir kadın tarafından döşeme verimli yumurta bulunur. Not: Bu deneyler genotip, w1118kullanılan; P {w+ mCHml-GAL4.Δ =} 2, P {w+ mCUAS-2xEGFP =} AH2 beri hemocytes bu hayvanlardan gelişmiş yeşil flüoresan protein (EGFP) mikroskopi tarafından hücreleri tanımlaması içinde yardım etmek için hızlı.</li>
		<li>Larvaları 5 mL steril su dökün ve aşırı su kaldırmak 5 s. yer için görev silme üzerine süzgeç Süzgeç sallamak (Şekil 1C').</li>
		<li>Larvalar 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tüp içine aktarın. Onları CO2 gaz için 5 ile anestezi s (Şekil 1D).</li>
		<li>Parafin filmi stereomicroscope altında üzerine larva dorsal yüzü (Şekil 2A) bakacak şekilde yerleştirin.</li>
		<li>Yere tutun ve posterior kütikül bozmak için yer cam larva arka gövde üzerine hafifçe kapiller ince sivri uçlu forseps (Şekil 2B) kullanarak açın.</li>
		<li>Parafin filmin (Şekil 2C) akmaya hemolymph izin verir.</li>
		<li>Parafin film üzerinde bir anda hemocytes 20-50 larvaları üzerinden de dahil olmak üzere hemolymph bir havuz yapmak.</li>
		<li>Cam kullanarak havuza alınan hemolymph kadar nanoinjector (resim 2D) kapiller al. Not: Hemolymph, yaklaşık 10-20 µL olmalıdır.</li>
		<li>Hemolymph DHIM (Şekil 2E) 500 µL içeren bir 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tüp çıkar.</li>
		<li>Adımları yineleyin 1.2.4) - 1.2.9 yükleme) larva her dizi için.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>Hemocytes saymak.<ol>
<li>5 µL % 0,4 Trypan mavi çözüm ölü hücreleri leke 0.6 mL microcentrifuge tüp içinde pipet. Hafifçe DHIM ve hemocytes bir pipet kullanarak 1,5 mL tüp içinde karıştırın ve DHIM 0.6 mL microcentrifuge Tube hemocytes de dahil olmak üzere 5 µL aktarmak ve karışımı yavaşça.</li>
		<li>11: Trypan mavi: hemocyte karışımı hücre 10 µL hemasitometre pipet.</li>
		<li>Trypan ile değil lekeli hemocytomter 4 köşe alanların her birinde mavi ve hemocytes formülünü kullanarak mililitre başına konsantrasyonu hesaplayan canlı hemocytes saymak: <img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/57077/57077eq1.jpg"> Burada X mililitre başına canlı hemocytes konsantrasyonu ise; a, b, c ve d mı hemasitometre içinde sayılan alanların her 4 canlı hücrelerde (Trypan mavi dışlama tarafından belirlenen) sayısı. 1:1 seyreltme Trypan mavi içeren hücrelerin hücre sayılan toplam sayısı 2 ile bölme kaynaklanmaktadır. Trypan ile mavi lekeli hücreleri ölü kabul edilir.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>
Ex vivo Enfeksiyonlar<ol>
<li>Kuyu timepoints ve biyolojik dayalı hücreleri ile seribaşı sayısını çoğaltır her deneme için gerekli belirlemek. 5.0 × 104 hemocytes enfeksiyonu takip RNA ve protein arıtma için arzu.</li>
		<li>DHIM ile enfeksiyon için aşağıdaki formülü kullanarak seyreltilmiş için patojen stok hacmi hesaplamak: <img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/57077/57077eq2.jpg"> nerede enfeksiyon (MOI) çokluğu veya bakteri hücre başına istenen viral sayısıdır. Not: kullanılan MOI bireysel deney ve deneyleri gerçekleştirilen bağlıdır. Burada, 10 genom eşdeğerleri (GE) / C. burnetii, 10 CFU/hücrenin Listeriaveya 1 TCID50/cell IIV6, hücresi kullanıldı.</li>
		<li>500 µL patojen orta bir tüp viral veya bakteriyel cilt DHIM uygun hacmi ekleyerek bir 24-şey plaka her şey için hazır olun.</li>
		<li>Yer 12 mm yuvarlak cam (No 1 kalınlık) 24-şey kalıbının kuyuya.</li>
		<li>Hemocytes 24-şey plaka kuyu dahil DHIM bölme.</li>
		<li>500 µL patojen orta hemocytes bir kuyu içinde ekleyin.</li>
		<li>1000 x g 5 min için plaka santrifüj kapasitesi.</li>
		<li>28 ° C'de 1 h plaka kuluçkaya Her 15 dk, hafifçe açık, daha sonra soldan sağa 5 arka plakasına eğimli el tarafından s.</li>
		<li>1 h işgali/ek adım 1.4.8) sonra yavaşça patojen orta pipet hemocytes taze DHIM ile yıkayın ve taze DHIM 500 µL ile doldurma.</li>
		<li>Virüslü hemocytes için istenen saat kuluçkaya. Bu deneylerde, C. burnetii- veya hemocytes IIV6 enfekte inkübe 24 h ve Listeriaiçin-virüslü hemocytes inkübe 1, 2 veya 4 h için.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
</ol>2. vivo enfeksiyon
<ol><li>Enfeksiyon<ol>
<li>Drosophila meyve suyu agar tabağı 15 dk. plakaları için oda sıcaklığında daha önce yapılan sıcak20nitelendirdi.<ol>
<li>30 g agar 700 mL su ve basınçlı kap ekleyin 40 dk için.</li>
			<li>Metil paraben mutlak etanol 10 ml 0.5 g geçiyoruz.</li>
			<li>Metil paraben çözüm için 300 mL meyve suyu konsantresi ekleyin.</li>
			<li>Hızlı bir şekilde suyu konsantresi autoclaved agar çözüm mix ve 5 mL 10 × 35 mm Petri yemekleri dağıtmak.</li>
			<li>Tabakları 15dk için soğutmalı sonra onları 4 ° C'de depolayın</li>
		</ol>
</li>
		<li>Hazırlamak 3rd INSTAR larva aşağıdaki adımları 1.2.1) - 1.2.3).</li>
		<li>Maya Yapıştır bir agar tabağa yerleştirin. Nerede larva (Şekil 3A) kurutma önlemek için geçirebilirsiniz agar plaka iyi bir kesim yapmak. Parafin film (Şekil 3B, C) kullanarak forseps holding ile 0,001 mm sivri tungsten iğne bir araya getirin.</li>
		<li>Yüksek-titresi mCherry 50 µL pipet ifade -C. burnetii (5,95 × 109 GE/mL) parafin üzerine film stereo mikroskop altında ve larvalar bakteri havuzun yerleştirin.</li>
