This work is supported by the Assistant Secretary for Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Office of Vehicle Technologies of the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231. Portions of this research were carried out at the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, a Directorate of SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and an Office of Science User Facility operated for the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science by Stanford University. The SSRL Structural Molecular Biology Program is supported by the DOE Office of Biological and Environmental Research, and by the National Institutes of Health, National Center for Research Resources, Biomedical Technology Program (P41RR001209).

1. Planning of Experiments
<ol>
	<li>Identify beam line experiments of interest. Refer to beam line webpages as guides. For SSRL XAS and XRD, these are: <a href="http://www-ssrl.slac.stanford.edu/beamlines/bl4-1/" target="_blank">http://www-ssrl.slac.stanford.edu/beamlines/bl4-1/</a> and <a href="http://www-ssrl.slac.stanford.edu/beamlines/bl4-3/" target="_blank">http://www-ssrl.slac.stanford.edu/beamlines/bl4-3/</a> and <a href="http://www-ssrl.slac.stanford.edu/beamlines/bl11-3/" target="_blank">http://www-ssrl.slac....

<ol>
	<li>Kim, S. -. W., Seo, D. -. I., Ma, X., Ceder, G., Kang, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrode+Materials+for+Rechargeable+Sodium-Ion+Batteries:+Potential+Alternatives+to+Current+Lithium-Ion+Batteries.">Electrode Materials for Rechargeable Sodium-Ion Batteries: Potential Alternatives to Current Lithium-Ion Batteries.</a> Adv. Energy Mater. 2, 710-721 (2012).</li><li>Palomares, V., Serras, P., Villaluenga, I., Huesa, K. B., Cerretero-Gonzalez, J., Rojo, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Na-ion+Batteries,+Recent+Advances+and+Present+Challenges+to+Become+Low+Cost+Energy+Storage+Systems.">Na-ion Batteries, Recent Advances and Present Challenges to Become Low Cost Energy Storage Systems.</a> Energy Environ. Sci. 5, 5884-5901 (2012).</li><li>Kam, K. C., Doeff, M. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrode+Materials+for+Lithium+Ion+Batteries.">Electrode Materials for Lithium Ion Batteries.</a> Materials Matters. 7, 56-60 (2012).</li><li>Cabana, J., Monconduit, L., Larcher, D., Palacin, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Beyond+Intercalation-Based+Li-Ion+Batteries:+The+State+of+the+Art+and+Challenges+of+Electrode+Materials+Reacting+Through+Conversion+Reactions.">Beyond Intercalation-Based Li-Ion Batteries: The State of the Art and Challenges of Electrode Materials Reacting Through Conversion Reactions.</a> Adv. Energy Mater. 22, E170-E192 (2010).</li><li>McBreen, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Application+of+Synchrotron+Techniques+to+the+Study+of+Lithium+Ion+Batteries.">The Application of Synchrotron Techniques to the Study of Lithium Ion Batteries.</a> J. Solid State Electrochem. 13, 1051-1061 (2009).</li><li>de Groot, F., Vank&#243;, G., Glatzel, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+1s+X-ray+Absorption+Pre-edge+Structures+in+Transition+Metal+Oxides.">The 1s X-ray Absorption Pre-edge Structures in Transition Metal Oxides.</a> J. Phys. Condens. Matter. 21, 104207 (2009).</li><li>Rumble, C., Conry, T. E., Doeff, M., Cairns, E. J., Penner-Hahn, J. E., Deb, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+and+Electrochemical+Investigation+of+Li(Ni0.4Co0.15Al0.05Mn0.4)O2.">Structural and Electrochemical Investigation of Li(Ni0.4Co0.15Al0.05Mn0.4)O2.</a> J. Electrochem. Soc. 157, A1317-A1322 (2010).</li><li>Cabana, J., Dupr&#233;, N., Gillot, F., Chadwick, A. V., Grey, C. P., Palac&#237;n, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synthesis,+Short-Range+Structure+and+Electrochemical+Properties+of+New+Phases+in+the+Li-Mn-N-O+System.">Synthesis, Short-Range Structure and Electrochemical Properties of New Phases in the Li-Mn-N-O System.</a> Inorg. Chem. 48, 5141-5153 (2009).</li><li>Ravel, B., Newville, M. A. T. H. E. N. A., ARTEMIS, <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HEPHAESTUS:+data+analysis+for+X-ray+absorption+spectroscopy+using+IFEFFIT.">HEPHAESTUS: data analysis for X-ray absorption spectroscopy using IFEFFIT.</a> Journal of Synchrotron Radiation. 12, 537-541 (2005).</li><li>Zeng, D., Cabana, J. B. r. &. #. 2. 3. 3. ;. g. e. r., Yoon, W. -. S., Grey, C. