P. A. is a recipient of a scholarship &#34;Pierre Durand&#34; from the Faculty of medicine of Laval University. This work was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (MOP-CG095386) to R. M. The polysome fractionator was acquired through a Canadian Foundation for innovation grant (MOP-GF091050) to R. M. R. M holds a new CIHR investigator salary award.
We are grateful to Drs. E. Khandjian, I. Gallouzi, S. Di-Marco and A. Cammas for helpful advice.

The protocol follows the guidelines approved by Laval&#39;s Ethical Review Board.
1. Preparation of Cell Cultures and Brain Manipulation
<ol>
	<li>Mammalian and Drosophila&#160;Cells
	<ol>
		<li>Grow HeLa cervical cancer cells and Schneider Drosophila embryonic cells as recommended by the American Type Culture Collection. Work with cells at a low passage.</li>
		<li>Plate cells in order to reach 80% confluence the day of the experiment. For best results, use &#8764;12 x 106 of cells for each experimental condition. Before making extracts for polysome analysis, stimulate translation by adding fresh complete medium for at least 90 min.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Brain isolation: Isolate brains from mice aged between 9 and 16 days after birth. Euthanasia involves CO2 inhalation after anesthesia and cervical dislocation. Following sacrifice, isolate the whole brain and either place it at -80 &#176;C or directly transfer it into cold PBS 1X for immediate use.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of the Density Gradient Fractionation System
<ol>
	<li>Wash the tubing system with 0.1% SDS for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Wash the tubing system with 70% Ethanol for 5 min, then with RNaseZAP Solution for 5 min&#160;before washing it with DEPC water.</li>
	<li>Pump air in order to dry the tubing system of the apparatus.</li>
</ol>
3. Preparation of the Sucrose Gradients
<ol>
	<li>Make 15% and 55% sucrose solutions in 20 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.4, 1.25 mM MgCl2, 150 mM NaCl, and 1 mM DTT.</li>
	<li>Generate the linear 15-55% sucrose gradient using an Isco Model 160 gradient former, as described by the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. However, it is important to control well the TRIS peristaltic pump speed in order to avoid creation of bubbles or turbulences in the gradients. Keep the gradients at 4 &#176;C until use.</li>
	<li>During the time when the gradient maker program is running, cool the ultracentrifuge to 4 &#176;C.</li>
</ol>
4. Preparation of Cell and Mouse Brain Extracts
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of Cell Extracts
	<ol>
		<li>Place plate(s) on ice and wash cells 3x&#160;with cold PBS 1X.</li>
		<li>Harvest cells (&#8764;12 x 106) in 1 ml lysis buffer (20 mM Tris-HCl at pH 7.4, 1.25 mM MgCl2, 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM DTT, 1% Nonidet P40, 5 U/ml RNase inhibitor, supplemented with complete mini EDTA-free protease inhibitor cocktail tablets), transfer them to an Eppendorf tube, and mix well by passing them 15x&#160;through a 1cc U100 Insulin Syringe 28 G 1/2. Let the cell lysate rest on ice for 15 min.</li>
		<li>Put few drops of cell lysate onto a slide to assess cellular lysis by observing at a phase contrast microscope using a 10X objective. Only nuclei should be visible and no cell membranes should be visible attesting for cell lysis. As a control, observe unlysed cells.</li>
		<li>Clarify the cell lysate by centrifugation at 11,000 x g for 20 min at 4 &#176;C and keep the soluble lysate containing the polyribosomes.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Preparation of Mouse Brain Extracts
	<ol>
		<li>Homogenize the whole isolated brain (&#8764;500 mg) by 10 strokes in an ice-cold Dounce homogenizer with 2 ml of lysis buffer and clarify the homogenate by centrifugation at 11,000 x g for 15 min at 4 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>Load the resulting supernatant onto a cushion of 50% sucrose and proceed with sedimentation for 2 hr at 200,000 x g using an ultracentrifuge rotor TH-641 at 4 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>Resuspend the translucent pellet containing the polyribosomes in 1 ml of lysis buffer and mix well by pipetting up and down. Let the suspension rest on the ice for 30 min&#160;before loading onto gradients.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Loading the Extracts onto Sucrose Gradients and Ultracentrifugation
