We thank AINSE Ltd for providing support through the research fellowship and postgraduate award scheme.

1. Cell Components Required Prior to Construction
NOTE: A vanadium can is conventionally used for NPD experiments and it is a wholly-vanadium tube that is sealed at one end and open at the other. There is virtually no signal in NPD data from vanadium.
<ol>
	<li>Cut a piece of lithium metal-foil to dimensions matching the volume of the vanadium can. For example, cut a piece approximately 120 x 35 mm for a 9&#160;mm diameter vanadium can. In addition, use thinner lithium foil to minimize neutron absorption, noting that thicknesses below 125 &#181;m may be difficult to handle without tearing.</li>
	<li>Pre-select the type of separator to be used. Cut a sheet of separator such that the dimensions are slightly larger than the electrodes, e.g. 140 x 40 mm. 
	NOTE: While porous polyvinyl-difluoride (PVDF) membrane readily soaks up electrolyte, it is expensive and can be easily damaged and torn if not handled carefully during construction. Alternatively, commercially available polyethylene-based sheets are more robust, however they do not soak up electrolyte as readily and generally reduce the signal-to-noise due to the larger hydrogen content.</li>
	<li>Make the positive electrode by following the guidelines set out by Marks et al.31 Namely, combine PVDF, carbon black, and the active material at a selected ratio. Typically, use a ratio of 10:10:80 of PVDF:carbon:active material, but adjust this depending on the material under investigation. Grind the mixture and add n-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) dropwise until a slurry forms, then stir overnight.</li>
	<li>Spread the mixture onto aluminum foil (20 &#181;m thickness) using the doctor blade technique.
	<ol>
		<li>Adhere the current collector sheet of dimensions 200 x 70 mm to a smooth surface (e.g. glass) by applying a few drops of ethanol on to the surface and placing the current collector on the surface. Alternatively, use an instrument which can pull a slight vacuum on the current collector from the smooth surface. Smooth out the current collector to ensure that there are no crinkles or creases prior to applying the slurry.</li>
		<li>Place a tooth or wide semi-circle shaped puddle of the slurry on one end of the current collector. Using a notch bar, roller or specially designed coater (a notch bar with a pre-defined height above the current collector, e.g. 100 or 200 &#181;m is typically used) spread the slurry over the current collector by sliding the chosen device across the current collector and slurry, resulting in the spreading of the slurry onto the current collector surface.</li>
		<li>Gently remove the current collector from the smooth surface and place the current collector and spread slurry into a vacuum oven for drying. 
		NOTE: The spreading technique is described in greater detail in Marks et al.31</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Cut the positive electrode prepared in step 1.3 such that the dimensions match the lithium foil. Ensure that there is a &#8220;tab&#8221; of uncoated metal current collector approximately 0.5 cm in length at one end. To improve battery performance, press the dried positive electrode film into the current collector using a flat plate press. 
	NOTE: Figure 1 shows the relative sizes of the separator and positive electrode components. Minimum active material quantity in the electrode is 300 mg, however, the larger the quantity (relative to other battery components), the better the NPD signal. A larger signal may allow more detailed information to be extracted from the NPD data and better temporal resolution.</li>
	<li>Pre-prepare 1 M lithium hexafluorophosphate in a 1/1 vol% mixture of deuterated ethylene carbonate and deuterated dimethyl carbonate. Ensure that all the LiPF6 is dissolved and the electrolyte is thoroughly mixed prior to use.</li>
	<li>Cut a piece of current collector of the same dimensions as the positive electrode in step 1.5 and weigh the current collector and positive electrode. Subtract these masses to obtain the mass of the electrode mixture. Multiply the mass of the electrode mixture by 0.8 to give the mass of the active material.</li>
</ol>
2. Cell Construction
<ol>
	<li>Prior to assembling the cell inside an argon filled glovebox, lay down either a plastic tray or some other non-metallic covering on the base of the gloxebox.</li>
	<li>Stack the individual components in the following order: A long strip of separator, positive electrode with the slurry facing up and aluminum rod (or copper wire) wound in the &#8220;tab&#8221; at one end, the second strip of separator, and finally the lithium metal with copper wire wound on the end of the lithium metal (the same end as the aluminum rod).</li>
	<li>Start rolling the layers from the end with the aluminum rod and copper wire, ensuring that the two electrodes do not come into contact.</li>
	<li>If a polyethylene-based sheet was selected as the separator, occasionally add several drops of electrolyte to the separator between the lithium metal and positive electrode along the entire length of the stack. Alternatively, add the drops gradually during the rolling process. If PVDF membrane was used as the separator this step is not necessary.</li>
	<li>Take care to ensure that the electrode is rolled tightly and that the layers remain aligned. 
	NOTE: If the layers become misaligned the rolling process may need to be restarted, however, caution must be taken as the electrolyte solution is highly volatile and more may need to be added.</li>
	<li>Ensure that the longer piece of separator completely wraps around the stack or roll such that the electrodes are not exposed (i.e. the electrodes don&#8217;t touch the vanadium housing).</li>
	<li>Insert the rolled stack into the vanadium can such that the copper wire and aluminum rod protrude 2-3 cm beyond the top of the vanadium can. Add the remaining electrolyte dropwise into the top of the vanadium can, use 1.5 ml in total.</li>
	<li>Add a rubber stopper with notches cut in the sides for the aluminum rod and copper wire into the top of the vanadium can. Seal the can by melting dental wax over the top of the can and around the end of the plastic sheath of the copper wire. Check that the final cell appears as shown in Figure 2.</li>
	<li>Allow the cell to &#8220;age&#8221; or &#8220;wet&#8221; horizontally for 12-24 hr. Prior to use, test the open-circuit potential by connecting the aluminum rod and the copper wire to the terminals of a multi-meter and measuring the potential of the constructed cell. Also ensure that there are no leaks by visual inspection.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