		<li>Larvalar bakteri havuzun yerleştirin. Larva (Şekil 3D) tungsten iğne ile dikmek. Larvalar agar plaka (Şekil 3E) üzerine aktarın.</li>
		<li>Agar plaka kalan patojen ortamına aktarmak ve parafin film ile plaka mühür.</li>
		<li>Larvalar plaka üzerinde istenen saat sonrası enfeksiyon (Şekil 3F) kadar nemli havada tut. Bu deneyde, C. burnetii-virüslü larvaları vardır 24 h için plaka üzerinde.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>Hemolymph çıkarma ve hemocytes kaplama<ol>
<li>Orta ve 1.1. adımda takip donanımları hazırlamak).</li>
		<li>Yer 12 mm yuvarlak cam (No 1 kalınlık) 24-şey kalıbının kuyuya. DHIM 500 µL kuyunun içine pipet.</li>
		<li>Hemolymph aşağıdaki adımları 1.2.4 virüslü larvaları özü) - 1.2.8).</li>
		<li>Hemolymph de aşağıdaki içine çıkarma adım 2.2.2).</li>
		<li>2.2.3 tekrar) ve 2.2.4) larva, birden çok toplu işlem için.</li>
		<li>1000 x g 5 min için plaka santrifüj kapasitesi.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
</ol>3. görsel öğe
<ol><li>Sabitleme ve boyama<ol>
<li>Hemocytes iyi yuvarlak kapak camına yerleşmek izin sonra yavaşça orta her kuyudan çıkarın.</li>
		<li>Yavaşça 200 µL % 4 paraformaldehyde (PFA), kapatılan hemocytes her şey için ekleyin. Hemocytes oda sıcaklığında 20 dk için kuluçkaya.</li>
		<li>%4 kaldırmak PFA ve yavaşça 200 µL % 0,1 içeren PBS ekleyin Triton X-100 ve %1 sığır Serum Albumin (BSA) her şey için. Hemocytes oda sıcaklığında 10 dakika için kuluçkaya.</li>
		<li>PBS kaldır ve yavaşça, 1 × 4', 6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) her şey için 200 µL ekleyin. Hemocytes içinde belgili tanımlık karanlık oda sıcaklığında 10 dakika için kuluçkaya.</li>
		<li>DAPI çözümü kaldırmak ve yavaşça her şey için PBS ekleyin. Hemocytes oda sıcaklığında 5 min için kuluçkaya.</li>
		<li>Antifade montaj orta 10 µL cam mikroskop slayt üzerinde bırakın.</li>
		<li>PBS her kuyudan kaldırdıktan sonra kapak cam 24-şey plaka ince sivri uçlu forseps kullanarak kaldırın. Yavaşça kapak cam antifade montaj ortama cam slayt üzerinde hemocytes aşağı bakacak şekilde yerleştirin.</li>
		<li>Karanlık gecede yerleştirerek kurumaya slayt izin.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>Confocal görüntüleme<ol>
<li>Üç renk görüntüleme DAPI, EGFP ve mCherry için confocal mikroskop yapılandırın. Aşağıdaki ayarı kullanın: DAPI uyarma (ex) 405 nm, emisyon (em) 415-480 nm; EGFP 488 ex nm, em 493-564 nm; mCherry 587 ex nm, em 597-700 nm.</li>
		<li>Mikroskop ve odak bir 63 X kullanarak örnek örnek yerleştirin / 1.4 sayısal diyafram (NA) amaç. İstenen hemocytes görüntüleme için görüş alanı bulun.</li>
		<li>Lazer güç ve dedektör kazançlar örnek uygun pozlama elde etmek için ayarlayın. Birden çok z-düzlem pozlama seviyesi tüm örnek kalınlığı için uygun olduğundan emin olmak için denetleyin.</li>
		<li>Bütün hemocyte z ekseni üzerinde üst ve alt konumu bulun. Bu pozisyonlar z kesit için başlangıç ve bitiş konumlarını ayarlayın.</li>
		<li>Sadece görüntü hemocyte bulunduğu alanı için tarama zoom özelliğini kullanın. 3 X Zoom faktörleri genellikle kullanılır.</li>
		<li>1024 x 1024 piksel x-y düzlemde gibi uygun çözünürlükte görüntü serisi ve 0.3 µm Aralık z boyut toplamak.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>3D modeli yeniden yapılanma Not: Açık kaynak yazılım 3D modeli yeniden yapılanma için aşağıda açıklanan işlevlerin çoğunu gerçekleştiren oluşur.<ol>
<li>Z kesitli resim serisi dosyası 3D modeli yeniden inşası için confocal mikroskop ile İlişkili Yazılım alın.</li>
		<li>DAPI ve C. burnetii hemocyte ifade bir EGFP ifade mCherry ile lekeli çekirdeklerin ortak yerelleştirme gösterilen bir hücre seçin. Kırpma görüntü serisi yalnızca tek hücre içerir.</li>
		<li>Yazılımın önceden paketlenmiş algoritması kullanarak 3D modeli yeniden yapılandırır 3B görüntüleyici seçeneğini seçin. 3D temsil karışım, yüzey ve karışık seçenekleri arasında istediğiniz türü seçin. Bu yöntemde, hemocytes, çekirdek ve C. burnetii yüzey modeller kullanılarak gösterilir.</li>
		<li>Tutmak belgili tanımlık fare düğme ve belgili tanımlık perde imleci sürükleyerek 3D yeniden oluşturulan hücre çeşitli görüntüleme konumlardan gözlemlemek. Hücre yönlendirme ve görüntü optimize etmek için modellenmiş ışık kaynağının konumunu ayarlayın. Diğer seçenek saydamlık, en az ve en fazla eşik, Specular, Ambient, Shineness ve gama için görüntü optimize etmek için vardır.</li>
		<li>Kesit hemocyte iç içeriğini görselleştirmek için kırpma ve parça komutlarını kullanarak modeli üzerinden alın.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
</ol>4. uygulama gen ve/veya protein analizi için
<ol><li>IIV6 ve Listeria, enfeksiyonla takip koşullar sonraki qRT PCR hücreleri veya Western blot analizi daha önce açıklanan21 ve aşağıdaki prosedürü yerine getirin. Not: Tablo reçetesi qRT-PCR astar ve Western blot için antikorlar için bakın.</li>
	<li>PCR ürünlerinin özel jel elektroforez tarafından güçlendirilmiş ürün uygun uzunlukta sağlamak için yukarıda açıklanan22, analiz.</li>
</ol>