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cation+Ordering+in+Li[NixMnxCo(1–2x)]O2-Layered+Cathode+Materials:+A+Nuclear+Magnetic+Resonance+(NMR),+Pair+Distribution+Function,+X-ray+Absorption+Spectroscopy,+and+Electrochemical+Study.">Cation Ordering in Li[NixMnxCo(1–2x)]O2-Layered Cathode Materials: A Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), Pair Distribution Function, X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy, and Electrochemical Study.</a> Chem. Mater. 19, 6277-6289 (2007).</li><li>Conry, T. E., Mehta, A., Cabana, J., Doeff, M. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=XAFS+Investigation+of+LiNi0.45Mn0.45Co0.1-yAlyO2+Positive+Electrode+Materials.">XAFS Investigation of LiNi0.45Mn0.45Co0.1-yAlyO2 Positive Electrode Materials.</a> J. Electrochem. Soc. 159, A1562-A1571 .</li><li>Conry, T. E., Mehta, A., Cabana, J., Doeff, M. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+Underpinnings+of+the+Enhanced+Cycling+Stability+upon+Al-substitution+in+LiNi0.45Mn0.45Co0.1-yAlyO2+Positive+Electrode+Materials+for+Li-ion+Batteries.">Structural Underpinnings of the Enhanced Cycling Stability upon Al-substitution in LiNi0.45Mn0.45Co0.1-yAlyO2 Positive Electrode Materials for Li-ion Batteries.</a> Chem. Mater. 24, 3307-3317 (2012).</li><li>Reed, J., Ceder, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+Electronic+Structure+in+the+Susceptibility+of+Metastable+Transition-Metal+Oxide+Structures+to+Transformation.">Role of Electronic Structure in the Susceptibility of Metastable Transition-Metal Oxide Structures to Transformation.</a> Chem. Rev. 104, 4513-4534 (2004).</li><li>Cook, J. B., Kim, C., Xu, L., Cabana, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Effect+of+Al+Substitution+on+the+Chemical+and+Electrochemical+Phase+Stability+of+Orthorhombic+LiMnO2.">The Effect of Al Substitution on the Chemical and Electrochemical Phase Stability of Orthorhombic LiMnO2.</a> J. Electrochem. Soc. 160, A46-A52 (2013).</li><li>Lee, E., Persson, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Revealing+the+Coupled+Cation+Interactions+Behind+the+Electrochemical+Profile+of+LixNi0.5Mn1.5O4.">Revealing the Coupled Cation Interactions Behind the Electrochemical Profile of LixNi0.5Mn1.5O4.</a> Energy Environ. Sci. 5, 6047-6051 (2012).</li><li>Hai, B., Shukla, A. K., Duncan, H., Chen, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Effect+of+Particle+Surface+Facets+on+the+Kinetic+Properties+of+LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4+Cathode+Materials.">The Effect of Particle Surface Facets on the Kinetic Properties of LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4 Cathode Materials.</a> J. Mater. Chem. A. 1, 759-769 (2013).</li><li>Cabana, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Composition-Structure+Relationships+in+the+Li-Ion+Battery+Electrode+Material+LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4.">Composition-Structure Relationships in the Li-Ion Battery Electrode Material LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4.</a> Chem. Mater. 24, 2952-2964 (2012).</li><li>Liu, J., Kunz, M., Chen, K., Tamura, N., Richardson, T. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualization+of+Charge+Distribution+in+a+Lithium+Battery+Electrode.">Visualization of Charge Distribution in a Lithium Battery Electrode.</a> J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 1, 2120-2123 (2010).</li><li>Meirer, F., Cabana, J., Liu, Y., Mehta, A., Andrews, J. C., Pianetta, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+Imaging+of+Chemical+Phase+Transformation+at+the+Nanoscale+with+Full-Field+Transmission+X-ray+Microscopy.">Three-dimensional Imaging of Chemical Phase Transformation at the Nanoscale with Full-Field Transmission X-ray Microscopy.</a> J. Synchrotron Rad. 18, 773-781 (2011).</li><li>Liu, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phase+Transformation+and+Lithiation+Effect+on+Electronic+Structure+of+LixFePO4:+An+In-Depth+Study+by+Soft+X-ray+and+Simulations.">Phase Transformation and Lithiation Effect on Electronic Structure of LixFePO4: An In-Depth Study by Soft X-ray and Simulations.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 134, 13708-13715 (2012).</li><li>Sokaras, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+High+Resolution+and+Solid+Angle+X-ray+Raman+Spectroscopy+End-Station+at+the+Stanford+Synchrotron+Radiation+Lightsource.">A High Resolution and Solid Angle X-ray Raman Spectroscopy End-Station at the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 83, 043112 (2012).</li><li>Chan, M. K. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structure+of+Lithium+Peroxide.">Structure of Lithium Peroxide.</a> J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2, 2483-2486 (2011).</li></ol>