When designing and performing an in situ experiment, either with the &#8220;roll-over&#8221; neutron diffraction cell or another design, there are a number of aspects that must be carefully controlled to ensure a successful experiment. These include careful choice of the type and quantity of cell components, ensuring that the prepared electrode and final constructed cell are of high quality, choosing appropriate diffraction conditions, planning the electrochemical cycling steps to be performed in advance, and fi...

Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries provide portable energy for modern electronics and are important in high-energy applications such as electric vehicles and as energy storage devices for large-scale renewable energy generation.3-7 A number of challenges remain to achieve widespread use of rechargeable batteries in vehicular and large-scale storage, including energy densities and safety. The use of in situ methods to probe atomic and molecular-scale battery function during operation are becoming increasingly common as the information gained in such experiments can direct methods to improve existing battery materials, e.g. by identifying possible failure mechanisms,8-10 and by revealing crystal structures that could be considered for the next generation of materials.11
A primary goal of in situ NPD is to probe the crystal structure evolution of the components inside a battery as a function of charge/discharge. In order to measure the crystal structure evolution the components must be crystalline, which focuses such studies on crystallographically-ordered electrodes. It is at the electrodes that the charge carrier (lithium) is inserted/extracted and such changes are followed by NPD. In situ NPD offers the possibility to &#8220;track&#8221; not only the reaction mechanism and lattice parameter evolution of the electrodes, but also the insertion/extraction of lithium from the electrodes. Essentially the charge carrier in lithium-ion batteries can be followed. This gives a lithium-centered view of the battery function and has been recently demonstrated in only a few studies.11-13
NPD is an ideal technique to examine lithium-containing materials and lithium-ion batteries. This is because NPD relies on the interaction between a neutron beam and the sample. Unlike X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), where the interaction of the X-ray radiation is predominantly with the electrons of the sample and thus varies linearly with atomic number, in NPD the interaction is mediated by neutron-nuclei interactions that result in a more complex and apparently random variation with atomic number. Thus, in situ NPD is particularly promising for the study of lithium-ion battery materials due to factors such as the sensitivity of NPD towards lithium atoms in the presence of heavier elements, the non-destructive interaction of neutrons with the battery, and the high penetration depth of neutrons enabling the examination of the bulk crystal-structure of the battery components within whole batteries of the size used in commercial devices. Therefore, in situ NPD is particularly useful for the study of lithium-ion batteries as a result of these advantages. Despite this, the uptake of in situ NPD experiments by the battery-research community has been limited, accounting for only 25 publications since the first report of using in situ NPD for battery research in 1998.14 The limited uptake is due to some major experimental hurdles, such as the need to account for the large incoherent neutron-scattering cross section of hydrogen in the electrolyte solutions and separator in the battery, which is detrimental to the NPD signal. This is often overcome by substituting with deuterated (2H) electrolyte solutions and replacing the separator with alternate hydrogen-free or poor materials.15 Another hurdle is the need to have sufficient sample in the neutron beam, a requirement that often necessitates the use of thicker electrodes which in turn limits the maximum charging/discharging rate that can be applied to the battery. A more practical concern is the relatively small number of world-wide neutron diffractometers relative to X-ray diffractometers, and their capabilities &#8212; e.g. time and angular resolution. As new neutron diffractometers have come online and the abovementioned hurdles overcome, in situ NPD experiments have grown in number.
