We thank Dr. Ying Xiong for discussions and comments on the manuscript. This work is supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation of China (NSFC) to C. M. (31500839).

1. Dissection of larvae
NOTE: The dissecting solution hemolymph-like saline (HL3.1)18 and the fixing solution 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA)19,20are used at room temperature because the microtubules depolymerize when the temperature is too low.
<ol>
	<li>Pick out a wandering 3rd instar larva with long blunt forceps. Wash it with HL3.1 and place it on the dissection dish under the stereomicroscope. 
	NOTE: Wandering 3rd instar larva is identified by branched anterior spiracle and crawls around the tube at approximately 96 h (25 &#176;C)21.</li>
	<li>Position the larva with the dorsal or ventral side up. Identify the dorsal side by the two long tracheas and the ventral by the abdominal denticle belts.
	<ol>
		<li>Depending on the tissue to observe, opt for dorsal or ventral dissection. This will allow for a more precise and detailed view of the specific area of interest. For NMJ and muscle cell observation, cut open the larval dorsal and ventral regions, respectively.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Pin the mouth hooks and the tail. Adjust the pins to keep the larva in an extended state. Add a drop of HL3.1 to the larva to prevent it from drying. 
	NOTE: Ca2+ -free HL 3.1 can be used to minimize contraction of the muscles during dissection.</li>
	<li>Use the dissecting scissors to make a small transverse cut close to the posterior end, but do not cut off the posterior end. Then cut along the ventral midline towards the anterior end.</li>
	<li>Insert four insect pins on the four corners of the larva. Readjust insect pins such that the larva is maximally stretched in all directions.</li>
	<li>Use the forceps to remove internal organs while not damaging the muscles.</li>
</ol>
2. Fixation
<ol>
	<li>Add 100 &#181;L of PFA (4%) to immerse carcasses for 40 min while the carcasses are still pinned on the dissecting dish. 
	CAUTION: Effective protection measures are taken to avoid direct contact with skin or inhalation, as PFA is a hazard.</li>
	<li>Dismount the pins and transfer the sample to a 2 mL microcentrifuge tube. Rinse off PFA with 1x phosphate buffered saline containing 0.2% Triton X-100 (0.2% PBST) to fill 2 mL microcentrifuge tube for 10 min on the decoloring shaker at 15 rpm. Repeat the wash process 5x.</li>
</ol>
3. Immunocytochemistry
<ol>
	<li>Immerse the carcasses in blocking agent (5% goat serum in 0.2% PBST) and block for 40 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Remove the blocking agent and replace it with 200 &#181;L of the primary antibody (e.g., anti-&#945;-tubulin, 1:1000; anti-Futsch, 1:50) diluted with 0.2% PBST at 4 &#176;C overnight. Visualize muscle microtubules by immunostaining with monoclonal anti-&#945;-tubulin. Anti-Futsch can indirectly reflect the microtubule morphology in NMJ.</li>
	<li>After incubation of the primary antibody, wash larvae with 0.2% PBST for 10 min. Repeat 5x.</li>
	<li>Incubate the larvae with 200 &#181;L of secondary antibody (e.g., goat anti-Mouse-488, 1:1000) diluted with 0.2% PBST at room temperature for 1.5 h in the dark.</li>
	<li>Next, add a nuclear dye such as TO-PRO(R) 3 iodide (T3605) at a concentration of 1:1000 into the incubating tube for 30 min when staining the microtubules in the dark20,22.</li>
	<li>Rinse off the secondary antibody and the nuclear dye with 0.2% PBST for 10 min. Repeat 5x in the dark.</li>
</ol>
4. Mounting
<ol>
	<li>Place the larval carcass in 0.2% PBST on a glass slide and adjust it under the stereomicroscope. Make sure the inner surface of the larval carcass is facing up and all larval carcasses are arranged as desired.</li>
	<li>Absorb excess PBST solution with a wipe and gently add a drop of antifade mounting medium.</li>
	<li>Place a coverslip on the slide to cover the dissected larvae slowly and gently to avoid bubbles.</li>
	<li>Apply fingernail polish around the coverslip. Place the slide in the dark space to reduce fluorescent attenuation.</li>
</ol>
5. Image acquisition
<ol>
	<li>To acquire the images, use a laser scanning confocal microscope, select the 60x oil immersion objective (numerical aperture 1.42) or similar, and adjust the laser power and wavelength based on the experiment.</li>
	<li>To identify the NMJ, capture images in muscle 4 in segment A3 (as shown in the location in Figure 1F). Select a 488 nm laser to activate the &#945;-tubulin or Futsch and 543 nm to activate the HRP imaging track. Adjust the parameters to a frame size of 800 pixels x 800 pixels, a digital zoom of 2.0, and an imaging interval of 0.8 &#181;m in NMJs (Figure 2).</li>
	<li>To identify the microtubules in muscle, capture images of muscle 2 in segment A3-A5 (as shown in the location in Figure 1G) as it has fewer tracheal branches. Choose a 488 nm laser for activating &#945;-tubulin and a 635 nm laser for activating the T3605 imaging track. Adjust the parameters to a frame size of 1024 pixels x 1024 pixels, a digital zoom of 3.0, and an imaging interval of 0.4 &#181;m in muscle cells (Figure 3).</li>
</ol>

