This work was supported by the NIH grant P01 AI 068730 (SNC, NS), the NIH grant CA016520/ TAPITMAT (NS), the private funding from the Claneil Foundation (NS), and the ovarian SPORE grant to FCCC and University of Pennsylvania (P50 CA83638) and the Fox Chase Cancer Center Core Grant (P30 CA06927) (DCC). The authors thank the excellent technical assistance of the Optical/Bioluminescence Core Facility directed by Dr. E.J. Delikatny at the University of Pennsylvania, Anthony Secreto from the Stem Cell and Xenograft Core directed by Dr. G. Danet-Desnoyers at the University of Pennsylvania Cancer Center for training SNC to orthotopic injection technique and Denada Dangaj at the University of Pennsylvania/ OCRC for assisting on the surgery.

1. Cell Culture
<ol>
<li>	Before orthotopic injection, culture MOV1Kat cells, derived from DR26 tumors, in a T175 flask until they are 90% confluent. Plan to use 1 to 5 million cells per injection, which will require 1 or 2 T175 flasks.</li>
<li>	On the day of the injection, harvest the cells and determine the cell number using a hemocytometer.</li>
<li>	Once the cell concentration has been determined, pellet the cells by centrifugation for 5 minutes at 300 X g at room temperature.</li>
<li>	Following the spin, resuspend the cells to have 1 million in 10 microliters of sterile PBS with 0.002 M EDTA</li>
</ol>

2. Pre-Surgery
<ol>
<li>	Prior to surgery, fill up a 3/10cc insulin syringe with 1 million MOV1-Kat cells in 10 microliters of PBS EDTA.</li>
<li>	Transfer an isofluorane anesthetized mouse to a heating pad. Add eye ointment to prevent eye dehydration. Then, immediately insert the animal's head into a nose cone system connected to an isoflurane vaporizer to deliver anesthesia throughout the surgery. </li>
<li>	After disinfection of the injection site with alcohol swabs, subcutaneously inject 5 mg/kg of Ketoprofen, a pre-surgical analgesic, with a 3/10cc Insulin syringe.</li>
<li>	Using clippers, shave the left caudal portion of the dorsum from the thoracolumbar junction to the base of the animal tail. Apply hair removal cream to completely remove the hair. Then, remove the excess with a wet paper towel.</li>
<li>	Once the hair has been removed, sterilize the shaved area with povidone-iodine and alcohol swabs. Then, place a surgical drape around the area of incision.</li>
</ol>

3. Surgery 
<ol>
<li>	Just before surgery, adjust the isoflurane vaporizer levels to 1.5%.</li>
<li>	Verify that the animal is completely anesthetized by pinching the foot pad.</li>
<li>	Next, locate the spleen under the skin. Then using surgical scissors, make a dorsolateral incision 1-2 cm long on the top right of the spleen.</li>
<li>	Dissect the retroperitoneum. The pad surrounding the mouse ovary will be observed. Use curved forceps to grasp and expose the fat pad surrounding the mouse ovary.</li>
<li>	Hydrate the organ with some drops of sterile PBS.</li>
<li>	Use curved forceps to grasp, retract...position...and then secure the ovary for injection </li>
<li>	While firmly grasping the ovary with the forceps, inject 10 microliters of MOV1Kat tumor cells into the ovary. A firm grasp will prevent fluid regurgitation or leakage.</li>
<li>	Immediately following injection, release the tension exerted by the forceps. The perforation in the ovary should spontaneously retract and close.</li>
<li>	Using an absorbable Polyglycolic Acid suture attached to a needle, close the retro-peritoneum wound.</li>
<li>	Release the animal from the nose cone.</li>
<li>	Stretch the skin and seal the dorsolateral wound edges with few drops of tissue adhesive.</li>
<li>	Finally, orally administer 100 microliters of antibiotics to the animal. Then place it back in its cage and monitor for recovery. Keep the animal on antibiotics in the drinking water for one week.</li>
</ol>