There are two options to conduct in situ NPD experiments, using either commercial or custom-built cells. Commercial cells have been demonstrated to reveal structural information, including the evolution of lithium content and distribution in electrodes.8-11,16-20 However, using commercial cells limits the number of electrodes that can be studied to those already commercially available, and where manufacturers or select research facilities are engaged to produce commercial-type cells with as yet un-commercialized materials. The production of the commercial-type cells is dependent on the availability of sufficient quantities of electrode material for cell manufacture, typically of the order of kilograms and significantly higher than that used in battery research, which can be a barrier to cell production. Commercial cells typically feature two electrodes that evolve during charge/discharge and the evolution of both electrodes will be captured in the resulting diffraction patterns. This is because the neutron beam is highly penetrating and can penetrate the single lithium-ion cells (e.g., the entire volume of 18,650 cells). The evolution of the two electrodes can make the data analysis complicated, but if sufficient Bragg reflections of both electrodes are observed these can be modeled using whole powder-pattern methods. Nonetheless, custom-made half cells can be constructed in which one electrode is lithium and should not structurally change during charge/discharge and therefore act as an (or another) internal standard. This leaves only one electrode that should exhibit structural change, simplifying data analysis. Care must also be taken to ensure that all electrode reflections of interest are not overlapping with reflections from other components undergoing structural change in the cell. The advantage of a custom-made cell is that components can be swapped to alter reflection positions in diffraction patterns. Furthermore, custom-made cells allow researchers the option to, in principle, improve signal-to-noise ratios and to investigate materials that are made in smaller-scale research batches and thereby permitting the in situ NPD study of a larger variety of materials.
To date there have been six electrochemical cell designs for in situ NPD studies reported, including three cylindrical designs,14,15,21,22 two coin-type cell designs23-26 and a pouch cell design.12,27 The first cylindrical cell design was limited in use to very low charging/discharging rates due to the large quantities of electrode materials used.14,21 The roll-over design,15 detailed below, and modified version of the original cylindrical cell,22 have overcome many of the problems associated with the first cylindrical design, and can be used for reliably correlating the structure of electrode materials with their electrochemistry. Coin-cell designs for in situ NPD also allow similar quantities of electrode materials to be probed relative to the roll-over cell, while featuring subtle differences in terms of construction, applicable charging rates, and cost.15 In particular, the coin-cell type was recently reported to have been constructed using a Ti-Zn alloy as the casing material (null-matrix) which produces no signal in the NPD patterns.26 This is similar to the use of vanadium cans in the roll-over design described below. A key factor that can influence applicable charge/discharge rates (and polarization) is electrode thickness, where typically thicker electrodes require the application of lower current. The cell designs that are now becoming more popular are the pouch cells with sheets of multiple individual cells connected in parallel, or sheets that are rolled in a similar manner to the construction of lithium-ion batteries found in mobile electronics.12,27 This cell is rectangular (a pouch) that can function at higher charge/discharge rates than the roll-over or coin-type cells. In this work, we focus on the &#8216;roll-over&#8217; cell design, illustrating the cell construction, use, and some results using the cell.
The electrode preparation for the roll-over design batteries is practically similar to the electrode preparation for use in conventional coin-cell batteries. The electrode can be cast onto the current collector by doctor blading, with the biggest difference being that the electrode needs to span dimensions larger than 35 x 120-150 mm. This can be hard to uniformly coat with every electrode material. Layers of the electrode on current collector, separator, and lithium metal-foil on current collector are arranged, rolled, and inserted into vanadium cans. The electrolyte used is LiPF6, one of the most commonly used salts in lithium-ion batteries with deuterated ethylene carbonate and deuterated dimethyl carbonate. This cell has been used successfully in four reported studies and will be described in greater detail below.15,28-30