Viewing Microtubule Networks in Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions and Muscle Cells

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Here a protocol is described for the dissection and immunostaining of Drosophila larval neuromuscular junctions and muscle cells. There are several essential points to consider. Firstly, avoiding injury to the observed muscles is crucial during the dissection process. It may be worth fixing the fillet before removing internal organs to prevent direct contact between the forceps and the muscles. To avoid muscle damage or separation from the larval epidermis, it is important to ensure that the speed of the shaker does not exceed 15 rpm during washing and incubation. Additionally, precise control over skin extension is necessary to ensure clear and complete photography of NMJ morphology. It is advisable to conduct preliminary experiments to optimize the antibody concentration, fixation, blocking, and incubation times. The fixed duration is limited to about 40 min. Too short or too long is not conducive to the immunostaining of the microtubule network.
Microtubules in neurons are densely packed and challenging to be visualized clearly using conventional microscopy. Compared to neurons, the muscle cells of Drosophila are notably large, with muscle 2 of segment A3 measuring up to 40 &#181;m x 150 &#181;m, rendering it amenable to high-resolution imaging. Therefore, utilizing Drosophila muscle cells for investigating the regulation of microtubule network-associated proteins is an intuitive and lucid approach that holds significant value in validating NMJ phenotypes20,22,23. Compared to the previous method27, we have changed the dissection direction from the dorsal to the abdomen in order to obtain an unobstructed object. The elution buffer of the muscle with 0.2% PBST is relatively gentle and helps to preserve muscle integrity.
There are still some limitations to this approach. As a microtubule-binding protein, Futsch is expressed exclusively in neurons and can indirectly represent polymerized microtubules. However, if only Futsch is used to visualize the microtubule network during interaction screening, some candidate proteins may be missed. &#945;-tubulin or &#946;-tubulin can directly represent the microtubule network, however, these two proteins present both pre-synaptic and postsynaptic, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish. Moreover, a large number of &#945;/&#946;-tubulin heterodimers are distributed in the cytoplasm, which means that labeling either &#945;-tubulin or &#946;-tubulin may not be suitable for live imaging, as both polymerized and non-polymerized tubulin can be observed at the same time.
Observing microtubules from motor neurons to muscle cells can provide a comprehensive understanding of the movement mechanisms from the perspective of neural circuits, facilitating the study of neurodevelopmental processes and the pathogenesis of neurological diseases. Visualizing the microtubule network in different model systems is beneficial for verifying gene function from multiple perspectives using this protocol. This method can also be used to observe the postsynaptic receptors of NMJ, which is beneficial to the study of communication between synapses and synaptic plasticity.

