We thank Stephan Wilkens for help in transmission electron microscopy. This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health Grant R01AG023731.

Previous studies have shown that the first amino-terminal 22 residues of Mgm101 are cleaved after import into mitochondria 19. For expression in Escherichia coli, the MGM101 open reading frame lacking the first 22 codons is amplified by PCR and placed downstream of the malE sequence encoding the maltose binding protein (MBP) in a modified version of the expression vector pMAL-c2E. This generates the MBP-Mgm101 fusion with a linker containing a cleavage site for the PreScission protea...

<ol>
	<li>San Filippo, J., Sung, P., Klein, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanism+of+eukaryotic+homologous+recombination.">Mechanism of eukaryotic homologous recombination.</a> Annu. Rev. Biochem. 77, 229-257 (2008).</li><li>Bishop, D. K., Park, D., Xu, L., Kleckner, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DMC1:+a+meiosis-specific+yeast+homolog+of+E.+coli+recA+required+for+recombination,+synaptonemal+complex+formation,+and+cell+cycle+progression.">DMC1: a meiosis-specific yeast homolog of E. coli recA required for recombination, synaptonemal complex formation, and cell cycle progression.</a> Cell. 69, 439-456 (1992).</li><li>Shinohara, A., Ogawa, H., Ogawa, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rad51+protein+involved+in+repair+and+recombination+in+S.+cerevisiae+is+a+RecA-like+protein.">Rad51 protein involved in repair and recombination in S. cerevisiae is a RecA-like protein.</a> Cell. 69, 457-470 (1992).</li><li>Passy, S. I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+Dmc1+protein+binds+DNA+as+an+octameric+ring.">Human Dmc1 protein binds DNA as an octameric ring.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96, 10684-10688 (1999).</li><li>Story, R. M., Weber, I. T., Steitz, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+structure+of+the+E.+coli+recA+protein+monomer+and+polymer.">The structure of the E. coli recA protein monomer and polymer.</a> Nature. 355, 318-325 (1992).</li><li>Yu, X., Jacobs, S. A., West, S. C., Ogawa, T., Egelman, E. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Domain+structure+and+dynamics+in+the+helical+filaments+formed+by+RecA+and+Rad51+on+DNA.">Domain structure and dynamics in the helical filaments formed by RecA and Rad51 on DNA.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98, 8419-8424 (2001).</li><li>Conway, A. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Crystal+structure+of+a+Rad51+filament.">Crystal structure of a Rad51 filament.</a> Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 11, 791-796 (2004).</li><li>Bai, Y., Davis, A. P., Symington, L. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+allele+of+RAD52+that+causes+severe+DNA+repair+and+recombination+deficiencies+only+in+the+absence+of+RAD51+or+RAD59.">A novel allele of RAD52 that causes severe DNA repair and recombination deficiencies only in the absence of RAD51 or RAD59.</a> Genetics. 153, 1117-1130 (1999).</li><li>Bai, Y., Symington, L. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Rad52+homolog+is+required+for+RAD51-independent+mitotic+recombination+in+Saccharomyces+cerevisiae.">A Rad52 homolog is required for RAD51-independent mitotic recombination in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.</a> Genes Dev. 10, 2025-2037 (1996).</li><li>Paques, F., Haber, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiple+pathways+of+recombination+induced+by+double-strand+breaks+in+Saccharomyces+cerevisiae.">Multiple pathways of recombination induced by double-strand breaks in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.</a> Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 63, 349-404 (1999).