4. In vivo Imaging
<ol>
<li>	One week after the orthotopic injection of MOV1Kat tumor cells, perform in vivo imaging. Begin by transferring an isofluorane anesthetized mouse to the imaging chamber.</li>
<li>	Turn the isoflurane vaporizer level down to 2%.</li>
<li>	Perform in vivo imaging according to the imaging system manufacturer's instructions. In this video, the Lumina system will be used. </li>
<li>	To image, click the Living Image software desktop icon. Then, on the IVIS Acquisition Control Panel, select "Initialize". The instrument settings are analogous to a camera settings</li>
<li>	On the acquisition Control Panel set up the instrument's acquisition parameters. For fluorescence, check "Fluorescent." Click the Photograph box to acquire a photograph with each image.</li>
<li>	Next, set the exposure time as Auto. Under "Pixel binning or CCD resolution", check "Medium". Then Under F/stop or aperture, check the value of 2. Next, select the 535 excitation filter and the DsRed emission filter.</li>
<li>	Under field of view, click on View B to image a single mouse.</li>
<li>	Then, click on acquire to begin the image acquisition.</li>
<li>	Once the image acquisition is complete, use the Region of Interest, or ROI, tool to measure of the signal. Click on the measurement icon to release the signal values and area.</li>
<li>	Finally, click on "save" to save the image in the user folder</li>
<li>	After the images have been saved, stop the administration of isoflurane and return the mouse to its cage. The mouse should wake up immediately.</li>
</ol>
5. Representative Results
-Using this protocol, the in vivo growth of an orthotopic ovarian cancer can be monitored for at least 3 weeks using a non-invasive procedure.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2146/2146fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1" /> 
Figure 1. MOV1Kat cells, or PBS as negative control, were orthotopically injected into the ovary of non-tumor prone mice (right animal and left animal and respectively). In vivo imaging was performed 2 weeks later. The fluorescence emission generated by MOV1Kat cells engrafted in the ovary was measured and compared with that from negative control mouse.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2146/2146fig2.jpg" alt="Figure 2" /> 
Figure 2. Frozen sections of MOV1Kat ovarian tumors were stained with biotinylated anti-CD4 mAb followed by DAB substrate (dark brown) to detect tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (black arrow). Cells were counterstained with methyl-green to visualize cell nuclei (blue). Tumor cells (red arrows) were morphologically distinct from T cells. The slide appears magnified 40x.

<ol>
	<li>Etzioni, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+case+for+early+detection.">The case for early detection.</a> Nat Rev Cancer. 3, 243-252 (2003).</li><li>Sasaroli, D., Coukos, G., Scholler, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Beyond+CA125:+the+coming+of+age+of+ovarian+cancer+biomarkers.+Are+we+there+yet.">Beyond CA125: the coming of age of ovarian cancer biomarkers. Are we there yet.</a> Future Medicine. 3, 275-288 (2009).</li><li>Anderson, G. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessing+Lead+Time+of+Selected+Ovarian+Cancer+Biomarkers:+A+Nested+Case+Control+Study.">Assessing Lead Time of Selected Ovarian Cancer Biomarkers: A Nested Case Control Study.</a> J Natl Cancer Inst. 102, 26-38 (2010).</li><li>Auersperg, N., Wong, A. S., Choi, K. C., Kang, S. K., Leung, P. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ovarian+surface+epithelium:+biology,+endocrinology,+and+pathology.">Ovarian surface epithelium: biology, endocrinology, and pathology.</a> Endocr Rev 22. , 255-288 (2001).</li><li>Dubeau, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cell+of+origin+of+ovarian+epithelial+tumours.">The cell of origin of ovarian epithelial tumours.</a> Lancet Oncol. 9, 1191-1197 (2008).</li><li>Connolly, D. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Female+mice+chimeric+for+expression+of+the+simian+virus+40+TAg+under+control+of+the+MISIIR+promoter+develop+epithelial+ovarian+cancer.">Female mice chimeric for expression of the simian virus 40 TAg under control of the MISIIR promoter develop epithelial ovarian cancer.</a> Cancer Res. 63, 1389-1397 (2003).</li><li>Hensley, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Magnetic+resonance+imaging+for+detection+and+determination+of+tumor+volume+in+a+genetically+engineered+mouse+model+of+ovarian+cancer.">Magnetic resonance imaging for detection and determination of tumor volume in a genetically engineered mouse model of ovarian cancer.</a> Cancer Biol Ther. 6, (2007).</li><li>Deliolanis, N. 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M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+better+fluorescent+protein+for+whole-body+imaging.">A better fluorescent protein for whole-body imaging.</a> Trends Biotechnol. 26, (2008).</li><li>Shcherbo, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=far-red+fluorescent+protein+for+whole-body+imaging.">far-red fluorescent protein for whole-body imaging.</a> Nat Methods. 4, 741-746 (2007).</li><li>Fu, X., Hoffman, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+ovarian+carcinoma+metastatic+models+constructed+in+nude+mice+by+orthotopic+transplantation+of+histologically-intact+patient+specimens.">Human ovarian carcinoma metastatic models constructed in nude mice by orthotopic transplantation of histologically-intact patient specimens.</a> Anticancer Res. 13, 283-286 (1993).</li><li>Kiguchi, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+patient-like+orthotopic+implantation+nude+mouse+model+of+highly+metastatic+human+ovarian+cancer.">A patient-like orthotopic implantation nude mouse model of highly metastatic human ovarian cancer.</a> Clinical &amp; experimental metastasis 16. , 751-756 (1998).</li><li>Bao, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+cancer-specific+gene+expression+by+the+survivin+promoter.">Activation of cancer-specific gene expression by the survivin promoter.</a> J Natl Cancer Inst. 94, 522-528 (2002).</li><li>Connolly, D. 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No conflicts of interest declared.