Microtubules (MTs), as one of the structural components of the cytoskeleton, play an important role in diverse biological processes, including cell division, cell growth and motility, intracellular transport, and the maintenance of cell shape. Microtubule dynamics and function are modulated by interactions with other proteins, such as MAP1, MAP2, Tau, Katanin, and Kinesin1,2,3,4,5.
In neurons, microtubules are essential for the development and maintenance of axons and dendrites. Abnormalities in microtubules lead to dysfunction and even the death of neurons. For instance, in the brain of Alzheimer&#39;s patients, Tau protein hyperphosphorylation reduces the stability of the microtubule network, causing neurological irregularities6. Thus, examining microtubule networks will contribute to a comprehension of neurodevelopment and the pathogenesis of neurological diseases.
The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the peripheral synapse formed between a motor neuron axon terminal and a muscle fiber, which is an excellent and powerful model system for studying synaptic structure and functions7. Futsch is a protein in Drosophila that is homologous to the microtubule-binding protein MAP1B found in mammals8. It is expressed only in neurons and plays a role in the development of the NMJ&#39;s synaptic buttons8,9. In wild-type, filamentous bundles that run along the center of NMJ processes are visualized by immunostaining with anti-Futsch. When reaching NMJ&#39;s end, this bundle has the ability to either form a loop consisting of microtubules or to lose its filamentous structure, resulting in a diffuse and punctate appearance10. Microtubule loops are associated with paused growth cones, which suggests the microtubule array is stable11. Therefore, we can indirectly determine the stable microtubule development in NMJ by Futsch staining. The large size of muscle cells in Drosophila larva allows for clear visualization of the microtubule network. The factors affecting the stability of the microtubule network can be found by analyzing the density and shape of microtubules. Simultaneously, the microtubule network status of muscle cells can be cross-verified with the result of NMJ to obtain more comprehensive conclusions.
Many protocols have been employed for investigating the network and dynamics of microtubules. However, these researches have often focused on in vitro studies12,13,14,15,16. Alternatively, some in vivo experiments have employed electron microscopy to detect the cytoskeleton17. According to the specific binding of fluorescently labeled antibodies or chemical dyes to proteins or DNA, the methods presented here allow the detection of microtubule networks in NMJ at the level of individual neurons in vivo, with results corroborated by observations in muscle cells. This protocol is simple, stable, and repeatable when combined with the powerful genetic tools available in Drosophila melanogaster, enabling a diverse range of phenotypic examinations and genetic screenings for the role of microtubule network regulatory proteins in the nervous system in vivo.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Alexa Fluor Plus 405 phalloidin</td><td>invitrogen</td><td>A30104</td><td>dilute 1:200</td></tr><tr><td>Enhanced Antifade Mounting Medium</td><td>Beyotime</td><td>P0128M</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>FV10-ASW confocal microscope</td><td>Olympus</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Goat anti-Mouse antibody, Alexa Fluor 488 conjugated</td><td>Thermo Fisher</td><td>A-11001</td><td>dilute 1:1,000</td></tr><tr><td>Laser confocal microscope LSM 710</td><td>Zeiss</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Micro Scissors</td><td>66vision</td><td>54138B</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mouse anti-Futsch antibody</td><td>Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>22C10</td><td>dilute 1:50</td></tr><tr><td>Mouse anti-&amp;alpha;-tubulin antibody</td><td>Sigma</td><td>T5168</td><td>dilute 1:1,000</td></tr><tr><td>Paraformaldehyde</td><td>Wako</td><td>168-20955</td><td>Final concentration: 4% in PB Buffer</td></tr><tr><td>Stainless Steel Minutien Pins</td><td>Entomoravia</td><td></td><td>0.1mm Diam</td></tr><tr><td>Stereomicroscope SMZ161</td><td>Motic</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>stereoscopic fluorescence microscope BX41</td><td>Olympus</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Texas Red-conjugated goat anti-HRP</td><td>Jackson ImmunoResearch</td><td></td><td>dilute 1:100</td></tr><tr><td>TO-PRO(R) 3 iodide</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>T3605</td><td>dilute 1:1,000</td></tr><tr><td>Transfer decoloring shaker TS-8</td><td>Kylin-Bell lab instruments</td><td>E0018</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>TritonX-100</td><td>BioFroxx</td><td>1139</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tweezers&amp;nbsp;</td><td>dumont</td><td>500342</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

using drosophila larval neuromuscular junction and muscle cells to visualize microtubule network

The microtubule network is an essential component of the nervous system. Mutations in many microtubules regulatory proteins are associated with neurodevelopmental disorders and neurological diseases, such as microtubule-associated protein Tau to neurodegenerative diseases, microtubule severing protein Spastin and Katanin 60 cause hereditary spastic paraplegia and neurodevelopmental abnormalities, respectively. Detection of microtubule networks in neurons is advantageous for elucidating the pathogenesis of neurological disorders. However, the small size of neurons and the dense arrangement of axonal microtubule bundles make visualizing the microtubule networks challenging. In this study, we describe a method for dissection of the larval neuromuscular junction and muscle cells, as well as immunostaining of &#945;-tubulin and microtubule-associated protein Futsch to visualize microtubule networks in Drosophila melanogaster. The neuromuscular junction permits us to observe both pre-and post-synaptic microtubules, and the large size of muscle cells in Drosophila larva allows for clear visualization of the microtubule network. Here, by mutating and overexpressing Katanin 60 in Drosophila melanogaster,&#160;and then examining the microtubule networks in the neuromuscular junction and muscle cells, we&#160;accurately reveal the regulatory role of Katanin 60 in neurodevelopment. Therefore, combined with the powerful genetic tools of Drosophila&#160;melanogaster, this protocol greatly facilitates genetic screening and microtubule dynamics analysis for the role of microtubule network regulatory proteins in the nervous system.