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1426">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:801px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Slurry Preparation</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PVDF</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI Corporation</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">EQ-Lib-PVDF</td>
			<td>http://www.mtixtl.com/PVDFbinderforLi-ionbatteryelectrodes80g/bag-EQ-Lib-PVDF.aspx</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Active Electrode Material</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Researcher makes*</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>This is dependent on the electrode under investigation, typically made in-house by the researcher and varies every time</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Carbon black</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI Corporation</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">EQ-Lib-SuperC65</td>
			<td>http://www.mtixtl.com/TimicalSUPERC65forLithium-IonBatteries80g/bag-EQ-Lib-SuperC65.aspx</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">NMP</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI Corporation</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">EQ-Lib-NMP</td>
			<td>http://www.mtixtl.com/N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidoneNMPsolventforPVDF 
			250g/bottleLib-NMP.aspx</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Magnetic stirrer</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">IKA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C-MAG HS 7 IKAMAG</td>
			<td>http://www.ika.in/owa/ika/catalog.product_detail?iProduct=3581200</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;"></td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Electrode Fabrication</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;">Doctor blade (notch bar)</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">DPM Solutions Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">100, 200, 300 &#38; 400 micron&#160; 4-Sided Notch Bar</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Al or Cu current collectors</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI Corporation</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">EQ-bcaf-15u-280</td>
			<td>http://www.mtixtl.com/AluminumFoilforBatteryCathodeSub 
			strate-EQ-bcaf-15u-280.aspx</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Vacuum Oven</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Binder</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">e.g. VD 53</td>
			<td>http://www.binder-world.com/en/vacuum-drying-oven/vd-series/vd-53/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Flat-plate press</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI Corporation</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">EQ-HP-88V-LD</td>
			<td>http://www.mtixtl.com/25THydraulicFlat 
			HotPress-EQ-HP-88V.aspx</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;"></td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Roll-over cell construction</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">V can</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">electrode on Al/Cu</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI Corporation</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">EQ-bcaf-15u-280</td>
			<td>http://www.mtixtl.com/AluminumFoilforBatteryCathodeSub 
			strate-EQ-bcaf-15u-280.aspx</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">polyethylene-based or PVDF membrane</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI Corporation</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">EQ-bsf-0025-400C</td>
			<td>http://www.mtixtl.com/separatorfilm-EQ-bsf-0025-400C.aspx</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">LiPF6</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">450227</td>
			<td>http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/aldrich/450227?lang=en&#38;region=AU</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">deuterated dimethyl carbonate</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Cambridge Isotopes</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">DLM-3903-PK&#160;</td>
			<td>http://shop.isotope.com/productdetails.aspx?id=10032379&#38;itemno=DLM-3903-PK</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">deuterated ethylene carboante</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">CDN Isotopes</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">D-5489</td>
			<td>https://www.cdnisotopes.com/as/products/specifications/D-5489.php?ei=YWVraWmjoJ1i0lZ7nkr0RpwHr 
			Hxc9ornu14O4WUtZKbZWZrcq6j55 
			G0lOab3Wi0dMZ7xc+0Yse1leWVtZ 
			LnrGKvta7v591o4JrnkbRowHt/r</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Li metal foil</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI Corporation</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Lib-LiF-30M</td>
			<td>http://www.mtixtl.com/Li-Foil-30000mmL-35mmW-0.17mm 
			Th.aspx</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Rubber stopper cut to size</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">generic eraser</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>cut a generic eraser to size</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">dental wax</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Ainsworth Dental</td>
			<td>AIW042</td>
			<td>http://www.ainsworthdental.com.au/catalogue/Ainsworth-Modelling-Wax-500g.html</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Copper wire (insulated)</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">generic</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>sheathed Cu wire that can be cut to size</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Aluminium rod (&#60;2mm diameter)</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">generic</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>cut to size as required</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Glovebox</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Mbraun</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">UNILab</td>
			<td>http://www.mbraun.com/products/glovebox-workstations/unilab-glovebox/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Scissors&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">generic</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Soldering iron</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">generic</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;"></td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">In situ NPD</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Appropriate neutron diffractometer</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">ANSTO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Wombat</td>
			<td>http://www.ansto.gov.au/ResearchHub/Bragg/Facilities/Instruments/Wombat/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Potentiostat/galvanostat</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Autolab</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PGSTAT302N</td>
			<td>http://www.ecochemie.nl/Products/Echem/NSeriesFolder/PGSTAT302N</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Connections to battery from potentiostat/galvanostat</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">generic</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Training of NPD instrument and use</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;"></td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Data analysis</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Data visualisation and peak fitting, .e.g. LAMP suite</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">ILL</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">LAMP</td>
			<td>http://www.ill.eu/instruments-support/computing-for-science/cs-software/all-software/lamp/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Rietveld analysis software, e.g. GSAS</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">APS</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">GSAS</td>
			<td>https://subversion.xray.aps.anl.gov/trac/EXPGUI</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

in situ neutron powder diffraction using custom-made lithium-ion batteries

Li-ion batteries are widely used in portable electronic devices and are considered as promising candidates for higher-energy applications such as electric vehicles.1,2 However, many challenges, such as energy density and battery lifetimes, need to be overcome before this particular battery technology can be widely implemented in such applications.3 This research is challenging, and we outline a method to address these challenges using in situ NPD to probe the crystal structure of electrodes undergoing electrochemical cycling (charge/discharge) in a battery. NPD data help determine the underlying structural mechanism responsible for a range of electrode properties, and this information can direct the development of better electrodes and batteries.
We briefly review six types of battery designs custom-made for NPD experiments and detail the method to construct the &#8216;roll-over&#8217; cell that we have successfully used on the high-intensity NPD instrument, WOMBAT, at the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO). The design considerations and materials used for cell construction are discussed in conjunction with aspects of the actual in situ NPD experiment and initial directions are presented on how to analyze such complex in situ data.