Surgery and Orthotopic injections
Orthotopic injection in ovarian bursa demands training and precision. Thus
<ol>
<li>	In case of poor surgical experience, practice with cadavers first.</li>
<li>	Use preferentially multiparous females (one or two litters) as they develop bigger ovaries over time which facilitates injection and increase survival to compare with nulliparous females.</li>
<li>	Due to the small size of the mouse ovarian bursa, the use of the smallest available needle size i...

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		<tr>
		<th>Material Name</th>
		<th>Type</th>
		<th>Company</th>
		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
		</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
		
<tr>
<td>DMEM-GLUTAMAX</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>10564-011</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>PBS</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Gibco</td>
<td>14040</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Versene</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Lonza</td>
<td>17-711E</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Heating pad</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Deltaphase</td>
<td>39 DP</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Povidone pads</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Dynarex</td>
<td>1108</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Alcohol pads</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fisher</td>
<td>06-669-62</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Artificial tears ointment </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Phoenix Pharma., Inc.</td>
<td>17845-153</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Ketoprofen</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fort Dodge laboratories</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>3cc/insulin syringe</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>BD</td>
<td>309301</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Polyg Polyglycolic Acid suture/needle (3/8 19mm)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Syneture</td>
<td>9612-31</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Tissue adhesive</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Vetbond</td>
<td>3M</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Vet Bactrim/ oral suspension</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Hi-tech Pharmacal</td>
<td>840823</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>IVIS-Lumina</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Caliper lifesciences</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Isofluorane</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Phoenix Pharma., Inc.</td>
<td>J108013</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Fetal Bovine Serum, Qualified</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>10437036</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Penicillin/streptomycin</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Gibco</td>
<td>15140</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>TurboFP635 mammalian vector</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Evrogen</td>
<td>FP721</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>T175 flasks</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>cellstar</td>
<td>660-190</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>		</tbody>
		</table>
		</div>

an orthotopic model of serous ovarian cancer in immunocompetent mice for in vivo tumor imaging and monitoring of tumor immune responses