We demonstrated a step-by-step procedure for visualizing the microtubule network in both neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) and muscle cells. Following dissection according to the schematic diagram (Figure 1A-E), immunostaining is performed, and images are subsequently observed and collected under a laser confocal microscope or a stereoscopic fluorescence microscope (Figure 1F,G).
Both pre-and post-synaptic microtubule organization of NMJ could be labeled with anti-&#945;-tubulin, and by selecting the layer thickness of the laser scanning confocal microscope, the microtubule morphology of different slices would be displayed (Figure 2A-C). Futsch has also been used for neural tracing by revealing the microtubule organization in the axons of neurons. Anti-HRP is used to label the neuronal membrane10,23,24. Co-staining with anti-Futsch and anti-HRP antibodies is performed to detect the microtubule status in axons of neurons. Futsch staining can reflect the abundance of stable microtubules in the presynaptic neurons of NMJ9. Tubulin-specific chaperone E (TBCE) plays a crucial role in the development of the MT cytoskeleton. When TBCE is knocked down in presynaptic neurons, the signal of anti-Futsch becomes weaker and thinner, and the staining in the terminal boutons is either unobvious or absent23. Tau is a microtubule-associated protein that has an important role in microtubule assembly and stabilization25,26. In Drosophila with ectopic expression of human wild-type and mutant human Tau protein, a decrease in the intensity of Futsch signal at the NMJ terminals is revealed20. According to the results of Futsch staining, the staining intensity of the axon trunk was stronger than that of the branches (Figure 2D-F). Microtubules at the end of branches are less stable and more prone to morphological changes, so the dynamics of microtubules can be reflected by staining the terminal microtubules.
Morphological changes of microtubules can also be easily visualized22. Microtubule loops can be stained with anti-Futsch and anti-&#945;-tubulin. Furthermore, the shape of a single loop can be clearly displayed, which facilitates quantitative analysis. For instance, Katanin is a microtubule-severing protein that plays an important role in the regulation of microtubule dynamics. The catalytic subunit Katanin 60 has been reported to have an effect on the morphology of microtubules22. Mao has constructed Katanin 60 mutant by P-element-mediated excision and uas-Katanin 60 by inserting pUAST-attB-Katanin 60&#160;in the second chromosome at 51D. The increase in microtubule loops caused by Katanin 6017A mutations was clearly demonstrated (Figure 2A,B,D,E). In addition, in the overexpression of Katanin 60, short MT fragments could also be significantly observed within the terminal boutons (Figure 2C).
The microtubule network can be observed by staining with &#945;-tubulin antibodies in muscle cells. A network of microtubules extending around the nucleus was clearly visible (Figure 3A). The microtubule severing protein Katanin regulates the distribution of the microtubule network22. In Katanin 6017A mutant, muscle cells had a significantly increased perinuclear MT intensity and exhibited stronger bundles compared with the wild type (Figure 3B). Fragmentation of microtubule fibers caused by overexpression of Katanin 60 was represented (Figure 3C). Thus, the protocol enables the microtubule network visualization in both neurons and muscle cells.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65774/65774fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Dorsal dissection procedure of Drosophila larva. (A-E) The procedure for preparing larval carcasses (modified from21). (A) Insert two pins each into the mouth hooks and tail of a larva. (B) Use the dissecting scissors to make a small transverse cut close to the posterior end. (C) Cut along the ventral midline towards the anterior end. (D) Insert four insect pins on the four corners of the larva. (E)Use forceps to remove internal organs and readjust the position of the pins to place the larva in an appropriate position for photography. (F) Phalloidin is used to label the cytoskeleton to visualize the muscle, and HRP is used to label the cell membrane of neurons. The observed region of the NMJ is restricted to muscle 4 in segment A3, co-stained with anti-HRP (green) and phalloidin (magenta). The right panel shows a schematic representation of the local muscle structure. The frame size of 1024 pixels x 1024 pixels, digital zoom of 0.6, and an imaging interval of approximately 4 &#181;m using a 10x objective lens (numerical aperture 0.45). (G) The observed region of the muscle cells is restricted to muscle 2 in segments A3 to A5, stained with phalloidin (magenta). The single section is captured by a stereoscopic fluorescence microscope. Scale bar: 500 &#181;m. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65774/65774fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65774/65774fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. Confocal images of microtubules within NMJ by anti-&#945;-tubulin or anti-Futsch.&#160;NMJ terminals of w1118 control (A), Katanin 6017A mutant (B) and neuronal overexpression of Katanin 60 (C), co-stained with anti-HRP (red) and anti-&#945;-tubulin (green) are shown in the left column. The images are projections from complete z-stacks through the entire muscle 4 NMJ of the abdominal segment A3. The middle column shows a clearer image of microtubules in the NMJ terminals by removing the microtubules from the muscle. The right column depicts the morphology of microtubules in synaptic boutons using the analysis software. Scale bar: 1 &#181;m. NMJ terminals of different genotypes co-stained with anti-HRP (red) and anti-Futsch (green) (D-F). MT loops were indicated by arrows. Scale bar: 5 &#181;m. This figure has been adapted from22. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65774/65774fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65774/65774fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Perinuclear microtubule network staining in the Drosophila larval muscle cells. (A-C) Larval muscles are co-stained with anti-&#945;-tubulin (green) to show the microtubule network and T3605 (blue) to show the nucleus for w1118 control (A), Katanin 6017A mutant (B) and Katanin 60 overexpression in muscle system (C). The images are projections from complete z-stacks from the appearance of microtubules to the center of the nuclear. Scale bar: 10 &#181;m. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65774/65774fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Understanding Microtubule Network in Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Understanding Microtubule Network in Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions 

Here, we present a detailed protocol to visualize the microtubule networks in neuromuscular junctions and muscle cells. Combined with the powerful genetic tools of Drosophila melanogaster, this protocol greatly facilitates genetic screening and microtubule-dynamics analysis for the role of microtubule network regulatory proteins in the nervous system.