</li><li>Lopes, A., Amarir-Bouhram, J., Faure, G., Petit, M. A., Guerois, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detection+of+novel+recombinases+in+bacteriophage+genomes+unveils+Rad52,+Rad51+and+Gp2.5+remote+homologs.">Detection of novel recombinases in bacteriophage genomes unveils Rad52, Rad51 and Gp2.5 remote homologs.</a> Nucleic Acids Res. 38, 3952-3962 (2010).</li><li>Poteete, A. R., Sauer, R. T., Hendrix, R. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Domain+structure+and+quaternary+organization+of+the+bacteriophage+P22+Erf+protein.">Domain structure and quaternary organization of the bacteriophage P22 Erf protein.</a> J. Mol. Biol. 171, 401-418 (1983).</li><li>Passy, S. I., Yu, X., Li, Z., Radding, C. M., Egelman, E. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rings+and+filaments+of+beta+protein+from+bacteriophage+lambda+suggest+a+superfamily+of+recombination+proteins.">Rings and filaments of beta protein from bacteriophage lambda suggest a superfamily of recombination proteins.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96, 4279-4284 (1999).</li><li>Ploquin, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+and+structural+basis+for+a+bacteriophage+homolog+of+human+RAD52.">Functional and structural basis for a bacteriophage homolog of human RAD52.</a> Curr. Biol. 18, 1142-1146 (2008).</li><li>Chen, X. J., Guan, M. X., Clark-Walker, G. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MGM101,+a+nuclear+gene+involved+in+maintenance+of+the+mitochondrial+genome+in+Saccharomyces+cerevisiae.">MGM101, a nuclear gene involved in maintenance of the mitochondrial genome in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.</a> Nucl. Acids Res. 21, 3473-3477 (1993).</li><li>Meeusen, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mgm101p+is+a+novel+component+of+the+mitochondrial+nucleoid+that+binds+DNA+and+is+required+for+the+repair+of+oxidatively+damaged+mitochondrial+DNA.">Mgm101p is a novel component of the mitochondrial nucleoid that binds DNA and is required for the repair of oxidatively damaged mitochondrial DNA.</a> J. Cell Biol. 145, 291-304 (1999).</li><li>Mbantenkhu, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mgm101+is+a+Rad52-related+protein+required+for+mitochondrial+DNA+recombination.">Mgm101 is a Rad52-related protein required for mitochondrial DNA recombination.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 286, 42360-42370 (2011).</li><li>Nardozzi, J. D., Wang, X., Mbantenkhu, M., Wilkens, S., Chen, X. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+properly+configured+ring+structure+is+critical+for+the+function+of+the+mitochondrial+DNA+recombination+protein.">A properly configured ring structure is critical for the function of the mitochondrial DNA recombination protein.</a> Mgm101. J. Biol. Chem. 287, 37259-37268 (2012).</li><li>Zuo, X., Xue, D., Li, N., Clark-Walker, G. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+functional+core+of+the+mitochondrial+genome+maintenance+protein+Mgm101p+in+Saccharomyces+cerevisiae+determined+with+a+temperature-conditional+allele.">A functional core of the mitochondrial genome maintenance protein Mgm101p in Saccharomyces cerevisiae determined with a temperature-conditional allele.</a> FEMS Yeast Res. 7, 131-140 (2007).</li><li>Itoh, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+packaging+proteins+Glom+and+Glom2+coordinately+organize+the+mitochondrial+nucleoid+of+Physarum+polycephalum.">DNA packaging proteins Glom and Glom2 coordinately organize the mitochondrial nucleoid of Physarum polycephalum.</a> Mitochondrion. 11, 575-586 (2011).</li><li>Janicka, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+RAD52-like+single-stranded+DNA+binding+protein+affects+mitochondrial+DNA+repair+by+recombination.">A RAD52-like single-stranded DNA binding protein affects mitochondrial DNA repair by recombination.</a> Plant J. 72, 423-435 (2012).</li></ol>