Background: Ovarian cancer is generally diagnosed at an advanced stage where the case/fatality ratio is high and thus remains the most lethal of all gynecologic malignancies among US women 1,2,3. Serous tumors are the most widespread forms of ovarian cancer and 4,5 the Tg-MISIIR-TAg transgenic represents the only mouse model that spontaneously develops this type of tumors. Tg-MISIIR-TAg mice express SV40 transforming region under control of the Mullerian Inhibitory Substance type II Receptor (MISIIR) gene promoter 6. Additional transgenic lines have been identified that express the SV40 TAg transgene, but do not develop ovarian tumors. Non-tumor prone mice exhibit typical lifespan for C57Bl/6 mice and are fertile. These mice can be used as syngeneic allograft recipients for tumor cells isolated from Tg-MISIIR-TAg-DR26 mice.
Objective: Although tumor imaging is possible 7, early detection of deep tumors is challenging in small living animals. To enable preclinical studies in an immunologically intact animal model for serous ovarian cancer, we describe a syngeneic mouse model for this type of ovarian cancer that permits in vivo imaging, studies of the tumor microenvironment and tumor immune responses.
Methods: We first derived a TAg+ mouse cancer cell line (MOV1) from a spontaneous ovarian tumor harvested in a 26 week-old DR26 Tg-MISIIR-TAg female. Then, we stably transduced MOV1 cells with TurboFP635 Lentivirus mammalian vector that encodes Katushka, a far-red mutant of the red fluorescent protein from sea anemone Entacmaea quadricolor with excitation/emission maxima at 588/635 nm 8,9,10. We orthotopically implanted MOV1Kat in the ovary 11,12,13,14 of non-tumor prone Tg-MISIIR-TAg female mice. Tumor progression was followed by in vivo optical imaging and tumor microenvironment was analyzed by immunohistochemistry.
Results: Orthotopically implanted MOV1Kat cells developed serous ovarian tumors. MOV1Kat tumors could be visualized by in vivo imaging up to three weeks after implantation (fig. 1) and were infiltrated with leukocytes, as observed in human ovarian cancers 15 (fig. 2).
Conclusions: We describe an orthotopic model of ovarian cancer suitable for in vivo imaging of early tumors due to the high pH-stability and photostability of Katushka in deep tissues. We propose the use of this novel syngeneic model of serous ovarian cancer for in vivo imaging studies and monitoring of tumor immune responses and immunotherapies.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about An Orthotopic Model of Serous Ovarian Cancer in Immunocompetent Mice for in vivo Tumor Imaging and Monitoring of Tumor Immune Responses at JoVE.com

An Orthotopic Model of Serous Ovarian Cancer in Immunocompetent Mice for in vivo Tumor Imaging and Monitoring of Tumor Immune Responses

To study in vivo tumor growth and tumor microenvironment, we used a syngeneic and orthotopic mouse model of ovarian cancer in immunocompetent animals. We transduced a mouse tumor cell line (MOV1) with Katushka fluorescent protein (MOV1KAT) and here we show its orthotopic implantation in ovary and in vivo imaging.

An Orthotopic Model of Serous Ovarian Cancer in Immunocompetent Mice for in vivo Tumor Imaging and Monitoring of Tumor Immune Responses

Background: Ovarian cancer is generally diagnosed at an advanced stage where the case/fatality ratio is high and thus remains the most lethal of all ...

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18.1K Views.  University of Pennsylvania-School of Medicine. To study in vivo tumor growth and tumor microenvironment, we used a syngeneic and orthotopic mouse model of ovarian cancer in immunocompetent animals. We transduced a mouse tumor cell line (MOV1) with Katushka fluorescent protein (MOV1KAT) and here we show its orthotopic implantation in ovary and in vivo imaging. 

Video: An Orthotopic Model of Serous Ovarian Cancer in Immunocompetent Mice for in vivo Tumor Imaging and Monitoring of Tumor Immune Responses

An In Vitro Model for Measuring Immune Responses to Malaria in the Context of HIV Co-infection

Malaria and HIV co-infection is a growing health priority. However, most research on malaria or HIV currently focuses on each infection individually. Although understanding the disease dynamics for each of these pathogens independently is vital, it is also important that the interactions between these pathogens are investigated and understood. 
We have developed a versatile in vitro model of HIV-malaria co-infection to study host immune responses to malaria in the context of HIV infection. Our model allows the study of secreted factors in cellular supernatants, cell surface and intracellular protein markers, as well as RNA expression levels. The experimental design and methods used limit variability and promote data reliability and reproducibility. 
All pathogens used in this model are natural human pathogens (Plasmodium falciparum and HIV-1), and all infected cells are naturally infected and used fresh. We use human erythrocytes parasitized with P. falciparum and maintained in continuous in vitro culture. We obtain freshly isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells from chronically HIV-infected volunteers. Every condition used has an appropriate control (P. falciparum parasitized vs. normal erythrocytes), and every HIV-infected donor has an HIV uninfected control, from which cells are harvested on the same day. This model provides a realistic environment to study the interactions between malaria parasites and human immune cells in the context of HIV infection.