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(62), (2012).</li><li>Petraki, S., Alexander, B., Bruckner, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assaying+Blood+Cell+Populations+of+the+Drosophila+melanogaster+Larva.">Assaying Blood Cell Populations of the Drosophila melanogaster Larva.</a> J Vis Exp. (105), (2015).</li><li>Figliozzi, R. W., Chen, F., Chi, A., Hsia, S. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+the+inverse+Poisson+distribution+to+calculate+multiplicity+of+infection+and+viral+replication+by+a+high-throughput+fluorescent+imaging+system.">Using the inverse Poisson distribution to calculate multiplicity of infection and viral replication by a high-throughput fluorescent imaging system.</a> Virol Sin. 31 (2), 180-183 (2016).</li><li>Rizki, T. M., Rizki, R. 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Yazarlar onlar rakip hiçbir mali çıkarları var bildirin.

Nasıl konak hücreleri enfekte olma daha iyi anlamak için özellikle daha önce denenmemiş patojen ve hücre tipi kombinasyonları4' te deneme zaman patojen hücrelerdeki lokalizasyonu netleştirmek önemlidir. Enfeksiyonu takip hücresel yanıt basamaklı eğitim üretken patojen işgali gösterebilir iken, görüntüleme ve hücresel yanıt verilerini kombinasyonu patojen işgali ve enfeksiyon göstermek için önemlidir. Patojen işgalinin 2D görüntüleri ana hücreleri gösteren raporlar ...