Authors have nothing to disclose.

Analysis of XANES data indicates that as-made LiNixCo1-2xMnxO2 (0.01&#8804;x&#8804;1) compounds contains Ni2+, Co3+, and Mn4+.10 A recent in situ XAS study on LiNi0.4Co0.15Al0.05Mn0.4O2 showed that Ni2+ was oxidized to Ni3+ and, ultimately, Ni4+ during delithiation, but that redox processes involving Co3+ contributed some capaci...

Lithium ion batteries for consumer electronics presently command an $11 billion market worldwide (<a href="http://www.marketresearch.com/David-Company-v3832/Lithium-Ion-Batteries-Outlook-Alternative-6842261/" target="_blank">http://www.marketresearch.com/David-Company-v3832/Lithium-Ion-Batteries-Outlook-Alternative-6842261/</a>) and are the premier choice for emerging vehicular applications such as plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and electric vehicles (EVs). Analogs to these devices utilizing sodium ions rather than lithium are in earlier stages of development, but are considered attractive for large scale energy storage (i.e.&#160;grid applications) based on cost and supply security arguments1, 2. Both dual intercalation systems work on the same principle; alkali metal ions shuttle between two electrodes acting as host structures, which undergo insertion processes at different potentials. The electrochemical cells themselves are relatively simple, consisting of composite positive and negative electrodes on current collectors, separated by a porous membrane saturated with an electrolytic solution usually consisting of a salt dissolved in a mixture of organic solvents (Figure 1). Graphite and LiCoO2 are the most commonly employed negative and positive electrodes, respectively, for lithium ion batteries. Several alternative electrode materials have also been developed for specific applications, including variants of LiMn2O4 spinel, LiFePO4 with the olivine structure, and NMCs (LiNixMnxCo1-2xO2 compounds) for positives, and hard carbons, Li4Ti5O12, and alloys of lithium with tin for negatives3. High voltage materials like LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4, new high capacity materials such as layered-layered composites (e.g.&#160;xLi2MnO3&#183;(1-x)LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2), compounds with transition metals that can undergo multiple changes in redox states, and Li-Si alloy anodes are currently subjects of intense research, and, if successfully deployed, should raise practical energy densities of lithium ion cells further. Another class of materials, known as conversion electrodes, in which transition metal oxides, sulfides, or fluorides are reversibly reduced to the metallic element and a lithium salt, are also under consideration for use as battery electrodes (primarily as replacements for anodes)4. For devices based on sodium, hard carbons, alloys, NASICON&#160;structures, and titanates are being investigated for use as anodes and various transition metal oxides and polyanionic compounds as cathodes.
Because lithium ion and sodium ion batteries are not based on fixed chemistries, their performance characteristics vary considerably depending on the electrodes that are employed. The redox behavior of the electrodes determines the potential profiles, rate capabilities, and cycle lives of the devices. Conventional powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques can be used for initial structural characterization of pristine materials and ex situ measurements on cycled electrodes, but practical considerations such as low signal strength and the relatively long times needed to collect data limit the amount of information that can be obtained on the discharge and charge processes. In contrast, the high brilliance and short wavelengths of synchrotron radiation (e.g.&#160;&#955;=0.97 &#197; at the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource&#39;s beamline 11-3), combined with the use of high throughput image detectors, permit acquisition of high-resolution data on samples in as little as 10 sec. In situ work is performed in transmission mode on cell components undergoing charge and discharge in hermetically sealed pouches transparent to X-rays, without having to stop operation to acquire data. As a result, electrode structural changes can be observed as &#34;snapshots in time&#34; as the cell cycles, and much more information can be obtained than with conventional techniques.
X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), also sometimes referred to as X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (XAFS) gives information about the local electronic and geometric structure of materials. In XAS experiments, the photon energy is tuned to the characteristic absorption edges of the specific elements under investigation. Most commonly for battery materials, these energies correspond to the K-edges (1s orbitals) of the transition metals of interest, but soft XAS experiments tuned to O, F, C, B, N and the L2,3 edges of first row transition metals are also sometimes carried out on ex situ samples5. The spectra generated by XAS experiments can be divided into several distinct regions, containing different information (see Newville, M., Fundamentals of XAFS,&#160;<a href="http://xafs.org/Tutorials?action=AttachFile&amp;do=get&amp;target=Newville_xas_fundamentals.pdf" target="_blank">http://xafs.org/Tutorials?action=AttachFile&#38;do=get&#38;target=Newville_xas_fundamentals.pdf</a>). The main feature, consisting of the absorption edge and extending about 30-50 eV beyond is the X-ray Absorption Near Edge Structure (XANES) region and indicates the ionization threshold to continuum states. This contains information about the oxidation state and coordination chemistry of the absorber. The higher energy portion of the spectrum is known as the Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) region and corresponds to the scattering of the ejected photoelectron off neighboring atoms. Fourier analysis of this region gives short-range structural information such as bond lengths and the numbers and types of neighboring ions. Preedge features below the characteristic absorption energies of some compounds also sometimes appear. These arise from dipole forbidden electronic transitions to empty bound states for octahedral geometries, or dipole allowed orbital hybridization effects in tetrahedral ones and can often be correlated to the local symmetry of the absorbing ion (e.g.&#160;whether it is tetrahedrally or octahedrally coordinated)6.
XAS is a particularly useful technique for studying mixed metal systems such as NMCs to determine initial redox states and which transition metal ions undergo redox during delithiation and lithiation processes. Data on several different metals can be obtained rapidly in a single experiment and interpretation is reasonably straightforward. In contrast, Mossbauer spectroscopy is limited to only a few metals used in battery materials (primarily, Fe and Sn). While magnetic measurements can also be used to determine oxidation states, magnetic coupling effects can complicate interpretation particularly for complex oxides such as the NMCs.
Well-planned and -executed in situ and ex situ synchrotron XRD and XAS experiments give complementary information and allow a more complete picture to be formed of the structural changes occurring in electrode materials during normal battery operation than what can be obtained via conventional techniques. This, in turn, gives a greater understanding of what governs the electrochemical behavior of the devices.