An In Vitro Model for Measuring Immune Responses to Malaria in the Context of HIV Co-infection

Human co-infection is difficult to replicate in vitro. However, human malaria parasites can readily be cultured in vitro, as can freshly isolated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells naturally infected with HIV. This provides an excellent model for studying early immune responses to malaria parasites in the context of HIV co-infection.

Malaria and HIV co-infection is a growing health priority. However, most research on malaria or HIV currently focuses on each infection individually. ...

An IL-8 Transiently Transgenized Mouse Model for the In Vivo Long-term Monitoring of Inflammatory Responses

Airway inflammation is often associated with bacterial infections and represents a major determinant of lung disease. The in vivo determination of the pro-inflammatory capabilities of various factors is challenging and requires terminal procedures, such as bronchoalveolar lavage and the removal of lungs for in situ analysis, precluding longitudinal visualization in the same mouse. Here, lung inflammation is induced through the intratracheal instillation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa culture supernatant (SN) in transiently transgenized mice expressing the luciferase reporter gene under the control of a heterologous IL-8 bovine promoter. Luciferase expression in the lung is monitored by in vivo bioluminescent image (BLI) analysis over a 2.5- to 48-h timeframe following the instillation. The procedure can be repeated multiple times within 2 - 3 months, thus permitting the evaluation of the inflammatory response in the same mice without the need to terminate the animals. This approach permits the monitoring of pro- and anti-inflammatory factors acting in the lung in real time and appears suitable for functional and pharmacological studies.

An IL-8 Transiently Transgenized Mouse Model for the In Vivo Long-term Monitoring of Inflammatory Responses

The method described here allows for the visualization of IL-8 promoter-dependent inflammation activation in the lungs of mice through non-invasive bioluminescence imaging (BLI). The same animal can be subjected to BLI multiple times for up to two months from the time of delivery of the luciferase reporter construct.

Airway inflammation is often associated with bacterial infections and represents a major determinant of lung disease. The in vivo determination of the ...

Isolation of Salmonella typhimurium-containing Phagosomes from Macrophages

Salmonella typhimurium is a facultative intracellular bacterium that causes gastroenteritis in humans. After invasion of the lamina propria, S. typhimurium bacteria are quickly detected and phagocytized by macrophages, and contained in vesicles known as phagosomes in order to be degraded. Isolation of S. typhimurium-containing phagosomes have been widely used to study how S. typhimurium infection alters the process of phagosome maturation to prevent bacterial degradation. Classically, the isolation of bacteria-containing phagosomes has been performed by sucrose gradient centrifugation. However, this process is time-consuming, and requires specialized equipment and a certain degree of dexterity. Described here is a simple and quick method for the isolation of S. typhimurium-containing phagosomes from macrophages by coating the bacteria with biotin-streptavidin-conjugated magnetic beads. Phagosomes obtained by this method can be suspended in any buffer of choice, allowing the utilization of isolated phagosomes for a broad range of assays, such as protein, metabolite, and lipid analysis. In summary, this method for the isolation of S. typhimurium-containing phagosomes is specific, efficient, rapid, requires minimum equipment, and is more versatile than the classical method of isolation by sucrose gradient-ultracentrifugation.

Isolation of Salmonella typhimurium-containing Phagosomes from Macrophages

We describe here a simple and quick method for the isolation of Salmonella typhimurium-containing phagosomes from macrophages by coating the bacteria with biotin and streptavidin.

Salmonella typhimurium is a facultative intracellular bacterium that causes gastroenteritis in humans. After invasion of the lamina propria, S. ...