It has been a challenge to produce a stable, native recombinant Mgm101 protein from E. coli possibly due to its insolubility in bacterial cells. In this report, we show that the MBP-fusion strategy allows the protein to be expressed at a reasonably high level. By using negative staining transmission electron microscopy and size exclusion chromatography, we have previously shown that the MBP-fusion protein forms uniform oligomers in vitro 18. It is possible that the folding and oligomerization...

Homologous recombination is important for the repair of double-strand breaks (DSBs) and interstrand crosslinks, and for the reinitiation of DNA replication from collapsed replication forks 1. In conventional homologous recombination, the central reaction is catalyzed by the ATP-dependent recombinases including RecA in prokaryotes, and Rad51 and Dmc1 in eukaryotes 1-3. These recombinases form nucleoprotein filaments on ssDNA, which are essential for initiating homology search and strand invasion within duplex DNA templates (Figure 1, left panel) 4-7. In addition to the conventional scheme, homologous recombination can also take place in a RecA/Rad51-independent manner (Figure 1, right panel). For instance, the yeast Rad52 and Rad59 proteins can directly catalyze the annealing of complementary ssDNA strands which are exposed by resectioning of dsDNA breaks. This recombination process, known as single strand annealing, generally does not involve homologous pairing with dsDNA templates. After annealing, heterologous tails are removed by exonucleases and nicks are ligated to restore genome continuity 8-10. Repair by the single strand annealing mechanism is often accompanied by deletions of genomic sequences between directly repeated regions.
Rad52 belongs to a diverse group of recombination proteins that are widespread among bacteriophages 11. These proteins are also known as Single Strand Annealing Proteins (SSAPs), based on their activity in promoting the annealing of homologous single stranded DNA molecules. The best characterized bacteriophage SSAPs are Red&beta; and Erf from the bacteriophages &lambda; and P22, RecT from the prophage rac and the Sak protein from the lactococcal phage ul36. The SSAPs are structurally characterized by a typical &beta;-&beta;-&beta;-&alpha; fold, although similarity is virtually undetectable in their primary sequences. They all form large homo-oligomeric rings of 10 - 14 fold symmetry in vitro 12-14. The functional implications of this characteristic higher order structural organization is not well understood.
We are interested in understanding the mechanism of homologous recombination in the mitochondrial genome. We have previously identified the MGM101 gene that is essential for the maintenance of mtDNA in Saccharomyces cerevisiae 15. MGM101 was subsequently found to be associated with mitochondrial nucleoids and is required for the tolerance of mtDNA to DNA-damaging agents 16. However, the study of Mgm101 has been held back in the last decade by the difficulty to produce recombinant Mgm101. We have recently succeeded in producing soluble Mgm101 at large quantities from E. coli using the MBP-fusion strategy. This has enabled us to demonstrate that Mgm101 shares biochemical and structural similarities with the Rad52-family of proteins 17,18. In this report, a three-step purification procedure is described, which produces homogeneous Mgm101for biochemical and structural analyses (Figure 2).

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Name of Reagent/Material</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Expression vector pMAL-c2E</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>#N8066S</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PreScission Protease</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td>
			<td>#27-0843-01</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BL21-CodonPlus(DE3)-RIL cells</td>
			<td>Strategene</td>
			<td>#230245</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leupeptin</td>
			<td>Roche Applied Science</td>
			<td>#11034626001</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pepstatin</td>
			<td>Roche Applied Science</td>
			<td>#11359053001</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF)</td>
			<td>Roche Applied Science</td>
			<td>#10837091001</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNAse I</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>#DN25-1G</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl &beta;-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG)</td>
			<td>Roche Applied Science</td>
			<td>#11411446001</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amylose resin</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>#E8021L</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Econo-Column chromatography column</td>
			<td>BIO-RAD</td>
			<td>#7372512</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bio-Scale Mini Macro-Prep High S cartridge (1 ml)</td>
			<td>BIO-RAD</td>
			<td>#732-4130</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VIVASPIN 15R Ultrafiltration spin column (10,000 MWCO)</td>
			<td>Sartorius Stedium</td>
			<td>#VS15RH02</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Superose 6 prep grade column</td>
			<td>Amersham Bioscirnces</td>
			<td>#17-0489-01</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VIVASPIN 6 Ultrafiltration spin column (5,000 MWCO)</td>
			<td>Sartorius Stedium</td>
			<td>#VS0611</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

preparation of the mgm101 recombination protein by mbp-based tagging strategy

The MGM101 gene was identified 20 years ago for its role in the maintenance of mitochondrial DNA. Studies from several groups have suggested that the Mgm101 protein is involved in the recombinational repair of mitochondrial DNA. Recent investigations have indicated that Mgm101 is related to the Rad52-type recombination protein family. These proteins form large oligomeric rings and promote the annealing of homologous single stranded DNA molecules. However, the characterization of Mgm101 has been hindered by the difficulty in producing the recombinant protein. Here, a reliable procedure for the preparation of recombinant Mgm101 is described. Maltose Binding Protein (MBP)-tagged Mgm101 is first expressed in Escherichia coli. The fusion protein is initially purified by amylose affinity chromatography. After being released by proteolytic cleavage, Mgm101 is separated from MBP by cationic exchange chromatography. Monodispersed Mgm101 is then obtained by size exclusion chromatography. A yield of ~0.87 mg of Mgm101 per liter of bacterial culture can be routinely obtained. The recombinant Mgm101 has minimal contamination of DNA. The prepared samples are successfully used for biochemical, structural and single particle image analyses of Mgm101. This protocol may also be used for the preparation of other large oligomeric DNA-binding proteins that may be misfolded and toxic to bacterial cells.

