optimization and calibration of cardiopulmonary exercise testing for enhanced assessment of pulmonary gas exchange and diffusing capacity

Assessing Pulmonary Alveolar-Capillary Reserve During Exercise

Exercise leads to a considerable increase in energy demand compared to the resting state. The heart and lungs respond by increasing cardiac output and ventilation resulting in an expansion of the alveolar-capillary bed, mainly the recruitment and distention of pulmonary capillaries1. This ensures a sufficient pulmonary gas exchange, which can be measured by an increase in pulmonary diffusing capacity (DL)2,3,4. The first attempts to measure DL during exercise date back more than a century5,6,7.&#160;The ability to increase&#160;DL from the resting state is often referred to as the alveolar-capillary reserve8, 9.
Experimentally, the relative contributions of alveolar-capillary membrane diffusing capacity (DM) and pulmonary capillary blood volume (VC) to alveolar-capillary reserve can be assessed by different methods, including the classical multiple fractions of inspired oxygen (<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/65871/65871eq01.jpg" style="margin: auto;" />) method10. An alternative technique that may be useful in this context is the dual-test gas method, in which the DL to carbon monoxide (CO) and nitric oxide (NO) (DL,CO/NO) are concurrently measured11. This technique was developed in the 1980s, and takes advantage of the fact that the reaction rate of NO with hemoglobin (Hb) is substantially greater than that of CO, such that the pulmonary diffusion of CO depends more on VC than does NO. Hence, the main site of resistance (~75%) to CO diffusion is located within the red blood cell, while the main resistance (~60%) to NO diffusion is at the alveolar-capillary membrane and pulmonary plasma12. The concurrent measurement of DL,CO and DL,NO thus permits the assessment of the relative contributions of DM and VC to DL12, where the change in DL,NO observed during exercise thus largely reflects the expansion of the alveolar-capillary membrane. An additional advantage of this method when obtaining measurements during exercise is that it involves a relatively short breath-hold time (~5 s) and fewer maneuvers compared to the classical <img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/65871/65871eq01.jpg" style="margin: auto;" /> technique, where multiple repeated maneuvers with a standardized 10 s breath-hold are performed at different oxygen levels. Although <img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/65871/65871eq01.jpg" style="margin: auto;" /> has recently been applied with a shorter breath-hold time and fewer maneuvers at each intensity13. Nevertheless, <img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/65871/65871eq01.jpg" style="margin: auto;" /> only permits a total of six DL,CO maneuvers per session, whereas up to 12 repeated DL,CO/NO maneuvers can be performed without any measurable effect on the resultant estimates14. These are important considerations when obtaining measurements during exercise since both a long breath-hold and multiple maneuvers may be difficult to perform at very high intensities or in patient populations who experience dyspnea.
The present paper provides a detailed protocol, including theoretical considerations and practical recommendations on the measurement of DL,CO/NO during exercise and its use as an index of the alveolar-capillary reserve. This method is easily applicable in the experimental setting and permits the assessment of how diffusion limitation in the lungs may affect oxygen uptake in different populations.
Theory and measurement principles 
The DL,CO/NO method involves a single breath of a gas mixture with the assumption that the gases distribute equally in the ventilated alveolar space after inhalation. The gas mixture consists of several gases including an inert tracer gas. The dilution of the tracer gas in the ventilated alveolar space, as based on its fraction in end-expiratory&#160;air, can be used to calculate the alveolar volume (VA)15. The gas mixture also includes the test gas CO and NO, both of which are diluted in the ventilated alveolar space and diffuse across the alveolar-capillary membrane. Based on their alveolar fractions, their individual rates of disappearance (k), also termed the diffusing constant, from the alveolar space can be calculated. By convention, the DL for a test gas measured during a single-breath maneuver, is derived by the following equation16:
<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/65871/65871eq02v3.jpg" style="margin: auto;" />
where FA0&#160;is the alveolar fraction of the test gas (CO or NO) at the onset of the breath-hold of the individual DL maneuver, while FA is the alveolar fraction of the test gas at the end of the breath-hold, and tBH is the breath-hold time. DL is mechanically equivalent to the conductance of the test gas across the alveolar-capillary membrane, through plasma and the red blood cell interior to hemoglobin. It thus depends both on the conductance of DM&#160;and the so-called specific conductance of pulmonary capillary blood (&#952;), of which the latter depends both on the conductance of the test gas in blood and on its reaction rate with hemoglobin10. Given that the reciprocal of conductance is resistance, the total resistance to the transfer of a test gas depends on the following resistances in series10:
<img alt="Equation 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/65871/65871eq03v2.jpg" style="margin: auto;" />
These components may be distinguished by concurrently measuring the DL to CO and NO, because these have different &#952;-values, and their respective DL values&#160;thus depend differently on VC. The pulmonary diffusion of CO depends more heavily on VC than does NO, with the main site of resistance (~75%) to CO diffusion being located within the red blood cell12. In contrast, the main resistance (~60%) to NO diffusion is at the alveolar-capillary membrane and pulmonary plasma, because the reaction rate of NO with hemoglobin&#160;is substantially greater than that of CO. Hence, by concurrently measuring DL,CO and DL,NO, changes in both DM and VC will markedly affect the former, while the latter will depend much less on VC, thus permitting an integrative assessment of the factors that determine DL.
The reporting of DL,CO/NO metrics may be done using different units. Hence, the European respiratory society (ERS) uses mmol/min/kPa, whereas the American Thoracic society (ATS) uses mL/min/mmHg. The conversion factor between the units is 2.987 mmol/min/kPa = mL/min/mmHg.

Author Spotlight: Integrating Alveolar-Capillary Reserve Measurements in Exercise Adaptation and Therapeutic Strategies

Dual Test Gas Pulmonary Diffusing Capacity Measurement During Exercise in Humans Using the Single-Breath Method

Our research focuses on mechanism of impaired pulmonary gas exchange in various disease states and how knowledge of these may be used for diagnostic and target treatments. We aim to refine the understanding of acute exercise adaptation by assessing alveolar capillary reserve through diffusion capacity measurements during exercise. Conventional lung function testing, such as dynamic spirometry, and diffusion capacity measurements during rest provides limited information about pulmonary limitations and adaptations to acute exercise.Our protocol addresses this gap by introducing a more comprehensive and physiologically-relevant measurement method that assesses the alveolar capillary reserve. By providing a more detailed analysis of lung function during exercise, this research contributes to the development of target diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for pulmonary diseases, enhancing clinical management and treatment efficacy. By this technique, our studies will specifically elucidate how pulmonary gas exchange limitations contributes to the pathophysiology of chronic lung disease and how this may be affected by exercise training.Our research group intends to extend this research to explore the impact of various therapeutic and training interventions on pulmonary function during exercise, and to investigate the specific responses in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. This will further elucidate the lungs adaptability and resilience on distress.

Optimization and Calibration of Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing for Enhanced Assessment of Pulmonary Gas Exchange and Diffusing Capacity

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

The combined single-breath measurement of the diffusing capacity of carbon monoxide (DL,CO) and nitric oxide (DL,NO) is a useful technique to measure ...