We have demonstrated the versatility in using this roll-over cell in the literature15,28-30 and here we present an example with the Li0.18Sr0.66Ti0.5Nb0.5O3 electrode.32
Prior to attempting a sequential Rietveld refinement (Rietveld refinements as a function of state-of-charge), a single refinement of a multiphase model to the first data set was performed, with this data collected for the pristine cell prior to curren...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Situ Neutron Powder Diffraction Using Custom-made Lithium-ion Batteries at JoVE.com

In Situ Neutron Powder Diffraction Using Custom-made Lithium-ion Batteries

We describe the design and construction of an electrochemical cell for the examination of electrode materials using in situ neutron powder diffraction (NPD). We briefly comment on alternate in situ NPD cell designs and discuss methods for the analysis of the corresponding in situ NPD data produced using this cell.

In Situ Neutron Powder Diffraction Using Custom-made Lithium-ion Batteries

Li-ion batteries are widely used in portable electronic devices and are considered as promising candidates for higher-energy applications such as electric ...

in-situ-neutron-powder-diffraction-using-custom-made-lithium-ion

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

15.6K Views.  University of Sydney. We describe the design and construction of an electrochemical cell for the examination of electrode materials using in situ neutron powder diffraction (NPD). We briefly comment on alternate in situ NPD cell designs and discuss methods for the analysis of the corresponding in situ NPD data produced using this cell.

Video: In Situ Neutron Powder Diffraction Using Custom-made Lithium-ion Batteries

Construction and Testing of Coin Cells of Lithium Ion Batteries

Rechargeable lithium ion batteries have wide applications in electronics, where customers always demand more capacity and longer lifetime. Lithium ion batteries have also been considered to be used in electric and hybrid vehicles1 or even electrical grid stabilization systems2. All these applications simulate a dramatic increase in the research and development of battery materials3-7, including new materials3,8, doping9, nanostructuring10-13, coatings or surface modifications14-17 and novel binders18. Consequently, an increasing number of physicists, chemists and materials scientists have recently ventured into this area. Coin cells are widely used in research laboratories to test new battery materials; even for the research and development that target large-scale and high-power applications, small coin cells are often used to test the capacities and rate capabilities of new materials in the initial stage. 
 In 2010, we started a National Science Foundation (NSF) sponsored research project to investigate the surface adsorption and disordering in battery materials (grant no. DMR-1006515). In the initial stage of this project, we have struggled to learn the techniques of assembling and testing coin cells, which cannot be achieved without numerous help of other researchers in other universities (through frequent calls, email exchanges and two site visits). Thus, we feel that it is beneficial to document, by both text and video, a protocol of assembling and testing a coin cell, which will help other new researchers in this field. This effort represents the "Broader Impact" activities of our NSF project, and it will also help to educate and inspire students.
In this video article, we document a protocol to assemble a CR2032 coin cell with a LiCoO2 working electrode, a Li counter electrode, and (the mostly commonly used) polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder. To ensure new learners to readily repeat the protocol, we keep the protocol as specific and explicit as we can. However, it is important to note that in specific research and development work, many parameters adopted here can be varied. First, one can make coin cells of different sizes and test the working electrode against a counter electrode other than Li. Second, the amounts of C black and binder added into the working electrodes are often varied to suit the particular purpose of research; for example, large amounts of C black or even inert powder were added to the working electrode to test the "intrinsic" performance of cathode materials14. Third, better binders (other than PVDF) have also developed and used18. Finally, other types of electrolytes (instead of LiPF6) can also be used; in fact, certain high-voltage electrode materials will require the uses of special electrolytes7.

A protocol to construct and test coin cells of lithium ion batteries is described. The specific procedures of making a working electrode, preparing a counter electrode, assembling a cell inside a glovebox and testing the cell are presented.

Rechargeable lithium ion batteries have wide applications in electronics, where customers always demand more capacity and longer lifetime.  Lithium ion ...