Drosophila melanogaster doğuştan gelen bağışıklık1incelenmesi için bir iyi kurulmuş model organizmadır. Doğuştan gelen bağışıklık yanıtı sırasında hemocytes yanıt patojeni meydan okuma olarak önemli bir rol oynamaktadır. Hemocytes mantar, viral ve bakteriyel enfeksiyon2,3sırasında fagositik eylem yoluyla patojen mücadelede önemli bir işleve sahip yanı sıra parazit Kapsüllenen için kritik öneme sahiptir.
En iyi ana bilgisayarın doğuştan gelen bağışıklık yanıtı patojenik mikrobiyal enfeksiyon anlamak için nasıl patojen konak hücreleri enfeksiyon sırasında işgal görselleştirmek önemlidir. Bu görselleştirme işgali mekanizmasının bir anlaşmaya katkıda bulunur. Patojen hücre içi yerelleştirme ayrıntılarını ve hücresel yanıt ile birlikte, bu veriler enfeksiyon ve hangi ile mikrop etkileşim hücre organelleri ana bilgisayar yanıt hakkında ipuçları sağlar. Böylece, 3D modeli yeniden görüntüleme mikroskobu tarafından sonra konak hücreleri patojenler tam yerini belirlemek yararlı olabilir. Bu çalışmada, Avusturya'nın Coxiella burnetii (C. burnetii), Q ateşi, insan ve hayvan sağlığı için ciddi bir tehdit teşkil etmektedir birincil Drosophila hemocytes Hayvansal bir hastalık hastalığının görüntülenir. Son zamanlarda, Drosophila 2 dokuz mil faz II (NMII) klon C. burnetii 4 suşu ve bu zorlanma Drosophila4' te, çoğaltmak yapabiliyor bu gösteren Biyogüvenlik düzeyi duyarlı gösterilmiştir Drosophila C. burnetii patogenezi okumaya bir model organizma kullanılır.
Önceki çalışmalarda hemocytes ana bilgisayarın doğuştan gelen bağışıklık yanıtı incelemek için kullandık. Hemocytes kullanılan morfolojik gözlemleri5,6,7, xarakteristikaları analiz2,8, fagositoz analiz2,3, qRT-PCR2 için , 9, immunoprecipitation10,11, immünfloresan analiz10,12, immunostaining13, immunoblotting3,10, 11 ve immünhistokimya9,14. Drosophila S2 hücreleri de çeşitli vitro deneyler için kullanılabilir olmakla birlikte, onların davranış15,16-əbadoləşdirmək ve önceden var olan potansiyel viral enfeksiyon değiştirmek. Primer Hücre S2 hücreleri gibi bir ölümsüzleştirdi hücre kültürünü aksine kullanımı doğuştan gelen bağışıklık fonksiyonu çalışma için bir sistem tüm organizmanın daha temsilcisi sağlar. Ayrıca, hemocytes vivo, ayıklama önce enfeksiyonu hücrelere diğer ana bilgisayar proteinler ve doku, hemocytes ex vivo enfeksiyonu önce çıkarılması üzerinde bir avantaj etkileşim sağlar. Birkaç farklı yöntem hemocytes yeterli sayıda hemocytes canlı8,17,18,19tutmak için zaman kısa bir süre içinde elde etmek için kullanılmıştır.
Bu çalışmada, biz Drosophila 3rd INSTAR larva C. burnetii, Listeria Monositogenez (Listeria) veya omurgasız yanardöner patojenik mikrobiyal enfeksiyon için hemocytes ayıklamak için bir yöntem mevcut virüs 6 (IIV6). Vivo ve ex vivo hemocyte enfeksiyon yöntemleri açıklanmaktadır. Vivo- ve ex vivo-virüslü hemocytes confocal mikroskobu ile görüntülenir ve C. burnetii işgalinin 3D modeller oluşturmak için kullanılır. Buna ek olarak, ex vivoayıklama iletişim kuralını kullanarak-virüslü hemocytes için gen ve protein ifadesi kullanılmıştır deneyleri. Özellikle, IIV6 ve Listeriaenfeksiyonu ölçüde incelemek için toplam RNA veya protein qRT-PCR veya Western blot analizi için hücrelerden izole edildi. Birlikte ele alındığında, protokol hızla hemocytes sayısının fazlalığı 3rd INSTAR larva ve birincil hemocytes, in vivo veya ex vivoenfekte kanıt toplamak için yöntemler sağlar, için uygun bir platform olan mikrobiyal patojen enfeksiyon çalışmaları ve ilgili aşağı akım analizleri mikroskobu, transcriptomics ve proteomik gibi.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1128px;" width="1125">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:303px;">Schneider&#39;s Drosophila Medium&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific (Gibco)</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">21720024</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1.1.1), 2.1.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">GE Healthcare Life Sciences&#160; (HyClone)</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">SH30070.03HI</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1.1.1), 2.1.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Filter (0.22 &#181;L)</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">RESTEK</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">26158</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1.1.1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Strainer (100 &#181;m)</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Greiner bio-one</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">542000</td>
			<td>1.2.1), 2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Stereo microscope</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Amscope</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">SM-1BSZ-L6W</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1.2), 2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Glass capillary</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">21-171-4</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1.1), 1.2), 2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:303px;">Capillary puller</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Narishige International USA, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">PC-10</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1.1.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Mineral oil</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Snow River Products</td>
			<td style="width:145px;"></td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1.1.4)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Nanoinjector</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Drummond Scientific Company</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">3-000-204</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1.1), 1.2), 2.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Forceps</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">82027-402</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1.1.5), 1.2), 2), 3.1.7)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:303px;">CO2 delivery apparatus</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Genesee Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">59-122BC</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1.2), 2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:303px;">Trypan Blue</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific (Gibco)</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">15250061</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Hemocytometer</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Hausser Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">3100</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">24 well plate</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Greiner bio-one</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">662160</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1.4), 2.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Coxiella burnetii - mCherry</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Dr. Heinzen, R.</td>
			<td style="width:145px;"></td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1.4), 2.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:303px;">Drosophila fruit juice plates</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Cold Spring Harbor Protocols</td>
			<td style="width:145px;"></td>
			<td>2.1) http://cshprotocols.cshlp.org/content/2007/9/pdb.rec11113.full</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:303px;">Agar</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Fisher Bioreagents</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">BP1423-500</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">2.1.1.1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:303px;">Methyl paraben</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Amresco</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">0572-500G</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">2.1.1.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:303px;">Absolute ethanol</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Fisher Bioreagents</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">BP2818-500</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">2.1.1.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="48">
			<td height="48" style="height:48px;width:303px;">Welch&#39;s 100% Grape juice frozen concentrate, 340 mL</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Amazon</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">B0025UJVGM</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">2.1.1.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="48">
			<td height="48" style="height:48px;width:303px;">Petri dishes, 10 x 35 mm</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">08-757-100A</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">2.1.1.4)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Microscope cover glass</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">12-545-80</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1.4.4), 2.2.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="70">
			<td height="70" style="height:70px;width:303px;">Yeast, Bakers Dried Active</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">MP Biomedicals</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">0210140001</td>
			<td>2.1) Add 2 parts of water to 1 part of yeast (v/v)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Tungsten needle</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">10130-20</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">2.1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Holding forceps</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">HS8313</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">2.1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">FLO4042-500</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">3.1.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Triton X-100</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">BP151-500</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">3.1.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Bovine Serum Albumin</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">BP9706-100</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">3.1.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="48">
			<td height="48" style="height:48px;width:303px;">4&#39;,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">62247</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">3.1.4)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="48">
			<td height="48" style="height:48px;width:303px;">Antifade mounting medium</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">P36930</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">3.1.6)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="132">
			<td height="132" style="height:132px;width:303px;">Confocal microsope</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Leica</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">TCS SP8-X White Light Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">3.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="103">
			<td height="103" style="height:103px;width:303px;">3D imaging reconstruction software</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Leica</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">LASX with 3D visualization module</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">3.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Microscope slides</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">12-552-3</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">3.1.6)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="81">
			<td height="81" style="height:81px;width:303px;">Invertebrate iridescent virus 6 (IIV6)</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Dr. Teixeria, L.</td>
			<td style="width:145px;"></td>
			<td>4) PLoS Biol, 6 (12), 2753-2763, doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000002, (2008)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="141">
			<td height="141" style="height:141px;width:303px;">Listeria monocytogenes</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">strain: 10403S</td>
			<td>4) Listeria monocytogenes strain 10403S (Bishop and Hinrichs, 1987) was grown in Difco Brain-heart infusion (BHI) broth (BD Biosciences) containing 50 &#181;g/ml streptomycin at 30 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:303px;">DNase I</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific(Invitrogen)</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">18068015</td>
			<td>gDNA degradation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">cDNA Synthesis Kit</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Bio-Rad</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">1708891</td>
			<td>cDNA synthesis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:303px;">IIV6_193R_F</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">IDT</td>
			<td style="width:145px;"></td>
			<td>qRT-PCR, 5&#39;- TCT TGT TTT CAG AAC CCC ATT -3&#39;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:303px;">IIV6_193R_R</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">IDT</td>
			<td style="width:145px;"></td>
			<td>qRT-PCR, 5&#39;- CAC GAA GAA TGA CCA CAA GG -3&#39;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:303px;">RpII_qRTPCR_fwd</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td style="width:145px;"></td>
			<td>qRT-PCR, 5&#39;- GAA GCG TTT CTC CAA ACG -AG</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:303px;">RpII_qRTPCR_rev</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td style="width:145px;"></td>
			<td>qRT-PCR, 5&#39;- TTG AGC GTA AGC ATC ACC -TG</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">SYBR Green qRT-PCR reagent</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">K0251, K0252, K0253</td>
			<td>qRT-PCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:303px;">Real-Time PCR System</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">4351107, 7500 Software v2.0</td>
			<td>qRT-PCR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Anti-Listeria monocytogenes antibody</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">abcam</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">ab35132</td>
			<td>Western blot</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Anti-Actin antibody produced in rabbit</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">A2066</td>
			<td>Western blot</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:303px;">Anti-Rabbit IgG (H+L), HRP Conjugate</td>
			<td style="width:288px;">Promega</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">W4011</td>
			<td>Western blot</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