<table border="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Equipment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inert atmosphere glovebox</td>
			<td>Vacuum Atmospheres</td>
			<td>Custom order, contact vendors</td>
			<td>Used during cell assembly and to store alkali metals and moisture sensitive components. (<a href="http://vac-atm.com" target="_blank">http://vac-atm.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inert atmosphere glovebox</td>
			<td>Mbraun</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Various sizes (single, double) available, many options such as mini or heated antechambers oxygen/water removal systems, shelving, electrical feedthroughs, etc. (<a href="http://www.mbraunusa.com" target="_blank">http://www.mbraunusa.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>X-ray powder diffractometer (XRD)</td>
			<td>Panalytical</td>
			<td>X&#39;Pert Powder</td>
			<td>X&#39;Pert is a modular system. Many accessories available for specialized experiments. (<a href="http://www.mbraunusa.com" target="_blank">www.panalytical.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>X-ray powder diffractometer (XRD)</td>
			<td>Bruker</td>
			<td>Bruker D2 Phaser</td>
			<td>Bruker D2 Phaser is compact and good for routine powder analyses. (<a href="www.bruker.com" target="_blank">www.bruker.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>JSM7500F</td>
			<td>High resolution field emission scanning electron microscope with numerous customizable options. JEOL (<a href="http://www.jeolusa.com" target="_blank">http://www.jeolusa.com</a>) Low cost tabletop versions also available. Contact vendor for options.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pouch Sealer</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>11214-107</td>
			<td>Used to seal pouches for in situ work. (<a href="https://us.vwr.com/" target="_blank">https://us.vwr.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Manual crimping tool</td>
			<td>Pred Materials</td>
			<td>HSHCC-2016, 2025, 2032, 2320</td>
			<td>Used to seal coin cells. Match size to coin cell hardware. (<a href="http://www.predmaterials.com/" target="_blank">www.predmaterials.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coin cell disassembling tool</td>
			<td>Pred Materials</td>
			<td>Contact vendor</td>
			<td>Used to take apart coin cells to recover electrodes for ex situ work. Needlenose pliers can also be used. Cover ends with Teflon tape to avoid shorting cells. (<a href="http://www.predmaterials.com/" target="_blank">www.predmaterials.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Film casting knives</td>
			<td>BYK Gardner</td>
			<td>4301, 4302, 4303, 4304,4305,2325, 2326,2327,2328, 2329</td>
			<td>Used to cast electrodes films from slurries. Different sizes available, with either metric or English gradations. Bar film or Baker-type applicators and doctor blades are less versatile but lower cost options. Can be used by hand or with automatic film applicators. (<a href="https://www.byk.com/" target="_blank">https://www.byk.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Doctor blades, Baker applicators</td>
			<td>Pred Materials</td>
			<td>Baker type applicator and doctor blade. Film casting knives also available.</td>
			<td>Used to cast electrodes films from slurries. Different sizes available, with either metric or English gradations. Bar film or Baker-type applicators and doctor blades are less versatile but lower cost options. Can be used by hand or with automatic film applicators. (<a href="http://www.predmaterials.com/" target="_blank">www.predmaterials.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Automatic film applicator</td>
			<td>BYK Gardner</td>
			<td>2101, 2105, 2121, 2122</td>
			<td>Optional. Used with bar applicators, doctor blades, or film casting knives for automatic electrode film production. Films can also be made by hand but are less uniform. (<a href="https://www.byk.com/" target="_blank">https://www.byk.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Automatic film applicator</td>
			<td>Pred Materials</td>
			<td>Contact vendor</td>