Using Drosophila Larval Neuromuscular Junction and Muscle Cells to Visualize Microtubule Network

The microtubule network is an essential component of the nervous system. Mutations in many microtubules regulatory proteins are associated with ...

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1.9K Views.  Hubei University. Here, we present a detailed protocol to visualize the microtubule networks in neuromuscular junctions and muscle cells. Combined with the powerful genetic tools of Drosophila melanogaster, this protocol greatly facilitates genetic screening and microtubule-dynamics analysis for the role of microtubule network regulatory proteins in the nervous system.

Video: Author Spotlight: Understanding Microtubule Network in Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions 

Dissection and Imaging of Active Zones in the Drosophila Neuromuscular Junction

The Drosophila larvae neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is an excellent model for the study of synaptic structure and function. Drosophila is well known for the ease of powerful genetic manipulations and the larval nervous system has proven particularly useful in studying not only normal function but also perturbations that accompany some neurological disease (Lloyd and Taylor, 2010). Many key synaptic molecules found in Drosophila are also found in mammals and like most CNS excitatory synapses in mammals, the Drosophila NMJ is glutamatergic and demonstrates activity-dependent remodeling (Kohet al. , 2000). Additionally, Drosophila neurons can be individually identified because their innervation patterns are stereotyped and repetitive making it possible to study identified synaptic terminals, such as those between motor neurons and the body-wall muscle fibers that they innervate (Keshishian and Kim, 2004). The existence of evolutionarily conserved synapse components along with the ease of genetic and physical manipulation make the Drosophila model ideal for investigating the mechanisms underlying synaptic function (Budnik, 1996).
The active zones at synaptic terminals are of particular interest because these are the sites of neurotransmitter release. NC82 is a monoclonal antibody that recognizes the Drosophila protein Bruchpilot (Brp), a CAST1/ERC family member that is an important component of the active zone (Waghet al. , 2006). Brp was shown to directly shape the active zone T-bar and is responsible for effectively clustering Ca2+ channels beneath the T-bar density (Fouquetet al. , 2009). Mutants of Brp have reduced Ca2+ channel density, depressed evoked vesicle release, and altered short-term plasticity (Kittelet al. , 2006). Alterations to active zones have been observed in Drosophila disease models. For example, immunofluorescence using the NC82 antibody showed that the active zone density was decreased in models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Pitt-Hopkins syndrome (Ratnaparkhiet al. , 2008; Zweieret al. , 2009). Thus, evaluation of active zones, or other synaptic proteins, in Drosophila larvae models of disease may provide a valuable initial clue to the presence of a synaptic defect.
Preparing whole-mount dissected Drosophila larvae for immunofluorescence analysis of the NMJ requires some skill, but can be accomplished by most scientists with a little practice. Presented is a method that provides for multiple larvae to be dissected and immunostained in the same dissection dish, limiting environmental differences between each genotype and providing sufficient animals for confidence in reproducibility and statistical analysis.

Dissection and Imaging of Active Zones in the Drosophila Neuromuscular Junction

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) of Drosophila melanogaster is an important model system for studying normal synaptic function as well as perturbations to synaptic function found in certain neurological diseases. We present a protocol for dissection of the Drosophila larval motor system and immunostaining for active zone proteins within the NMJ.

The Drosophila  larvae neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is an excellent model for the study of synaptic structure and function. Drosophila  is well known for ...

Immunohistological Labeling of Microtubules in Sensory Neuron Dendrites, Tracheae, and Muscles in the Drosophila Larva Body Wall

To understand how differences in complex cell shapes are achieved, it is important to accurately follow microtubule organization. The Drosophila larval body wall contains several cell types that are models to study cell and tissue morphogenesis. For example tracheae are used to examine tube morphogenesis1, and the dendritic arborization (DA) sensory neurons of the Drosophila larva have become a primary system for the elucidation of general and neuron-class-specific mechanisms of dendritic differentiation2-5 and degeneration6.
The shape of dendrite branches can vary significantly between neuron classes, and even among different branches of a single neuron7,8. Genetic studies in DA neurons suggest that differential cytoskeletal organization can underlie morphological differences in dendritic branch shape4,9-11. We provide a robust immunological labeling method to assay in vivo microtubule organization in DA sensory neuron dendrite arbor (Figures 1, 2, Movie 1). This protocol illustrates the dissection and immunostaining of first instar larva, a stage when active sensory neuron dendrite outgrowth and branching organization is occurring 12,13.
In addition to staining sensory neurons, this method achieves robust labeling of microtubule organization in muscles (Movies 2, 3), trachea (Figure 3, Movie 3), and other body wall tissues. It is valuable for investigators wishing to analyze microtubule organization in situ in the body wall when investigating mechanisms that control tissue and cell shape.