Characterization of Electrode Materials for Lithium Ion and Sodium Ion Batteries Using Synchrotron Radiation Techniques

Intercalation compounds such as transition metal oxides or phosphates are the most commonly used electrode materials in Li-ion and Na-ion batteries. During insertion or removal of alkali metal ions, the redox states of transition metals in the compounds change and structural transformations such as phase transitions and/or lattice parameter increases or decreases occur. These behaviors in turn determine important characteristics of the batteries such as the potential profiles, rate capabilities, and cycle lives. The extremely bright and tunable x-rays produced by synchrotron radiation allow rapid acquisition of high-resolution data that provide information about these processes. Transformations in the bulk materials, such as phase transitions, can be directly observed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), while X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) gives information about the local electronic and geometric structures (e.g.&#160;changes in redox states and bond lengths). In situ experiments carried out on operating cells are particularly useful because they allow direct correlation between the electrochemical and structural properties of the materials. These experiments are time-consuming and can be challenging to design due to the reactivity and air-sensitivity of the alkali metal anodes used in the half-cell configurations, and/or the possibility of signal interference from other cell components and hardware. For these reasons, it is appropriate to carry out ex situ experiments (e.g.&#160;on electrodes harvested from partially charged or cycled cells) in some cases. Here, we present detailed protocols for the preparation of both ex situ and in situ samples for experiments involving synchrotron radiation and demonstrate how these experiments are done.

We describe the use of synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques to probe details of intercalation/deintercalation processes in electrode materials for Li-ion and Na-ion batteries. Both in situ and ex situ experiments are used to understand structural behavior relevant to the operation of devices

Intercalation compounds such as transition metal oxides or phosphates are the most commonly used electrode materials in Li-ion and Na-ion batteries. ...

Measuring Material Microstructure Under Flow Using 1-2 Plane Flow-Small Angle Neutron Scattering

A new small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) sample environment optimized for studying the microstructure of complex fluids under simple shear flow is presented. The SANS shear cell consists of a concentric cylinder Couette geometry that is sealed and rotating about a horizontal axis so that the vorticity direction of the flow field is aligned with the neutron beam enabling scattering from the 1-2 plane of shear (velocity-velocity gradient, respectively). This approach is an advance over previous shear cell sample environments as there is a strong coupling between the bulk rheology and microstructural features in the 1-2 plane of shear. Flow-instabilities, such as shear banding, can also be studied by spatially resolved measurements. This is accomplished in this sample environment by using a narrow aperture for the neutron beam and scanning along the velocity gradient direction. Time resolved experiments, such as flow start-ups and large amplitude oscillatory shear flow are also possible by synchronization of the shear motion and time-resolved detection of scattered neutrons. Representative results using the methods outlined here demonstrate the useful nature of spatial resolution for measuring the microstructure of a wormlike micelle solution that exhibits shear banding, a phenomenon that can only be investigated by resolving the structure along the velocity gradient direction. Finally, potential improvements to the current design are discussed along with suggestions for supplementary experiments as motivation for future experiments on a broad range of complex fluids in a variety of shear motions.

A shear cell is developed for small-angle neutron scattering measurements in the velocity-velocity gradient plane of shear and is used to characterize complex fluids. Spatially resolved measurements in the velocity gradient direction are possible for studying shear-banding materials. Applications include investigations of colloidal dispersions, polymer solutions, and self-assembled structures.

A new small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) sample environment optimized for studying the microstructure of complex fluids under simple shear flow is ...

Using Neutron Spin Echo Resolved Grazing Incidence Scattering to Investigate Organic Solar Cell Materials

The spin echo resolved grazing incidence scattering (SERGIS) technique has been used to probe the length-scales associated with irregularly shaped crystallites. Neutrons are passed through two well defined regions of magnetic field; one before and one after the sample. The two magnetic field regions have opposite polarity and are tuned such that neutrons travelling through both regions, without being perturbed, will undergo the same number of precessions in opposing directions. In this case the neutron precession in the second arm is said to &#34;echo&#34; the first, and the original polarization of the beam is preserved. If the neutron interacts with a sample and scatters elastically the path through the second arm is not the same as the first and the original polarization is not recovered. Depolarization of the neutron beam is a highly sensitive probe at very small angles (&#60;50&#160;&#956;rad) but still allows a high intensity, divergent beam to be used. The decrease in polarization of the beam reflected from the sample as compared to that from the reference sample can be directly related to structure within the sample.
In comparison to scattering observed in neutron reflection measurements the SERGIS signals are often weak and are unlikely to be observed if the in-plane structures within the sample under investigation are dilute, disordered, small in size and polydisperse or the neutron scattering contrast is low. Therefore, good results will most likely be obtained using the SERGIS technique if the sample being measured consist of thin films on a flat substrate and contain scattering features that contains a high density of moderately sized features (30 nm to 5 &#181;m) which scatter neutrons strongly or the features are arranged on a lattice. An advantage of the SERGIS technique is that it can probe structures in the plane of the sample.

Progress has been made in utilizing spin echo resolved grazing incidence scattering (SERGIS) as a neutron scattering technique to probe the length-scales in irregular samples. Crystallites of [6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester have been probed using the SERGIS technique and the results confirmed by optical and atomic force microscopy.