			<td>Optional. Used with bar applicators, doctor blades, or film casting knives for automatic electrode film production. Films can also be made by hand but are less uniform. (<a href="http://www.predmaterials.com/" target="_blank">www.predmaterials.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potentiostat/Galvanostat</td>
			<td>Bio-Logic Science Instruments</td>
			<td>VSP</td>
			<td>Portable 5 channel computer-controlled potentiostat/galvanostat used to cycle cells for in situ experiments. (<a href="http://www.bio-logic.info/" target="_blank">http://www.bio-logic.info</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potentiostat/Galvanostat</td>
			<td>Gamry Instruments</td>
			<td>Reference 3000</td>
			<td>Portable single channel computer-controlled potentiostat/galvanostat used to cycle cells for in situ experiments. (<a href="www.gamry.com" target="_blank">www.gamry.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>The Area Diffraction Machine</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Free download</td>
			<td>Used for analysis of 2D diffraction data. Mac and Windows versions available. <a href="http://code.google.com/p/areadiffractionmachine/" target="_blank">http://code.google.com/p/areadiffractionmachine/</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IFEFFIT</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Free download</td>
			<td>Suite of interactive programs for XAS analysis, including Hephaestus, Athena, and Artemis. Available for Mac, Windows, and UNIX. <a href="http://cars9.uchicago.edu/ifeffit/" target="_blank">http://cars9.uchicago.edu/ifeffit/</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SIXPACK</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Free download</td>
			<td>XAS analysis program that builds on IFEFFIT. Windows and Mac versions. <a href="http://home.comcast.net/~sam_webb/sixpack.html" target="_blank">http://home.comcast.net/~sam_webb/sixpack.html</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CelRef</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Free download</td>
			<td>Graphical unit cell refinement. Windows only. <a href="http://www.ccp14.ac.uk/tutorial/lmgp/celref.htm" target="_blank">http://www.ccp14.ac.uk/tutorial/lmgp/celref.htm and http://www.ccp14.ac.uk/ccp/web-mirrors/lmgp-laugier-bochu/</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Reagent/Material</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrode active materials</td>
			<td>various</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Synthesized in-house or obtained from various suppliers.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Synthetic flake graphite</td>
			<td>Timcal</td>
			<td>SFG-6</td>
			<td>Conductive additive for electrodes. (<a href="http:/www.timcal.com" target="_blank">www.timcal.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetylene black</td>
			<td>Denka</td>
			<td>Denka Black</td>
			<td>Conductive additive for electrodes. (<a href="http://www.denka.co.jp/eng/index.html" target="_blank">http://www.denka.co.jp/eng/index.html</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>328634</td>
			<td>Used to make electrode slurries. (<a href="http://www.sigmaaldrich.com" target="_blank">www.sigmaaldrich.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Al current collectors</td>
			<td>Exopack</td>
			<td>z-flo 2650</td>
			<td>Carbon-coated foils. Coated on one side. (<a href="http://www.exopackadvancedcoatings.com" target="_blank">http://www.exopackadvancedcoatings.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Al current collectors</td>
			<td>Alfa-Aesar</td>
			<td>10558</td>
			<td>0.025 mm (0.001 in) thick, 30 cm x 30 cm (12 in x 12 in), 99.45% (metals basis), uncoated (<a href="http://www.alfa.com" target="_blank">http://www.alfa.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cu current collectors</td>
			<td>Pred Materials</td>
			<td>Electrodeposited Cu foil</td>
			<td>For use with anode materials for Li-ion batteries. (<a href="http://www.predmaterials.com" target="_blank">www.predmaterials.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lithium foil</td>
			<td>Rockwood Lithium</td>
			<td>Contact vendor</td>