Immunohistological Labeling of Microtubules in Sensory Neuron Dendrites, Tracheae, and Muscles in the Drosophila Larva Body Wall

To understand how complex cell shapes, such as neuronal dendrites, are achieved during development, it is important to be able to accurately assay microtubule organization. Here we describe a robust immunohistological labeling method to examine microtubule organization of dendritic arborization neuron sensory dendrites, trachea, muscle, and other Drosophila larva body wall tissues.

To understand how differences in complex cell shapes are achieved, it is important to accurately follow microtubule organization. The Drosophila larval ...

Drosophila Larval NMJ Immunohistochemistry

The Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is an established model system used for the study of synaptic development and plasticity. The widespread use of the Drosophila motor system is due to its high accessibility. It can be analyzed with single-cell resolution. There are 30 muscles per hemisegment whose arrangement within the peripheral body wall are known. A total of 31 motor neurons attach to these muscles in a pattern that has high fidelity. Using molecular biology and genetics, one can create transgenic animals or mutants. Then, one can study the developmental consequences on the morphology and function of the NMJ. Immunohistochemistry can be used to clearly image the components of the NMJ. In this article, we demonstrate how to use antibody staining to visualize the Drosophila larval NMJ.

Drosophila Larval NMJ Immunohistochemistry

This protocol demonstrates how to perform immunohistochemistry on dissected Drosophila larva.

The Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is an established model system used for the study of synaptic development and plasticity. The widespread use ...

Biology

Visualizing the Live Drosophila Glial-neuromuscular Junction with Fluorescent Dyes

Our project identified GFP labeled glial structures at the developing larval fly neuromuscular synapse. To look at development of live glial-nerve-muscle synapses, we developed a larval tissue preparation that had features of live intact larvae, but also had good optical properties.  This new preparation also allowed for access of perfusates to the synapse.  We used fly larvae, immersed them in artificial hemolymph, and relaxed their normal rhythmic body contractions by chilling them. Next we dissected off the posterior segments of each animal and with a blunt insect pin pushed the mouth parts backward through the body cavity.  This everted the larval body wall, like turning a sock inside-out.  We completed the dissection with ultra-fine dissection scissors and thus exposed the visceral side of the body wall muscles. The glial structures at the NMJ expressed membrane targeted GFP under the control of glial specific promoters. The post-synaptic membrane, the SSR (Subsynaptic Reticula) in muscle expressed synaptically targeted dsRed. We needed to acutely label the motor neuron terminals, the third part of the synapse. To do this we applied primary antibodies to HRP, conjugated to a far-red emitting flurophore.  To test for dye diffusion properties into the perisynaptic space between the motor neuron terminals and the SSR, we applied a solution of large Dextran molecules conjugated to far-red emitting flurophore and collected images.

Visualizing the Live Drosophila Glial-neuromuscular Junction with Fluorescent Dyes

We described structural features of the Glia-neuromuscular synapses in a novel Inside-out tissue preparation of live fly larvae using fluorescent dyes with confocal microscopy. We labeled live neuron terminals with fluorescent primary antibodies to HRP, and also visualized the perisynaptic space with fluorescent Dextrans.

Our project identified GFP labeled glial structures at the developing larval fly neuromuscular synapse. To look at development of live glial-nerve-muscle ...

In vivo Imaging of Intact Drosophila Larvae at Sub-cellular Resolution

Recent improvements in optical imaging, genetically encoded fluorophores and genetic tools allowing efficient establishment of desired transgenic animal lines have enabled biological processes to be studied in the context of a living, and in some instances even behaving, organism. In this protocol we will describe how to anesthetize intact Drosophila larvae, using the volatile anesthetic desflurane, to follow the development and plasticity of synaptic populations at sub-cellular resolution1-3. While other useful methods to anesthetize Drosophila melanogaster larvae have been previously described4,5,6,7,8, the protocol presented herein demonstrates significant improvements due to the following combined key features: (1) A very high degree of anesthetization; even the heart beat is arrested allowing for lateral resolution of up to 150 nm1, (2) a high survival rate of &gt; 90% per anesthetization cycle, permitting the recording of more than five time-points over a period of hours to days2 and (3) a high sensitivity enabling us in 2 instances to study the dynamics of proteins expressed at physiological levels. In detail, we were able to visualize the postsynaptic glutamate receptor subunit GluR-IIA expressed via the endogenous promoter1 in stable transgenic lines and the exon trap line FasII-GFP1. (4) In contrast to other methods4,7 the larvae can be imaged not only alive, but also intact (i.e. non-dissected) allowing observation to occur over a number of days1. The accompanying video details the function of individual parts of the in vivo imaging chamber2,3, the correct mounting of the larvae, the anesthetization procedure, how to re-identify specific positions within a larva and the safe removal of the larvae from the imaging chamber.

In vivo Imaging of Intact Drosophila Larvae at Sub-cellular Resolution

This protocol describes a reliable method for anesthetization and imaging of intact Drosophila melanogaster larvae. We have utilized the volatile anesthetic desflurane to allow for repetitive imaging at sub-cellular resolution and re-identification of structures for up to a few days1.