Mgm101 is a Rad52-related recombination protein in mitochondria. Rad52 has been extensively studied for its role in mitochondrial DNA recombination (Figure 1). Recombinant Mgm101 can be prepared by a three-step procedure (Figure 2). This is facilitated by the use of the MBP-tagging strategy that allows Mgm101 to be expressed in a soluble form and subsequently released from the tag by proteolytic cleavage (Figure 3).
In a typical preparation, a...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparation of the Mgm101 Recombination Protein by MBP-based Tagging Strategy at JoVE.com

Preparation of the Mgm101 Recombination Protein by MBP-based Tagging Strategy

The yeast mitochondrial nucleoid protein, Mgm101, is a Rad52-type recombination protein that forms large oligomeric rings. A protocol is described to prepare soluble recombinant Mgm101 using the Maltose Binding Protein (MBP)-tagging strategy coupled with cation exchange and size exclusion chromatography.

The MGM101 gene was identified 20 years ago for its role in the maintenance of mitochondrial DNA. Studies from several groups have suggested that the ...

preparation-mgm101-recombination-protein-mbp-based-tagging

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Predicting the Effectiveness of Population Replacement Strategy Using Mathematical Modeling

Charles Taylor and John Marshall explain the utility of mathematical modeling for evaluating the effectiveness of population replacement strategy.  Insight is given into how computational models can provide information on the population dynamics of mosquitoes and the spread of transposable elements through A. gambiae subspecies.  The ethical considerations of releasing genetically modified mosquitoes into the wild are discussed.

Charles Taylor and John Marshall explain the utility of mathematical modeling for evaluating the effectiveness of population replacement strategy. Insight is given into how computational models can provide information on the population dynamics of mosquitoes and the spread of transposable elements through A. gambiae subspecies. The ethical considerations of releasing genetically modified mosquitoes into the wild are discussed.

Charles Taylor and John Marshall explain the utility of mathematical modeling for evaluating the effectiveness of population replacement strategy.  ...

Staining of Proteins in Gels with Coomassie G-250 without Organic Solvent and Acetic Acid

In classical protein staining protocols using Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB), solutions with high contents of toxic and flammable organic solvents (Methanol, Ethanol or 2-Propanol) and acetic acid are used for fixation, staining and destaining of proteins in a gel after SDS-PAGE. To speed up the procedure, heating the staining solution in the microwave oven for a short time is frequently used. This usually results in evaporation of toxic or hazardous Methanol, Ethanol or 2-Propanol and a strong smell of acetic acid in the lab which should be avoided due to safety considerations. In a protocol originally published in two patent applications by E.M. Wondrak (US2001046709 (A1), US6319720 (B1)), an alternative composition of the staining solution is described in which no organic solvent or acid is used. The CBB is dissolved in bidistilled water (60-80mg of CBB G-250 per liter) and 35 mM HCl is added as the only other compound in the staining solution. The CBB staning of the gel is done after SDS-PAGE and thorough washing of the gel in bidistilled water. By heating the gel during the washing and staining steps, the process can be finished faster and no toxic or hazardous compunds are evaporating. The staining of proteins occurs already within 1 minute after heating the gel in staining solution and is fully developed after 15-30 min with a slightly blue background that is destained completely by prolonged washing of the stained gel in bidistilled water, without affecting the stained protein bands.

A short protocol for protein staining with Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB) G-250 in polyacrylamide gels is described without using organic solvents or acetic acid as in the classical staining procedures with CBB.

In classical protein staining protocols using Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB), solutions with high contents of toxic and flammable organic solvents ...

Using the GELFREE 8100 Fractionation System for Molecular Weight-Based Fractionation with Liquid Phase Recovery

The GELFREE 8100 Fractionation System is a novel protein fractionation system designed to maximize protein recovery during molecular weight based fractionation. The system is comprised of single-use, 8-sample capacity cartridges and a benchtop GELFREE Fractionation Instrument. During separation, a constant voltage is applied between the anode and cathode reservoirs, and each protein mixture is electrophoretically driven from a loading chamber into a specially designed gel column gel. Proteins are concentrated into a tight band in a stacking gel, and separated based on their respective electrophoretic mobilities in a resolving gel. As proteins elute from the column, they are trapped and concentrated in liquid phase in the collection chamber, free of the gel. The instrument is then paused at specific time intervals, and fractions are collected using a pipette. This process is repeated until all desired fractions have been collected. If fewer than 8 samples are run on a cartridge, any unused chambers can be used in subsequent separations.
This novel technology facilitates the quick and simple separation of up to 8 complex protein mixtures simultaneously, and offers several advantages when compared to previously available fractionation methods. This system is capable of fractionating up to 1mg of total protein per channel, for a total of 8mg per cartridge. Intact proteins over a broad mass range are separated on the basis of molecular weight, retaining important physiochemical properties of the analyte. The liquid phase entrapment provides for high recovery while eliminating the need for band or spot cutting, making the fractionation process highly reproducible1.