			<td>Anode for half cells. Available in different thicknesses and widths. Reactive and air sensitive. Store and handle in an inert atmosphere glovebox under He or Ar (reacts with N2). (<a href="http://www.rockwoodlithium.com" target="_blank">www.rockwoodlithium.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lithium foil</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>320080</td>
			<td>Anode for half cells. Available in different thicknesses and widths. Reactive and air sensitive. Store and handle in an inert atmosphere glovebox under He or Ar (reacts with N2). (<a href="http://www.sigmaaldrich.com" target="_blank">www.sigmaaldrich.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium ingot</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>282065</td>
			<td>Anodes for half cells. Can be extruded into foils. Reactive and air sensitive. Store and handle in an inert atmosphere glovebox under He only. (<a href="http://www.sigmaaldrich.com" target="_blank">www.sigmaaldrich.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrolyte solutions</td>
			<td>BASF</td>
			<td>Selectilyte P-Series contact vendor</td>
			<td>Contact vendor for desired formulations. (<a href="http://www.catalysts.basf.com/p02/USWeb-Internet/catalysts/en/content/microsites/catalysts/prods-inds/batt-mats/electrolytes" target="_blank">http://www.catalysts.basf.com/p02/USWeb-Internet/catalysts/en/content/microsites/catalysts/prods-inds/batt-mats/electrolytes</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl carbonate (DMC)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>517127</td>
			<td>Used to wash electrodes for ex situ experiments. (<a href="http://www.sigmaaldrich.com" target="_blank">www.sigmaaldrich.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microporous separators</td>
			<td>Celgard</td>
			<td>2400</td>
			<td>Polypropylene membranes (<a href="http://www.celgard.com/" target="_blank">http://www.celgard.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coin cell hardware (case, cap, gasket)</td>
			<td>Pred Materials</td>
			<td>CR2016, CR2025, CR2320, CR2032</td>
			<td>Match size to available crimping tool, Al-clad components also available. (<a href="http://www.predmaterials.com" target="_blank">www.predmaterials.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wave washers</td>
			<td>Pred Materials</td>
			<td>SUS316L</td>
			<td>(<a href="http://www.predmaterials.com/" target="_blank">www.predmaterials.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spacers</td>
			<td>Pred Materials</td>
			<td>SUS316L</td>
			<td>(<a href="http://www.predmaterials.com/" target="_blank">www.predmaterials.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ni and Al pretaped tabs</td>
			<td>Pred Materials</td>
			<td>Contact vendor</td>
			<td>Sizes subject to change. Inquire about custom orders. (<a href="http://www.predmaterials.com/" target="_blank">www.predmaterials.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyester pouches</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>11214-301</td>
			<td>Used to seal electrochemical cells for in situ work. Avoid heavy duty pouches because of strong signal interference. (<a href="https://us.vwr.com" target="_blank">https://us.vwr.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kapton film</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>7648A735</td>
			<td>Used to cover electrodes for ex situ experiments, 0.0025 in thick (<a href="http://www.mcmaster.com/" target="_blank">www.mcmaster.com</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Helium, Argon and 4-10% hydrogen in helium or argon</td>
			<td>Air Products</td>
			<td>contact vendor for desired compositions and purity levels</td>
			<td>Helium or argon used to fill glovebox where cell assembly is carried out and alkali metal is stored. (<a href="http://www.airproducts.com/products/gases.aspx" target="_blank">http://www.airproducts.com/products/gases.aspx</a>)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Do not use nitrogen because it reacts with lithium. Use only helium if sodium is being stored. 
			Purity level needed depends on whether the glovebox is equipped with a water and oxygen removal system. Hydrogen mixtures needed to regenerate water/oxygen removal system, if present&#160;or any other suitable gas supplier</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