Recent improvements in optical imaging, genetically encoded fluorophores and genetic tools allowing efficient establishment of desired transgenic animal ...

Visualization of the Axonal Projection Pattern of Embryonic Motor Neurons in Drosophila

The establishment of functional neuromuscular circuits relies on precise connections between developing motor axons and target muscles. Motor neurons extend growth cones to navigate along specific pathways by responding to a large number of axon guidance cues that emanate from the surrounding extracellular environment. Growth cone target recognition also plays a critical role in neuromuscular specificity. This work presents a standard immunohistochemistry protocol to visualize motor neuron projections of late stage-16 Drosophila melanogaster embryos. This protocol includes a few key steps, including a genotyping procedure, to sort the desired mutant embryos; an immunostaining procedure, to tag embryos with fasciclin II (FasII) antibody; and a dissection procedure, to generate filleted preparations from fixed embryos. Motor axon projections and muscle patterns in the periphery are much better visualized in flat preparations of filleted embryos than in whole-mount embryos. Therefore, the filleted preparation of fixed embryos stained with FasII antibody provides a powerful tool to characterize the genes required for motor axon pathfinding and target recognition, and it can also be applied to both loss-of-function and gain-of-function genetic screens.

Visualization of the Axonal Projection Pattern of Embryonic Motor Neurons in Drosophila

This work details a standard immunohistochemistry method to visualize motor neuron projections of late stage-16 Drosophila melanogaster embryos. The filleted preparation of fixed embryos stained with FasII antibody provides a powerful tool to characterize the genes required for motor axon pathfinding and target recognition during neural development.

The establishment of functional neuromuscular circuits relies on precise connections between developing motor axons and target muscles. Motor neurons ...

In Vivo Single-Molecule Tracking at the Drosophila Presynaptic Motor Nerve Terminal

An increasing number of super-resolution microscopy techniques are helping to uncover the mechanisms that govern the nanoscale cellular world. Single-molecule imaging is gaining momentum as it provides exceptional access to the visualization of individual molecules in living cells. Here, we describe a technique that we developed to perform single-particle tracking photo-activated localization microscopy (sptPALM) in Drosophila larvae. Synaptic communication relies on key presynaptic proteins that act by docking, priming, and promoting the fusion of neurotransmitter-containing vesicles with the plasma membrane. A range of protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions tightly regulates these processes and the presynaptic proteins therefore exhibit changes in mobility associated with each of these key events. Investigating how mobility of these proteins correlates with their physiological function in an intact live animal is essential to understanding their precise mechanism of action. Extracting protein mobility with high resolution in vivo requires overcoming limitations such as optical transparency, accessibility, and penetration depth. We describe how photoconvertible fluorescent proteins tagged to the presynaptic protein Syntaxin-1A can be visualized via slight oblique illumination and tracked at the motor nerve terminal or along the motor neuron axon of the third instar Drosophila larva.

In Vivo Single-Molecule Tracking at the Drosophila Presynaptic Motor Nerve Terminal

Here we illustrate how single molecule photo-activated localization microscopy can be carried out on the motor nerve terminal of a live Drosophila melanogaster third instar larva.

An increasing number of super-resolution microscopy techniques are helping to uncover the mechanisms that govern the nanoscale cellular world. ...

3D Particle Tracking for Noninvasive In Vivo Analysis of Synaptic Microtubule Dynamics in Dendrites and Neuromuscular Junctions of Drosophila

Microtubules (MTs) play critical roles in neuronal development, but many questions remain about the molecular mechanisms of their regulation and function. Furthermore, despite progress in understanding postsynaptic MTs, much less is known about the contributions of presynaptic MTs to neuronal morphogenesis. In particular, studies of in vivo MT dynamics in Drosophila sensory dendrites yielded significant insights into polymer-level behavior. However, the technical and analytical challenges associated with live imaging of the fly neuromuscular junction (NMJ) have limited comparable studies of presynaptic MT dynamics. Moreover, while there are many highly effective software strategies for automated analysis of MT dynamics in vitro and ex vivo, in vivo data often necessitate significant operator input or entirely manual analysis due to inherently inferior signal-to-noise ratio in images and complex cellular morphology. &#160;To address this, this study optimized a new software platform for automated and unbiased in vivo particle detection. Multiparametric analysis of live time-lapse confocal images of EB1-GFP labeled MTs was performed in both dendrites and the NMJ of Drosophila larvae and found striking differences in MT behaviors. MT dynamics were furthermore analyzed following knockdown of the MT-associated protein (MAP) dTACC, a key regulator of Drosophila synapse development, and identified statistically significant changes in MT dynamics compared to wild type. These results demonstrate that this novel strategy for the automated multiparametric analysis of both pre- and postsynaptic MT dynamics at the polymer-level significantly reduces human-in-the-loop criteria. The study furthermore shows the utility of this method in detecting distinct MT behaviors upon dTACC-knockdown, indicating a possible future application for functional screens of factors that regulate MT dynamics in vivo. Future applications of this method may also focus on elucidating cell type and/or compartment-specific MT behaviors, and multicolor correlative imaging of EB1-GFP with other cellular and subcellular markers of interest.&#160;

This study presents a noninvasive intravital neuronal imaging strategy combined with a new software strategy to achieve automated, unbiased tracking and analysis of in vivo microtubule (MT) plus-end dynamics in the sensory dendrites and the neuromuscular junctions of Drosophila.