Tailoring In Vivo Cytotoxicity Assays to Study Immunodominance in Tumor-specific CD8+ T Cell Responses

Carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE)-based in vivo cytotoxicity assays enable sensitive and accurate quantitation of CD8+ cytolytic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses elicited against tumor- and pathogen-derived peptides. They offer several advantages over traditional killing assays. First, they permit the monitoring of CTL-mediated cytotoxicity within architecturally intact secondary lymphoid organs, typically in the spleen. Second, they allow for mechanistic studies during the priming, effector and recall phases of CTL responses. Third, they provide useful platforms for vaccine/drug efficacy testing in a truly in vivo setting. Here, we provide an optimized protocol for the examination of concomitant CTL responses against more than one peptide epitope of a model tumor antigen (Ag), namely, simian virus 40 (SV40)-encoded large T Ag (T Ag). Like most other clinically relevant tumor proteins, T Ag harbors many potentially immunogenic peptides. However, only four such peptides induce detectable CTL responses in C57BL/6 mice. These responses are consistently arranged in a hierarchical order based on their magnitude, which forms the basis for TCD8 &#8220;immunodominance&#8221; in this powerful system. Accordingly, the bulk of the T Ag-specific TCD8 response is focused against a single immunodominant epitope while the other three epitopes are recognized and responded to only weakly. Immunodominance compromises the breadth of antitumor TCD8 responses and is, as such, considered by many as an impediment to successful vaccination against cancer. Therefore, it is important to understand the cellular and molecular factors and mechanisms that dictate or shape TCD8 immunodominance. The protocol we describe here is tailored to the investigation of this phenomenon in the T Ag immunization model, but can be readily modified and extended to similar studies in other tumor models. We provide examples of how the impact of experimental immunotherapeutic interventions can be measured using in vivo cytotoxicity assays.

Tailoring In Vivo Cytotoxicity Assays to Study Immunodominance in Tumor-specific CD8+ T Cell Responses

We describe here a flow cytometry-based in vivo killing assay that enables examination of immunodominance in cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses to a model tumor antigen. We provide examples of how this elegant assay may be employed for mechanistic studies and for drug efficacy testing.

Carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE)-based in vivo cytotoxicity assays enable sensitive and accurate quantitation of CD8+ cytolytic T lymphocyte ...

Implantation and Monitoring by PET/CT of an Orthotopic Model of Human Pleural Mesothelioma in Athymic Mice

Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is a rare and aggressive tumor arising in the mesothelium that covers the lungs, the heart, and the thoracic cavity. MPM development is mainly associated with asbestos. Treatments provide only modest survival since the median survival average is 9&#8211;18 months from the time of diagnosis. Therefore, more effective treatments must be identified. Most data describing new therapeutic targets were obtained from in vitro experiments and need to be validated in reliable in vivo preclinical models. This article describes one such reliable MPM orthotopic model obtained after injection of a human MPM cell line H2052/484 into the pleural cavity of immunodeficient athymic mice. Transplantation in the orthotopic site allows studying the progression of tumor in the natural in vivo environment. Positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) molecular imaging using the clinical [18F]-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose ([18F]FDG) radiotracer is the diagnosis method of choice for examining patients with MPM. Accordingly, [18F]FDG-PET/CT was used to longitudinally monitor the disease progression of the H2052/484 orthotopic model. This technique has a high 3R potential (Reduce the number of animals, Refine to lessen pain and discomfort, and Replace animal experimentation with alternatives) since the tumor development can be monitored non-invasively and the number of animals required could be significantly reduced.
This model displays a high development rate, a rapid tumor growth, is cost-efficient and allows for rapid clinical translation. By using this orthotopic xenograft MPM model, researchers can assess biological responses of a reliable MPM model following therapeutic interventions.

This article describes the generation of an orthotopic mouse model of human pleural mesothelioma by implantation of H2052/484 mesothelioma cells into the pleural cavity of immunocompromised athymic mice. The longitudinal monitoring of the development of intrapleural tumors was assessed by non-invasive multimodal [18F]-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography and computed tomography imaging.

Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is a rare and aggressive tumor arising in the mesothelium that covers the lungs, the heart, and the thoracic cavity. ...