characterization of electrode materials for lithium ion and sodium ion batteries using synchrotron radiation techniques

Intercalation compounds such as transition metal oxides or phosphates are the most commonly used electrode materials in Li-ion and Na-ion batteries. During insertion or removal of alkali metal ions, the redox states of transition metals in the compounds change and structural transformations such as phase transitions and/or lattice parameter increases or decreases occur. These behaviors in turn determine important characteristics of the batteries such as the potential profiles, rate capabilities, and cycle lives. The extremely bright and tunable x-rays produced by synchrotron radiation allow rapid acquisition of high-resolution data that provide information about these processes. Transformations in the bulk materials, such as phase transitions, can be directly observed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), while X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) gives information about the local electronic and geometric structures (e.g.&#160;changes in redox states and bond lengths). In situ experiments carried out on operating cells are particularly useful because they allow direct correlation between the electrochemical and structural properties of the materials. These experiments are time-consuming and can be challenging to design due to the reactivity and air-sensitivity of the alkali metal anodes used in the half-cell configurations, and/or the possibility of signal interference from other cell components and hardware. For these reasons, it is appropriate to carry out ex situ experiments (e.g.&#160;on electrodes harvested from partially charged or cycled cells) in some cases. Here, we present detailed protocols for the preparation of both ex situ and in situ samples for experiments involving synchrotron radiation and demonstrate how these experiments are done.

Figure 2 shows a typical sequence used for an in situ experiment. After synthesis and characterization of active material powders, composite electrodes are prepared from slurries containing the active material, a binder such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and conductive additives such as carbon black or graphite suspended in N-methylpyrrolidinone (NMP), cast onto either aluminum or copper foil current collectors. Aluminum is used for lithium ion battery cathodes and all sodium ion battery ele...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Characterization of Electrode Materials for Lithium Ion and Sodium Ion Batteries Using Synchrotron Radiation Techniques at JoVE.com

Characterization of Electrode Materials for Lithium Ion and Sodium Ion Batteries Using Synchrotron Radiation Techniques

We describe the use of synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques to probe details of intercalation/deintercalation processes in electrode materials for Li-ion and Na-ion batteries. Both in situ and ex situ experiments are used to understand structural behavior relevant to the operation of devices

Intercalation compounds such as transition metal oxides or phosphates are the most commonly used electrode materials in Li-ion and Na-ion batteries. ...

characterization-electrode-materials-for-lithium-ion-sodium-ion

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

25.3K Views.  Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. We describe the use of synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques to probe details of intercalation/deintercalation processes in electrode materials for Li-ion and Na-ion batteries. Both in situ and ex situ experiments are used to understand structural behavior relevant to the operation of devices