Microtubules (MTs) play critical roles in neuronal development, but many questions remain about the molecular mechanisms of their regulation and function. ...

Dissection and Immunohistochemistry of the Drosophila Adult Leg to Detect Changes at the Neuromuscular Junction for an Identified Motor Neuron

Drosophila melanogaster represents a genetically tractable model to study neuronal structure and function, and subsequent changes in disease states. The well characterized larval neuromuscular junction is often used for such studies. However, rapid larval development followed by muscle histolysis and nervous system remodeling during metamorphosis makes this model problematic for the study of slow age-dependent degenerative changes like those occurring in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Alternatively, adult flies live for 90 days and the adult leg can be used to study motor neuron changes over the course of adult lifespan using in vivo fluorescent imaging through the cuticle. Here, we describe a leg dissection technique coupled with immunocytochemistry, which allows for the study of molecular changes at the neuromuscular junction of identified adult leg motor neurons. These techniques can be coupled with a myriad of antibodies labeling both pre- and post-synaptic structures. Together these procedures allow a more complete characterization of slow age-dependent changes in adult flies and can be applied across multiple motor neuron disease models.

Dissection and Immunohistochemistry of the Drosophila Adult Leg to Detect Changes at the Neuromuscular Junction for an Identified Motor Neuron

We describe a dissection technique that preserves the architecture of the neuromuscular junction and enables a detailed immunocytochemical study of motor neurons in the adult Drosophila leg.

Drosophila melanogaster represents a genetically tractable model to study neuronal structure and function, and subsequent changes in disease states. The ...

Optimizing Sample Preparation Process for Transmission Electron Microscopy of Neuromuscular Junctions in Drosophila Larvae

The Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) has emerged as a valuable model system in the field of neuroscience. The application of confocal microscopy at the Drosophila NMJ enables researchers to acquire synaptic information, encompassing both quantitative data on synapse abundance and detailed insights into their morphology. However, the diffuse distribution and limited visual range of the TEM present challenges for the ultrastructural analysis. This study introduces an innovative and efficient sample preparation method that surpasses the conventional approach. The procedure begins by placing a metal mesh at the base of a flat-bottomed bottle or test tube, followed by positioning fixed larvae samples onto the mesh. An additional mesh is placed over the samples, ensuring that they are positioned between the two meshes. The fixed samples are thoroughly dehydrated and infiltrated before proceeding with the embedding procedure. Then embedding of the samples in epoxy resin is performed in a flat sheet manner, which allows for the preparation of muscles for positioning and sectioning. Benefiting from these steps, all the muscles of Drosophila larvae can be visualized under light microscopy, therey facilitating subsequent positioning and sectioning. Excess resin is removed after locating the 6th and 7th muscles of body segments A2 and A3. Serial ultra-thin sectioning of the 6th or 7th muscle is performed.

Optimizing Sample Preparation Process for Transmission Electron Microscopy of Neuromuscular Junctions in Drosophila Larvae

This report provides a new sample preparation procedure for visualizing neuromuscular junctions in Drosophila Larvae. This method is more effective in preventing the curling of the samples compared to the traditional method and is particularly useful for Drosophila neuromuscular junction ultrastructural analysis.

The Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) has emerged as a valuable model system in the field of neuroscience. The application of confocal microscopy at ...

Using Drosophila Larval Neuromuscular Junction and Muscle Cells to Visualize Microtubule Network

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Chapters in this video

Dissection and Imaging of Active Zones in the Drosophila Neuromuscular Junction

Immunohistological Labeling of Microtubules in Sensory Neuron Dendrites, Tracheae, and Muscles in the Drosophila Larva Body Wall

Drosophila Larval NMJ Immunohistochemistry

Visualizing the Live Drosophila Glial-neuromuscular Junction with Fluorescent Dyes

In vivo Imaging of Intact Drosophila Larvae at Sub-cellular Resolution

Visualization of the Axonal Projection Pattern of Embryonic Motor Neurons in Drosophila

In Vivo Single-Molecule Tracking at the Drosophila Presynaptic Motor Nerve Terminal

3D Particle Tracking for Noninvasive In Vivo Analysis of Synaptic Microtubule Dynamics in Dendrites and Neuromuscular Junctions of Drosophila

Dissection and Immunohistochemistry of the Drosophila Adult Leg to Detect Changes at the Neuromuscular Junction for an Identified Motor Neuron

Optimizing Sample Preparation Process for Transmission Electron Microscopy of Neuromuscular Junctions in Drosophila Larvae