extraction of hemocytes from drosophila melanogaster larvae for microbial infection and analysis

Drosophila melanogaster, patojenik enfeksiyon sırasında hemocytes enfeksiyon boyunca bağışıklık yanıtındaki önemli bir rol oynamaktadır. Böylece, bu iletişim kuralının amacı belirli bir bağışıklık yerde uçar, yani hemocytes patojen işgali görselleştirmek için bir yöntem geliştirmektir. Burada 3 × 10 anlatılan yöntemle6 canlı hemocytes 200 Drosophila 3rd INSTAR larva ex vivo enfeksiyon için 30 dk içinde elde edilebilir. Alternatif olarak, hemocytes enfekte vivo içinde 3rd INSTAR larva için 24 saat sonrası enfeksiyon hemocyte çıkarma tarafından takip enjeksiyon yoluyla olabilir. Bu virüslü primer hücre tespit edildi, lekeli ve confocal mikroskobu kullanarak yansıma. Sonra 3D temsilcilikleri patojen işgal kesin olarak göstermek için görüntülerden üretildi. Ayrıca, yüksek kaliteli RNA qRT-PCR patojen mRNA şu tespiti için elde edilebilir enfeksiyon ve yeterli protein hulâsa Western blot analizi için bu hücrelerden. Birlikte ele alındığında, biz patojen işgalinin kesin uzlaşma ve enfeksiyon bakteriyel ve viral patojen türleri ve verimli bir yöntem hemocyte çıkarılması için yeterli canlı hemocytes Drosophila elde etmek için kullanarak onay için bir yöntem mevcut larva ex vivo ve in vivo enfeksiyon deneyler için.

Hemocytes ex vivo enfeksiyonu, 3 × 10 toplamak yaşamak için6 hemocytes 200 Drosophila 3rd INSTAR larvaları elde. Bizim yöntem geliştirmek için bir takım farklı teknikler denendi. Bireysel larva diseksiyon en fazla 1,5 saat sürer ve ortalama ~ 8000 hücre elde edilen en çok hangi koleksiyonun sonuna tarafından canlı değildi bu yöntemi18, kullanarak. Daha sonra hemocytes bulunan hemolymph çıkarmak için çalı?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Extraction of Hemocytes from Drosophila melanogaster Larvae for Microbial Infection and Analysis at JoVE.com

Extraction of Hemocytes from Drosophila melanogaster Larvae for Microbial Infection and Analysis

Bu yöntem, patojen işgali üç boyutlu (3D) modelleri ile böcek hücreye görselleştirmek gösterilmiştir. Hemocytes Drosophila larvaları üzerinden viral veya bakteriyel patojenler, ex vivo veya vivo içindeile bulaşmış. Virüslü hemocytes daha sonra sabit ve görüntüleme için bir confocal mikroskop ve sonraki 3D hücresel yeniden yapılanma ile lekeli.

Hemocytes mikrobiyal enfeksiyon ve çözümleme çekme--dan Drosophila melanogaster larva

During the pathogenic infection of Drosophila melanogaster, hemocytes play an important role in the immune response throughout the infection. Thus, the ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Extraction of Hemocytes from Drosophila melanogaster Larvae for Microbial Infection and Analysis

11.6K Görüntüleme.  Washington State University. Bu yöntem, patojen işgali üç boyutlu (3D) modelleri ile böcek hücreye görselleştirmek gösterilmiştir. Hemocytes Drosophila larvaları üzerinden viral veya bakteriyel patojenler, ex vivo veya vivo içindeile bulaşmış. Virüslü hemocytes daha sonra sabit ve görüntüleme için bir confocal mikroskop ve sonraki 3D hücresel yeniden yapılanma ile lekeli.