The accompanying video describes the use of the GELFREE 8100 Fractionation System, which partitions complex protein samples on the basis of molecular weight and recovers the fractions in liquid phase. The video describes how the technology works, how it is used, and provides resultant data, with polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis of fractionated bovine liver homogenate.

The GELFREE 8100 Fractionation System is a novel protein fractionation system designed to maximize protein recovery during molecular weight based ...

Identifying the Effects of BRCA1 Mutations on Homologous Recombination using Cells that Express Endogenous Wild-type BRCA1

The functional analysis of missense mutations can be complicated by the presence in the cell of the endogenous protein. Structure-function analyses of the BRCA1 have been complicated by the lack of a robust assay for the full length BRCA1 protein and the difficulties inherent in working with cell lines that express hypomorphic BRCA1 protein1,2,3,4,5. We developed a system whereby the endogenous BRCA1 protein in a cell was acutely depleted by RNAi targeting the 3'-UTR of the BRCA1 mRNA and replaced by co-transfecting a plasmid expressing a BRCA1 variant. One advantage of this procedure is that the acute silencing of BRCA1 and simultaneous replacement allow the cells to grow without secondary mutations or adaptations that might arise over time to compensate for the loss of BRCA1 function. This depletion and add-back procedure was done in a HeLa-derived cell line that was readily assayed for homologous recombination activity. The homologous recombination assay is based on a previously published method whereby a recombination substrate is integrated into the genome (Figure 1)6,7,8,9. This recombination substrate has the rare-cutting I-SceI restriction enzyme site inside an inactive GFP allele, and downstream is a second inactive GFP allele. Transfection of the plasmid that expresses I-SceI results in a double-stranded break, which may be repaired by homologous recombination, and if homologous recombination does repair the break it creates an active GFP allele that is readily scored by flow cytometry for GFP protein expression. Depletion of endogenous BRCA1 resulted in an 8-10-fold reduction in homologous recombination activity, and add-back of wild-type plasmid fully restored homologous recombination function. When specific point mutants of full length BRCA1 were expressed from co-transfected plasmids, the effect of the specific missense mutant could be scored. As an example, the expression of the BRCA1(M18T) protein, a variant of unknown clinical significance10, was expressed in these cells, it failed to restore BRCA1-dependent homologous recombination. By contrast, expression of another variant, also of unknown significance, BRCA1(I21V) fully restored BRCA1-dependent homologous recombination function. This strategy of testing the function of BRCA1 missense mutations has been applied to another biological system assaying for centrosome function (Kais et al, unpublished observations). Overall, this approach is suitable for the analysis of missense mutants in any gene that must be analyzed recessively.

We provide a method for testing BRCA1 variants in a tissue culture based assay for homologous recombination repair of DNA damage by depleting endogenous BRCA1 protein from a cell using RNAi and replacing it with a BRCA1 point mutant that contains a coding change.

The functional analysis of missense mutations can be complicated by the presence in the cell of the endogenous protein. Structure-function analyses of the ...