Visualization, Quantification, and Mapping of Immune Cell Populations in the Tumor Microenvironment

The immune landscape of the tumor microenvironment (TME) is a determining factor in cancer progression and response to therapy. Specifically, the density and the location of immune cells in the TME have important diagnostic and prognostic values. Multiomic profiling of the TME has exponentially increased our understanding of the numerous cellular and molecular networks regulating tumor initiation and progression. However, these techniques do not provide information about the spatial organization of cells or cell-cell interactions. Affordable, accessible, and easy to execute multiplexing techniques that allow spatial resolution of immune cells in tissue sections are needed to complement single cell-based high-throughput technologies. Here, we describe a strategy that integrates serial imaging, sequential labeling, and image alignment to generate virtual multiparameter slides of whole tissue sections. Virtual slides are subsequently analyzed in an automated fashion using user-defined protocols that enable identification, quantification, and mapping of cell populations of interest. The image analysis is done, in this case using the analysis modules Tissuealign, Author, and HISTOmap. We present an example where we applied this strategy successfully to one clinical specimen, maximizing the information that can be obtained from limited tissue samples and providing an unbiased view of the TME in the entire tissue section.

Here, we describe a simple and accessible strategy for visualizing, quantifying, and mapping immune cells in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumor tissue sections. This methodology combines existing imaging and digital analysis techniques with the purpose of expanding the multiplexing capability and multiparameter analysis of imaging assays.

The immune landscape of the tumor microenvironment (TME) is a determining factor in cancer progression and response to therapy. Specifically, the density ...

Precise Brain Mapping to Perform Repetitive In Vivo Imaging of Neuro-Immune Dynamics in Mice

The central nervous system (CNS) is regulated by a complex interplay of neuronal, glial, stromal, and vascular cells that facilitate its proper function. Although studying these cells in isolation in vitro or together ex vivo provides useful physiological information; salient features of neural cell physiology will be missed in such contexts. Therefore, there is a need for studying neural cells in their native in vivo environment. The protocol detailed here describes repetitive in vivo two-photon imaging of neural cells in the rodent cortex as a tool to visualize and study specific cells over extended periods of time from hours to months. We describe in detail the use of the grossly stable brain vasculature as a coarse map or fluorescently labeled dendrites as a fine map of select brain regions of interest. Using these maps as a visual key, we show how neural cells can be precisely relocated for subsequent repetitive in vivo imaging. Using examples of in vivo imaging of fluorescently-labeled microglia, neurons, and NG2+ cells, this protocol demonstrates the ability of this technique to allow repetitive visualization of cellular dynamics in the same brain location over extended time periods, that can further aid in understanding the structural and functional responses of these cells in normal physiology or following pathological insults. Where necessary, this approach can be coupled to functional imaging of neural cells, e.g., with calcium imaging. This approach is especially a powerful technique to visualize the physical interaction between different cell types of the CNS in vivo when genetic mouse models or specific dyes with distinct fluorescent tags to label the cells of interest are available.

This protocol describes a chronic cranial window implantation technique that can be used for longitudinal imaging of neuro-glio-vascular structures, interactions, and function in both healthy and diseased conditions. It serves as a complementary alternative to the transcranial imaging approach that, while often preferred, possesses some critical limitations.

The central nervous system (CNS) is regulated by a complex interplay of neuronal, glial, stromal, and vascular cells that facilitate its proper function. ...

Microfluidic Co-Culture Models for Dissecting the Immune Response in in vitro Tumor Microenvironments