Video: Extraction of Hemocytes from Drosophila melanogaster Larvae for Microbial Infection and Analysis

A Protocol for Collecting and Staining Hemocytes from the Yellow Fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti

Mosquitoes are vectors for a number of disease-causing pathogens such as the yellow fever virus, malaria parasites and filarial worms. Laboratories are investigating anti-pathogen components of the innate immune system in disease vector species in the hopes of generating transgenic mosquitoes that are refractory to such pathogens1, 2. The innate immune system of mosquitoes consists of several lines of defense 3. Pathogens that manage to escape the barrier imposed by the epithelium-lined mosquito midgut 4 enter the hemolymph and encounter circulating hemocytes, important cellular components that encapsulate and engulf pathogens 5, 6. Researchers have not found evidence for hematopoietic tissues in mosquitoes and current evidence suggests that the number of hemocytes is fixed at adult emergence and numbers may actually decline as the mosquito ages 7. The ability to properly collect and identify hemocytes from medically important insects is an essential step for studies in cellular immunity. However, the small size of mosquitoes and the limited volume of hemolymph pose a challenge to collecting immune cells. 
Two established methods for collecting mosquito hemocytes include expulsion of hemolymph from a cut proboscis 8, and volume displacement (perfusion), in which saline is injected into the membranous necklike region between the head and thorax (i.e., cervix) and the perfused hemolymph is collected from a torn opening in a distal region of the abdomen 9, 10. These techniques, however, are limited by low recovery of hemocytes and possible contamination by fat body cells, respectively 11. More recently a method referred to as high injection/recovery improved recovery of immunocytes by use of anticoagulant buffers while reducing levels of contaminating scales and internal tissues 11. While that method allows for an improved method of collecting and maintaining hemocytes for primary culture, it entails a number of injection and collecting steps that are not necessary if the downstream goal is to collect, fix and stain hemocytes for diagnostics. Here, we demonstrate our method of collecting mosquito hemolymph that combines the simplicity of perfusion, using anticoagulant buffers in place of saline solution, with the accuracy of high injection techniques to isolate clean preparations of hemocytes in Aedes mosquitoes.

A Protocol for Collecting and Staining Hemocytes from the Yellow Fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti

A simplified yet accurate method to collect and stain mosquito hemocytes is described. Our method combines the simplicity of perfusion with the accuracy of high injection techniques to isolate clean preparations of hemocytes in Aedes mosquitoes. This method facilitates studies requiring knowledge of the types of hemocytes and their abundance.

Yellow Fever Sivrisinek Hemocytes Toplama ve Boyama için Protokol Aedes aegypti</em

 Mosquitoes are vectors for a number  of disease-causing pathogens such as the yellow fever virus, malaria parasites  and filarial worms. Laboratories are ...

İmmünoloji ve Enfeksiyon

A Simple Chelex Protocol for DNA Extraction from Anopheles spp.

Endemic countries are increasingly adopting molecular tools for efficient typing, identification and surveillance against malaria parasites and vector mosquitoes, as an integral part of their control programs1,2,3,4,5. For sustainable establishment of these accurate approaches in operations research to strengthen malaria control and elimination efforts, simple and affordable methods, with parsimonious reagent and equipment requirements are essential6,7,8. Here we present a simple Chelex-based technique for extracting malaria parasite and vector DNA from field collected mosquito specimens.
We morphologically identified 72 Anopheles gambiae sl. from 156 mosquitoes captured by pyrethrum spray catches in sleeping rooms of households within a 2,000 km2 vicinity of the Malaria Institute at Macha. After dissection to separate the head and thorax from the abdomen for all 72 Anopheles gambiae sl. mosquitoes, the two sections were individually placed in 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tubes and submerged in 20 &mu;l of deionized water. Using a sterile pipette tip, each mosquito section was separately homogenized to a uniform suspension in the deionized water. Of the ensuing homogenate from each mosquito section, 10 &mu;l was retained while the other 10 &mu;l was transferred to a separate autoclaved 1.5 ml tube. The separate aliquots were subjected to DNA extraction by either the simplified Chelex or the standard salting out extraction protocol9,10. The salting out protocol is so-called and widely used because it employs high salt concentrations in lieu of hazardous organic solvents (such as phenol and chloroform) for the protein precipitation step during DNA extraction9.
Extracts were used as templates for PCR amplification using primers targeting arthropod mitochondrial nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase (NADH) subunit 4 gene (ND4) to check DNA quality11, a PCR for identification of Anopheles gambiae sibling species10 and a nested PCR for typing of Plasmodium falciparum infection12. Comparison using DNA quality (ND4) PCR showed 93% sensitivity and 82% specificity for the Chelex approach relative to the established salting out protocol. Corresponding values of sensitivity and specificity were 100% and 78%, respectively, using sibling species identification PCR and 92% and 80%, respectively for P. falciparum detection PCR. There were no significant differences in proportion of samples giving amplicon signal with the Chelex or the regular salting out protocol across all three PCR applications. The Chelex approach required three simple reagents and 37 min to complete, while the salting out protocol entailed 10 different reagents and 2 hr and 47 min' processing time, including an overnight step. Our results show that the Chelex method is comparable to the existing salting out extraction and can be substituted as a simple and sustainable approach in resource-limited settings where a constant reagent supply chain is often difficult to maintain.

A Simple Chelex Protocol for DNA Extraction from Anopheles spp.

A rapid and affordable way to extract quality malaria parasite and vector DNA from mosquito specimens is described. Capitalizing on chelating properties of Chelex resin, the simple method enables genotyping of malaria parasites in mosquito mid-gut and salivary gland phases, as well as molecular identification of the Anopheles sibling species by PCR.

DNA ekstraksiyonu için A Simple Chelex Protokolü<em&gt; Anofel</em&gt; Spp.

Endemic countries are increasingly adopting molecular tools for  efficient typing, identification and surveillance against malaria parasites and  vector ...

Isolation and Genome Analysis of Single Virions using 'Single Virus Genomics'

Whole genome amplification and sequencing of single microbial cells enables genomic characterization without the need of cultivation 1-3. Viruses, which are ubiquitous and the most numerous entities on our planet 4 and important in all environments 5, have yet to be revealed via similar approaches. Here we describe an approach for isolating and characterizing the genomes of single virions called 'Single Virus Genomics' (SVG). SVG utilizes flow cytometry to isolate individual viruses and whole genome amplification to obtain high molecular weight genomic DNA (gDNA) that can be used in subsequent sequencing reactions.