The spin echo resolved grazing incidence scattering (SERGIS) technique has been used to probe the length-scales associated with irregularly shaped ...

Failure Analysis of Batteries Using Synchrotron-based Hard X-ray Microtomography

Imaging morphological changes that occur during the lifetime of rechargeable batteries is necessary to understand how these devices fail. Since the advent of lithium-ion batteries, researchers have known that the lithium metal anode has the highest theoretical energy density of any anode material. However, rechargeable batteries containing a lithium metal anode are not widely used in consumer products because the growth of lithium dendrites from the anode upon charging of the battery causes premature cell failure by short circuit. Lithium dendrites can also form in commercial lithium-ion batteries with graphite anodes if they are improperly charged. We demonstrate that lithium dendrite growth can be studied using synchrotron-based hard X-ray microtomography. This non-destructive imaging technique allows researchers to study the growth of lithium dendrites, in addition to other morphological changes inside batteries, and subsequently develop methods to extend battery life.

Synchrotron-based hard X-ray microtomography is used to image the electrochemical growth of dendrites from a lithium metal electrode through a solid polymer electrolyte membrane.

Imaging morphological changes that occur during the lifetime of rechargeable batteries is necessary to understand how these devices fail. Since the advent ...

Non-aqueous Electrode Processing and Construction of Lithium-ion Coin Cells

Research into new and improved materials to be utilized in lithium-ion batteries (LIB) necessitates an experimental counterpart to any computational analysis. Testing of lithium-ion batteries in an academic setting has taken on several forms, but at the most basic level lies the coin cell construction. In traditional LIB electrode preparation, a multi-phase slurry composed of active material, binder, and conductive additive is cast out onto a substrate. An electrode disc can then be punched from the dried sheet and used in the construction of a coin cell for electrochemical evaluation. Utilization of the potential of the active material in a battery is critically dependent on the microstructure of the electrode, as an appropriate distribution of the primary components are crucial to ensuring optimal electrical conductivity, porosity, and tortuosity, such that electrochemical and transport interaction is optimized. Processing steps ranging from the combination of dry powder, wet mixing, and drying can all critically affect multi-phase interactions that influence the microstructure formation. Electrochemical probing necessitates the construction of electrodes and coin cells with the utmost care and precision. This paper aims at providing a step-by-step guide of non-aqueous electrode processing and coin cell construction for lithium-ion batteries within an academic setting and with emphasis on deciphering the influence of drying and calendaring.

Non-aqueous electrode processing is central to the construction of coin cells and the evaluation of new electrode chemistries for lithium-ion batteries. A step-by-step guide to the basic practices needed as an electrochemical engineer working with batteries in an academic experimental setting is furnished.

Research into new and improved materials to be utilized in lithium-ion batteries (LIB) necessitates an experimental counterpart to any computational ...

Measuring Spray Droplet Size from Agricultural Nozzles Using Laser Diffraction

When making an application of any crop protection material such as an herbicide or pesticide, the applicator uses a variety of skills and information to make an application so that the material reaches the target site (i.e., plant). Information critical in this process is the droplet size that a particular spray nozzle, spray pressure, and spray solution combination generates, as droplet size greatly influences product efficacy and how the spray moves through the environment. Researchers and product manufacturers commonly use laser diffraction equipment to measure the spray droplet size in laboratory wind tunnels. The work presented here describes methods used in making spray droplet size measurements with laser diffraction equipment for both ground and aerial application scenarios that can be used to ensure inter- and intra-laboratory precision while minimizing sampling bias associated with laser diffraction systems. Maintaining critical measurement distances and concurrent airflow throughout the testing process is key to this precision. Real time data quality analysis is also critical to preventing excess variation in the data or extraneous inclusion of erroneous data. Some limitations of this method include atypical spray nozzles, spray solutions or application conditions that result in spray streams that do not fully atomize within the measurement distances discussed. Successful adaption of this method can provide a highly efficient method for evaluation of the performance of agrochemical spray application nozzles under a variety of operational settings. Also discussed are potential experimental design considerations that can be included to enhance functionality of the data collected.

We present protocols to be used in the measurement of spray droplet size from agricultural nozzles used in both aerial and ground based agrochemical applications. These methods presented were developed to provide consistent and repeatable droplet size data both inter- and intra-laboratory, when using laser diffraction systems.

When making an application of any crop protection material such as an herbicide or pesticide, the applicator uses a variety of skills and information to ...