Genetic Modification and Recombination of Salivary Gland Organ Cultures

Branching morphogenesis occurs during the development of many organs, and the embryonic mouse submandibular gland (SMG) is a classical model for the study of branching morphogenesis. In the developing SMG, this process involves iterative steps of epithelial bud and duct formation, to ultimately give rise to a complex branched network of acini and ducts, which serve to produce and modify/transport the saliva, respectively, into the oral cavity1-3. The epithelial-associated basement membrane and aspects of the mesenchymal compartment, including the mesenchyme cells, growth factors and the extracellular matrix, produced by these cells, are critical to the branching mechanism, although how the cellular and molecular events are coordinated remains poorly understood 4. The study of the molecular mechanisms driving epithelial morphogenesis advances our understanding of developmental mechanisms and provides insight into possible regenerative medicine approaches. Such studies have been hampered due to the lack of effective methods for genetic manipulation of the salivary epithelium. Currently, adenoviral transduction represents the most effective method for targeting epithelial cells in adult glands in vivo5. However, in embryonic explants, dense mesenchyme and the basement membrane surrounding the epithelial cells impedes viral access to the epithelial cells. If the mesenchyme is removed, the epithelium can be transfected using adenoviruses, and epithelial rudiments can resume branching morphogenesis in the presence of Matrigel or laminin-1116,7. Mesenchyme-free epithelial rudiment growth also requires additional supplementation with soluble growth factors and does not fully recapitulate branching morphogenesis as it occurs in intact glands8. Here we describe a technique which facilitates adenoviral transduction of epithelial cells and culture of the transfected epithelium with associated mesenchyme. Following microdissection of the embryonic SMGs, removal of the mesenchyme, and viral infection of the epithelium with a GFP-containing adenovirus, we show that the epithelium spontaneously recombines with uninfected mesenchyme, recapitulating intact SMG glandular structure and branching morphogenesis. The genetically modified epithelial cell population can be easily monitored using standard fluorescence microscopy methods, if fluorescently-tagged adenoviral constructs are used. The tissue recombination method described here is currently the most effective and accessible method for transfection of epithelial cells with a wild-type or mutant vector within a complex 3D tissue construct that does not require generation of transgenic animals.

A technique to genetically manipulate epithelial cells within whole ex vivo cultured embryonic mouse submandibular glands (SMGs) using viral gene transfer is described. This method takes advantage of the innate ability of SMG epithelium and mesenchyme to spontaneously recombine after separation and infection of epithelial rudiments with adenoviral vectors.

Branching  morphogenesis occurs during the development of many organs, and the embryonic  mouse submandibular gland (SMG) is a classical model for the ...

Improving the Success Rate of Protein Crystallization by Random Microseed Matrix Screening

Random microseed matrix screening (rMMS) is a protein crystallization technique in which seed crystals are added to random screens. By increasing the likelihood that crystals will grow in the metastable zone of a protein's phase diagram, extra crystallization leads are often obtained, the quality of crystals produced may be increased, and a good supply of crystals for data collection and soaking experiments is provided. Here we describe a general method for rMMS that may be applied to either sitting drop or hanging drop vapor diffusion experiments, established either by hand or using liquid handling robotics, in 96-well or 24-well tray format.

Here we describe a general method for random microseed matrix screening. This technique is shown to significantly increase the success rate of protein crystallization screening experiments, reduce the need for optimization, and provide a reliable supply of crystals for data collection and ligand-soaking experiments.

Random microseed matrix screening  (rMMS) is a protein crystallization technique in which seed crystals are added  to random screens. By increasing the ...

Green Fluorescent Protein-based Expression Screening of Membrane Proteins in Escherichia coli

The production of recombinant membrane proteins for structural and functional studies remains technically challenging due to low levels of expression and the inherent instability of many membrane proteins once solubilized in detergents. A protocol is described that combines ligation independent cloning of membrane proteins as GFP fusions with expression in Escherichia coli detected by GFP fluorescence. This enables the construction and expression screening of multiple membrane protein/variants to identify candidates suitable for further investment of time and effort. The GFP reporter is used in a primary screen of expression by visualizing GFP fluorescence following SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Membrane proteins that show both a high expression level with minimum degradation as indicated by the absence of free GFP, are selected for a secondary screen. These constructs are scaled and a total membrane fraction prepared and solubilized in four different detergents. Following ultracentrifugation to remove detergent-insoluble material, lysates are analyzed by fluorescence detection size exclusion chromatography (FSEC). Monitoring the size exclusion profile by GFP fluorescence provides information about the mono-dispersity and integrity of the membrane proteins in different detergents. Protein: detergent combinations that elute with a symmetrical peak with little or no free GFP and minimum aggregation are candidates for subsequent purification. Using the above methodology, the heterologous expression in E. coli of SED (shape, elongation, division, and sporulation) proteins from 47 different species of bacteria was analyzed. These proteins typically have ten transmembrane domains and are essential for cell division. The results show that the production of the SEDs orthologues in E. coli was highly variable with respect to the expression levels and integrity of the GFP fusion proteins. The experiment identified a subset for further investigation.

Green Fluorescent Protein-based Expression Screening of Membrane Proteins in Escherichia coli

A streamlined approach to screening for the expression of recombinant membrane proteins in Escherichia coli based on fusion to green fluorescent protein is presented.

The production of recombinant membrane proteins for structural and functional studies remains technically challenging due to low levels of expression and ...