Single Virus Genomics (SVG) is a method to isolate and amplify the genomes of single virons. Viral suspensions of a mixed assemblage are sorted using flow cytometry onto a microscope slide with discrete wells containing agarose, thereby capturing the virion and reducing genome shearing during downstream processing. Whole genome amplification is achieved using multiple displacement amplification (MDA) resulting in genomic material that is suitable for sequencing.

&#39;Tek Virüs Genomik&#39; kullanarak Tek viryonlar İzolasyonu ve Genom Analizi

Whole genome amplification and sequencing of single microbial cells enables genomic characterization without the need of cultivation 1-3. Viruses, which ...

Total Protein Extraction and 2-D Gel Electrophoresis Methods for Burkholderia Species

The investigation of the intracellular protein levels of bacterial species is of importance to understanding the pathogenic mechanisms of diseases caused by these organisms. Here we describe a procedure for protein extraction from Burkholderia species based on mechanical lysis using glass beads in the presence of ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid and phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride in phosphate buffered saline. This method can be used for different Burkholderia species, for different growth conditions, and it is likely suitable for the use in proteomic studies of other bacteria. Following protein extraction, a two-dimensional (2-D) gel electrophoresis proteomic technique is described to study global changes in the proteomes of these organisms. This method consists of the separation of proteins according to their isoelectric point by isoelectric focusing in the first dimension, followed by separation on the basis of molecular weight by acrylamide gel electrophoresis in the second dimension. Visualization of separated proteins is carried out by silver staining.

Total Protein Extraction and 2-D Gel Electrophoresis Methods for Burkholderia Species

Members of the Burkholderia genus are pathogens of clinical importance. We describe a method for total bacterial protein extraction, using mechanical disruption, and 2-D gel electrophoresis for subsequent proteomic analysis.

Toplam Protein Ekstraksiyon ve 2-D Jel Elektroforez Yöntemleri<em&gt; Burkholderia</em&gt; Türler

The investigation of  the intracellular protein levels of bacterial species is of importance to  understanding the pathogenic mechanisms of diseases ...

Systemic Bacterial Infection and Immune Defense Phenotypes in Drosophila Melanogaster

The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is one of the premier model organisms for studying the function and evolution of immune defense. Many aspects of innate immunity are conserved between insects and mammals, and since Drosophila can readily be genetically and experimentally manipulated, they are powerful for studying immune system function and the physiological consequences of disease. The procedure demonstrated here allows infection of flies by introduction of bacteria directly into the body cavity, bypassing epithelial barriers and more passive forms of defense and allowing focus on systemic infection. The procedure includes protocols for the measuring rates of host mortality, systemic pathogen load, and degree of induction of the host immune system. This infection procedure is inexpensive, robust and quantitatively repeatable, and can be used in studies of functional genetics, evolutionary life history, and physiology.

Systemic Bacterial Infection and Immune Defense Phenotypes in Drosophila Melanogaster

Drosophila melanogaster is an outstanding model organism for studying innate immune systems and the physiological consequences of infection and disease. This protocol describes how to deliver robust and quantitatively repeatable bacterial infections to D. melanogaster, and how to subsequently measure infection severity and quantify the host immune response.

Sistemik Bakteriyel Enfeksiyon ve Bağışıklık Savunma FENOTİPİ içinde<em&gt; Drosophila melanogaster</em

The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is one of the premier model organisms for studying the function and evolution of immune defense. Many aspects of ...

Paraffin Embedding and Thin Sectioning of Microbial Colony Biofilms for Microscopic Analysis

Sectioning via paraffin embedding is a broadly established technique in eukaryotic systems. Here we provide a method for the fixation, embedding, and sectioning of intact microbial colony biofilms using perfused paraffin wax. To adapt this method for use on colony biofilms, we developed techniques for maintaining each sample on its growth substrate and laminating it with an agar overlayer, and added lysine to the fixative solution. These optimizations improve sample retention and preservation of micromorphological features. Samples prepared in this manner are amenable to thin sectioning and imaging by light, fluorescence, and transmission electron microscopy. We have applied this technique to colony biofilms of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas synxantha, Bacillus subtilis, and Vibrio cholerae. The high level of detail visible in samples generated by this method, combined with reporter strain engineering or the use of specific dyes, can provide exciting insights into the physiology and development of microbial communities.

We describe fixation, paraffin embedding, and thin sectioning techniques for microbial colony biofilms. In prepared samples, biofilm substructure and reporter expression patterns can be visualized by microscopy.

Parafin gömme ve ince mikrobiyal koloni biyofilmler mikroskobik analizlerin yapıldığı için kesit

Sectioning via paraffin embedding is a broadly established technique in eukaryotic systems. Here we provide a method for the fixation, embedding, and ...

Combining Analysis of DNA in a Crude Virion Extraction with the Analysis of RNA from Infected Leaves to Discover New Virus Genomes

This metagenome approach is used to identify plant viruses with circular DNA genomes and their transcripts. Often plant DNA viruses that occur in low titers in their host or cannot be mechanically inoculated to another host are difficult to propagate to achieve a greater titer of infectious material. Infected leaves are ground in a mild buffer with optimal pH and ionic composition recommended for purifying most bacilliform Para retroviruses. Urea is used to break up inclusion bodies that trap virions and to dissolve cellular components. Differential centrifugation provides further separation of virions from plant contaminants. Then proteinase K treatment removes the capsids. Then the viral DNA is concentrated and used for next-generation sequencing (NGS). The NGS data are used to assemble contigs which are submitted to NCBI-BLASTn to identify a subset of virus sequences in the generated dataset. In a parallel pipeline, RNA is isolated from infected leaves using a standard column-based RNA extraction method. Then ribosome depletion is carried out to enrich for a subset of mRNA and virus transcripts. Assembled sequences derived from RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) were submitted to NCBI-BLASTn to identify a subset of virus sequences in this dataset. In our study, we identified two related full-length badnavirus genomes in the two datasets. This method is preferred to another common approach which extracts the aggregate population of small RNA sequences to reconstitute plant virus genomic sequences. This latter metagenomic pipeline recovers virus related sequences that are retro-transcribing elements inserted into the plant genome. This is coupled to biochemical or molecular assays to further discern the actively infectious agents. The approach documented in this study, recovers sequences representative of replicating viruses that likely indicate active virus infection.