Dielectric RheoSANS &#8212; Simultaneous Interrogation of Impedance, Rheology and Small Angle Neutron Scattering of Complex Fluids

A procedure for the operation of a new dielectric RheoSANS instrument capable of simultaneous interrogation of the electrical, mechanical and microstructural properties of complex fluids is presented. The instrument consists of a Couette geometry contained within a modified forced convection oven mounted on a commercial rheometer. This instrument is available for use on the small angle neutron scattering (SANS) beamlines at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Center for Neutron Research (NCNR). The Couette geometry is machined to be transparent to neutrons and provides for measurement of the electrical properties and microstructural properties of a sample confined between titanium cylinders while the sample undergoes arbitrary deformation. Synchronization of these measurements is enabled through the use of a customizable program that monitors and controls the execution of predetermined experimental protocols. Described here is a protocol to perform a flow sweep experiment where the shear rate is logarithmically stepped from a maximum value to a minimum value holding at each step for a specified period of time while frequency dependent dielectric measurements are made. Representative results are shown from a sample consisting of a gel composed of carbon black aggregates dispersed in propylene carbonate. As the gel undergoes steady shear, the carbon black network is mechanically deformed, which causes an initial decrease in conductivity associated with the breaking of bonds comprising the carbon black network. However, at higher shear rates, the conductivity recovers associated with the onset of shear thickening. Overall, these results demonstrate the utility of the simultaneous measurement of the rheo-electro-microstructural properties of these suspensions using the dielectric RheoSANS geometry.

Dielectric RheoSANS &amp;#8212; Simultaneous Interrogation of Impedance, Rheology and Small Angle Neutron Scattering of Complex Fluids

Here, we present a procedure for the measurement of simultaneous impedance, rheology and neutron scattering from soft matter materials under shear flow.

A procedure for the operation of a new dielectric RheoSANS instrument capable of simultaneous interrogation of the electrical, mechanical and ...

Characterization of Ultra-fine Grained and Nanocrystalline Materials Using Transmission Kikuchi Diffraction

One of the challenges in microstructure analysis nowadays resides in the reliable and accurate characterization of ultra-fine grained (UFG) and nanocrystalline materials. The traditional techniques associated with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), such as electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), do not possess the required spatial resolution due to the large interaction volume between the electrons from the beam and the atoms of the material. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has the required spatial resolution. However, due to a lack of automation in the analysis system, the rate of data acquisition is slow which limits the area of the specimen that can be characterized. This paper presents a new characterization technique, Transmission Kikuchi Diffraction (TKD), which enables the analysis of the microstructure of UFG and nanocrystalline materials using an SEM equipped with a standard EBSD system. The spatial resolution of this technique can reach 2 nm. This technique can be applied to a large range of materials that would be difficult to analyze using traditional EBSD. After presenting the experimental set up and describing the different steps necessary to realize a TKD analysis, examples of its use on metal alloys and minerals are shown to illustrate the resolution of the technique and its flexibility in term of material to be characterized.

This paper provides a detailed method to characterize the microstructure of ultra-fine grained and nanocrystalline materials using a scanning electron microscope equipped with a standard electron backscatter diffraction system. Metal alloys and minerals presenting refined microstructures are analyzed using this technique, showing the diversity of its possible applications.

One of the challenges in microstructure analysis nowadays resides in the reliable and accurate characterization of ultra-fine grained (UFG) and ...

Focused Ion Beam Fabrication of LiPON-based Solid-state Lithium-ion Nanobatteries for In Situ Testing

Solid-state electrolytes are a promising replacement for current organic liquid electrolytes, enabling higher energy densities and improved safety of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries. However, a number of setbacks prevent their integration into commercial devices. The main limiting factor is due to nanoscale phenomena occurring at the electrode/electrolyte interfaces, ultimately leading to degradation of battery operation. These key problems are highly challenging to observe and characterize as these batteries contain multiple buried interfaces. One approach for direct observation of interfacial phenomena in thin film batteries is through the fabrication of electrochemically active nanobatteries by a focused ion beam (FIB). As such, a reliable technique to fabricate nanobatteries was developed and demonstrated in recent work. Herein, a detailed protocol with a step-by-step process is presented to enable the reproduction of this nanobattery fabrication process. In particular, this technique was applied to a thin film battery consisting of LiCoO2/LiPON/a-Si, and has further been previously demonstrated by in situ cycling within a transmission electron microscope.

Focused Ion Beam Fabrication of LiPON-based Solid-state Lithium-ion Nanobatteries for In Situ Testing

A protocol for the fabrication of electrochemically active LiPON-based solid-state lithium-ion nanobatteries using a focused ion beam is presented.

Solid-state electrolytes are a promising replacement for current organic liquid electrolytes, enabling higher energy densities and improved safety of ...