Detecting Protein Subcellular Localization by Green Fluorescence Protein Tagging and 4',6-Diamidino-2-phenylindole Staining in Caenorhabditis elegans

In this protocol, a green fluorescence protein (GFP) fusion protein and 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining are used to track protein subcellular localization changes; in particular, a nuclear translocation under a heat stress condition. Proteins react correspondingly to external and internal signals. A common mechanism is to change its subcellular localization. This article describes a protocol to track protein localization that does not require an antibody, radioactive labeling, or a confocal microscope. In this article, GFP is used to tag the target protein EXL-1 in C. elegans, a member of the chloride intracellular channel proteins (CLICs) family, including mammalian CLIC4. An integrated translational exl-1::gfp transgenic line (with a promoter and a full gene sequence) was created by transformation and &#947;-radiation, and stably expresses the gene and gfp. Recent research showed that upon heat stress, not oxidative stress, EXL-1::GFP accumulates in the nucleus. Overlapping the GFP signal with both the nuclei structure and the DAPI signals confirms the EXL-1 subcellular localization changes under stress. This protocol presents two different fixation methods for DAPI staining: ethanol fixation and acetone fixation. The DAPI staining protocol presented in this article is fast and efficient and preserves both the GFP signal and the protein subcellular localization changes. This method only requires a fluorescence microscope with Nomarski, a FITC filter, and a DAPI filter. It is suitable for a small laboratory setting, undergraduate student research, high school student research, and biotechnology classrooms.

Detecting Protein Subcellular Localization by Green Fluorescence Protein Tagging and 4&#039;,6-Diamidino-2-phenylindole Staining in Caenorhabditis elegans

This protocol demonstrates how to track a protein nuclear translocation under heat stress by using a green fluorescence protein (GFP) fusion protein as a marker and 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining. The DAPI staining protocol is fast and preserves the GFP and protein subcellular localization signals.

In this protocol, a green fluorescence protein (GFP) fusion protein and 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining are used to track protein ...

Detecting and Characterizing Protein Self-Assembly In Vivo by Flow Cytometry

Protein self-assembly governs protein function and compartmentalizes cellular processes in space and time. Current methods to study it suffer from low-sensitivity, indirect read-outs, limited throughput, and/or population-level rather than single-cell resolution. We designed a flow cytometry-based single methodology that addresses all of these limitations: Distributed Amphifluoric FRET or DAmFRET. DAmFRET detects and quantifies protein self-assemblies by sensitized emission FRET in vivo, enables deployment across model systems-from yeast to human cells-and achieves sensitive, single-cell, high-throughput read-outs irrespective of protein localization or solubility.

This article describes a FRET-based flow cytometry protocol to quantify protein self-assembly in both S. cerevisiae and HEK293T cells.

Protein self-assembly governs protein function and compartmentalizes cellular processes in space and time. Current methods to study it suffer from ...

An Improved Chemotaxis Assay for the Rapid Identification of Rhizobacterial Chemoattractants in Root Exudates

Chemotaxis identification is very important for the research and application of rhizosphere growth-promoting bacteria. We established a straightforward method to quickly identify the chemoattractants that could induce the chemotactic movement of rhizosphere growth-promoting bacteria on sterile glass slides via simple steps. Bacteria solution (OD600 = 0.5) and sterile chemoattractant aqueous solution were added dropwise on the glass slide at an interval of 1 cm. An inoculating loop was used to connect the chemoattractant aqueous solution to the bacterial solution. The slide was kept at room temperature for 20 min on the clean bench. Finally, the chemoattractant aqueous solution was collected for bacterial counting and microscopic observation. In this study, through multiple comparisons of experimental results, the method overcame multiple shortcomings of traditional bacterial chemotaxis methods. The method reduced the error of plate counting and shortened the experimental cycle. For the identification of chemoattractant substances, this new method can save 2-3 days compared to the traditional method. Additionally, this method allows any researcher to systematically complete a bacterial chemotaxis experiment within 1-2 days. The protocol can be considered a valuable resource for understanding plant-microbe interactions.

Here, we present an improved chemotaxis assay protocol. The goal of this protocol is to reduce the steps and costs of traditional bacterial chemotaxis methods and to serve as a valuable resource for understanding plant-microbe interactions.

Chemotaxis identification is very important for the research and application of rhizosphere growth-promoting bacteria. We established a straightforward ...