Here we present a new approach to identify plant viruses with double-strand DNA genomes. We use standard methods to extract DNA and RNA from infected leaves and carry out next-generation sequencing. Bioinformatic tools assemble sequences into contigs, identify contigs representing virus genomes and assign genomes to taxonomic groups.

Ham Virion ayıklama DNA analizi yeni virüs genleri keşfetmek için virüslü yaprakları gelen RNA analizi ile birleştirerek

This metagenome approach is used to identify plant viruses with circular DNA genomes and their transcripts. Often plant DNA viruses that occur in low ...

Establishment of Viral Infection and Analysis of Host-Virus Interaction in Drosophila Melanogaster

Virus spreading is a major cause of epidemic diseases. Thus, understanding the interaction between the virus and the host is very important to extend our knowledge of prevention and treatment of viral infection. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has proven to be one of the most efficient and productive model organisms to screen for antiviral factors and investigate virus-host interaction, due to powerful genetic tools and highly conserved innate immune signaling pathways. The procedure described here demonstrates a nano-injection method to establish viral infection and induce systemic antiviral responses in adult flies. The precise control of the viral injection dose in this method enables high experimental reproducibility. Protocols described in this study include the preparation of flies and the virus, the injection method, survival rate analysis, the virus load measurement, and an antiviral pathway assessment. The influence effects of viral infection by the flies' background were mentioned here. This infection method is easy to perform and quantitatively repeatable; it can be applied to screen for host/viral factors involved in virus-host interaction and to dissect the crosstalk between innate immune signaling and other biological pathways in response to viral infection.

Establishment of Viral Infection and Analysis of Host-Virus Interaction in Drosophila Melanogaster

This protocol describes how to establish viral infection in vivo in Drosophila melanogaster using the nano-injection method and basic techniques to analyze virus-host interaction.

Viral enfeksiyon ve analiz Drosophila Melanogaster ana bilgisayar virüs etkileşimin kurulması

Virus spreading is a major cause of epidemic diseases. Thus, understanding the interaction between the virus and the host is very important to extend our ...

The Galleria mellonella Waxworm Infection Model for Disseminated Candidiasis

Candida species are common fungal commensals of humans colonizing the skin, mucosal surfaces, and gastrointestinal tract. Under certain conditions, Candida can overgrow their natural niches resulting in debilitating mucosal infections as well as life-threatening systemic infections, which are a major focus of investigation due to their associated high mortality rates. Animal models of disseminated infection exist for studying disease progression and dissecting the characteristics of Candida pathogenicity. Of these, the Galleria mellonella waxworm infection model provides a cost-effective experimental tool for high-throughput investigations of systemic virulence. Many other bacterial and eukaryotic infectious agents have been effectively studied in G. mellonella to understand pathogenicity, making it a widely accepted model system. Yet, variation in the method used to infect G. mellonella can alter phenotypic outcomes and complicate interpretation of the results. Here, we outline the benefits and drawbacks of the waxworm model to study systemic Candida pathogenesis and detail an approach to improve reproducibility. Our results highlight the range of mortality kinetics in G. mellonella and describe the variables which can modulate these kinetics. Ultimately, this method stands as an ethical, rapid, and cost-effective approach to study virulence in a model of disseminated candidiasis.

The Galleria mellonella Waxworm Infection Model for Disseminated Candidiasis

Galleria mellonella serves as an invertebrate model for disseminated candidiasis. Here, we detail the infection protocol and provide supporting data for the model&#39;s effectiveness.

Galleria mellonella Waxworm enfeksiyon modeli Dissemine kandidiyazis için

Candida species are common fungal commensals of humans colonizing the skin, mucosal surfaces, and gastrointestinal tract. Under certain conditions, ...

Evaluation of Host-Pathogen Responses and Vaccine Efficacy in Mice

Vaccines are a 20th century medical marvel. They have dramatically reduced the morbidity and mortality caused by infectious diseases and contributed to a striking increase in life expectancy around the globe. Nonetheless, determining vaccine efficacy remains a challenge. Emerging evidence suggests that the current acellular vaccine (aPV) for Bordetella pertussis (B. pertussis) induces suboptimal immunity. Therefore, a major challenge is designing a next-generation vaccine that induces protective immunity without the adverse side effects of a whole-cell vaccine (wPV). Here we describe a protocol that we used to test the efficacy of a promising, novel adjuvant that skews immune responses to a protective Th1/Th17 phenotype and promotes a better clearance of a B. pertussis challenge from the murine respiratory tract. This article describes the protocol for mouse immunization, bacterial inoculation, tissue harvesting, and analysis of immune responses. Using this method, within our model, we have successfully elucidated crucial mechanisms elicited by a promising, next-generation acellular pertussis vaccine. This method can be applied to any infectious disease model in order to determine vaccine efficacy.

Here we present an elegant protocol for in vivo evaluation of vaccine effectiveness and host immune responses. This protocol can be adapted for vaccine models that study viral, bacterial, or parasitic pathogens.

Ana bilgisayar-patojen yanıt ve aşı etkinliği farelerde değerlendirilmesi

Vaccines are a 20th century medical marvel. They have dramatically reduced the morbidity and mortality caused by infectious diseases and contributed to a ...