Complex disease models demand cutting-edge tools able to deliver physiologically and pathologically relevant, actionable insights, and unveil otherwise invisible processes. Advanced cell assays closely mimicking in vivo scenery are establishing themselves as novel ways to visualize and measure the bidirectional tumor-host interplay influencing the progression of cancer. Here we describe two versatile protocols to recreate highly controllable 2D and 3D co-cultures in microdevices, mimicking the complexity of the tumor microenvironment (TME), under natural and therapy-induced immunosurveillance. In section 1, an experimental setting is provided to monitor crosstalk between adherent tumor cells and floating immune populations, by bright field time-lapse microscopy. As an applicative scenario, we analyze the effects of anti-cancer treatments, such as the so-called immunogenic cancer cell death inducers on the recruitment and activation of immune cells. In section 2, 3D tumor-immune microenvironments are assembled in a competitive layout. Differential immune infiltration is monitored by fluorescence snapshots up to 72 h, to evaluate combination therapeutic strategies. In both settings, image processing steps are illustrated to extract a plethora of immune cell parameters (e.g., immune cell migration and interaction, response to therapeutic agents). These simple and powerful methods can be further tailored to simulate the complexity of the TME encompassing the heterogeneity and plasticity of cancer, stromal and immune cells subtypes, as well as their reciprocal interactions as drivers of cancer evolution. The compliance of these rapidly evolving technologies with live-cell high-content imaging can lead to the generation of large informative datasets, bringing forth new challenges. Indeed, the triangle &#39;&#39;co-cultures/microscopy/advanced data analysis&#34; sets the path towards a precise problem parametrization that may assist tailor-made therapeutic protocols. We expect that future integration of cancer-immune on-a-chip with artificial intelligence for high-throughput processing will synergize a large step forward in leveraging the capabilities as predictive and preclinical tools for precision and personalized oncology.

In the age of immunotherapy and single-cell genomic profiling, cancer biology requires novel in vitro and computational tools for investigating the tumor-immune interface in a proper spatiotemporal context. We describe protocols to exploit tumor-immune microfluidic co-cultures in 2D and 3D settings, compatible with dynamic, multiparametric monitoring of cellular functions.

Complex disease models demand cutting-edge tools able to deliver physiologically and pathologically relevant, actionable insights, and unveil otherwise ...

Recurrent Escherichia coli Urinary Tract Infection Triggered by Gardnerella vaginalis Bladder Exposure in Mice

Recurrent urinary tract infections (rUTI) caused by uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) are common and costly. Previous articles describing models of UTI in male and female mice have illustrated the procedures for bacterial inoculation and enumeration in urine and tissues. During an initial bladder infection in C57BL/6 mice, UPEC establish latent reservoirs inside bladder epithelial cells that persist following clearance of UPEC bacteriuria. This model builds on these studies to examine rUTI caused by the emergence of UPEC from within latent bladder reservoirs. The urogenital bacterium Gardnerella vaginalis is used as the trigger of rUTI in this model because it is frequently present in the urogenital tracts of women, especially in the context of vaginal dysbiosis that has been associated with UTI. In addition, a method for in situ bladder fixation followed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis of bladder tissue is also described, with potential application to other studies involving the bladder.

Recurrent Escherichia coli Urinary Tract Infection Triggered by Gardnerella vaginalis Bladder Exposure in Mice

A mouse model of uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) transurethral inoculation to establish latent intracellular bladder reservoirs and subsequent bladder exposure to G. vaginalis to induce recurrent UPEC UTI is demonstrated. Also demonstrated are the enumeration of bacteria, urine cytology, and in situ bladder fixation and processing for scanning electron microscopy.

Recurrent urinary tract infections (rUTI) caused by uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) are common and costly. Previous articles describing models of ...

Real-time Monitoring of Mitochondrial Respiration in Cytokine-differentiated Human Primary T Cells

During activation, the metabolism of T cells adapts to changes that impact their fate. An increase in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation is indispensable for T cell activation, and the survival of memory T cells is dependent on mitochondrial remodeling. Consequently, this affects the long-term clinical outcome of cancer immunotherapies. Changes in T cell quality are often studied by flow cytometry using well-known surface markers and not directly by their metabolic state. This is an optimized protocol for measuring real-time mitochondrial respiration of primary human T cells using an Extracellular Flux Analyzer and the cytokines IL-2 and IL-15, which differently affect T cell metabolism. It is shown that the metabolic state of T cells can clearly be distinguished by measuring the oxygen consumption when inhibiting key complexes in the metabolic pathway and that the accuracy of these measurements is highly dependent on optimal inhibitor concentration and inhibitor injection strategy. This standardized protocol will help implement mitochondrial respiration as a standard for T cell fitness in monitoring and studying cancer immunotherapies.

Metabolic adaptation is fundamental for T cells as it dictates differentiation, persistence, and cytotoxicity. Here, an optimized protocol for monitoring mitochondrial respiration in ex vivo cytokine-differentiated human primary T cells is presented.