<ol>
	<li>Measure the concentration of RNA present in the cytoplasmic extract using a spectrophotometer. Carefully and slowly load &#8764;20 OD260 units of the extract onto the 15% to 55% sucrose gradient. Make sure that there is 2-3 mm of available space at the surface of tube to avoid overflowing the tubes during centrifugation.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the gradients using an ultra-centrifuge for 2 hr 30 min at 230,000 x g using an ultracentrifuge rotor TH-641 at 4 &#176;C. When centrifugation ends, remove the tubes and place them on ice carefully not to disturb the gradients.</li>
</ol>
6. Fractionation of Cytoplasmic Extracts for Polysomes Profiling
<ol>
	<li>Place sucrose gradients on Automated Density Fractionation System and proceed with automated fractionation and collection of fractions (0.5 ml each), as described by the manufacturer.</li>
	<li>Collect each fraction (&#8764;500 &#181;l) into individual Eppendorf tubes with continuous monitoring of absorbance at 254 nm. In parallel of the gradient fractionation operation, the polyribosomal profile will be editing on the chart paper. Alternatively, use a data acquisition unit attached to the chart recorder to have an electronic acquisition of the polysome profile.</li>
	<li>At the end of each run, transfer collected Eppendorfs on dry ice. At this time, either store collected fractions at -80 &#176;C or directly precipitate protein-RNA complexes as follows.</li>
</ol>
7. Protein Extraction and Analysis
<ol>
	<li>To each collected fraction of sucrose gradient, add 2 volumes of 100% cold ethanol and let RNA-protein complexes precipitate at -20 &#176;C overnight.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge each RNA-protein precipitate at 11,000 x g for 20 min at 4 &#176;C then wash with 70% ethanol. Dry and resuspend the precipitate in SDS-PAGE sample buffer before proceeding with Western blot using specific antibodies (see Figure&#160;2).</li>
</ol>
8. RNA Extraction and Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Precipitate RNA-protein complexes as in section 7.1. Resuspend each RNA-protein precipitate in the lysis buffer containing 0.1% SDS. Digest the protein component of the precipitate with 2 mg/ml Proteinase K for 30 min&#160;in a 55 &#176;C water bath.</li>
	<li>Extract RNA components of the precipitate by adding 1 volume of &#34;phenol: chloroform&#34;, 2 volumes of chloroform, and 0.1 volume of 2 M NaOAc pH 4 and centrifuging at 10,000 x g at 4 &#176;C for&#160;20 min. Precipitate RNA from the resulting aqueous phase of each sample overnight at -20 &#176;C by adding 1 volume of isopropanol and 0.2 &#181;g/&#181;l of glycogen. Spin the precipitate for 1 hr at 10,000 x g at 4 &#176;C. Wash the RNA pellet with 70% cold ethanol.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the RNA pellet into a small volume of RNAse free water. Assess the quantity and quality of RNA using the spectrophotometer.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The polysome profile analysis on sucrose gradients allows measurement of translation initiation by analyzing the density of polysomes isolated from cells or tissues9,11-14. This technique is the best (if not the unique) approach to measure translation initiation in vivo. It is used to monitor the translational status of growing cells during cell cycle15, and to assess the effects of various types of stress including viral infections, hypoxia13,16, radiation17, and chem...

Eukaryotic cells constantly encounter a range of harmful physiological and environmental stress conditions that require a rapid adaptive cell response. Cell stress response involves a precise balance between anti-survival and pro-survival acting factors. Disrupting this balance can have irreversible consequences leading the development of human pathologies such as cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. During the first step of the stress response, cells activate pro-survival pathways that involve the coordinated control of changes in gene expression at the level of mRNA translation.
mRNA translation in eukaryotes is a complex cellular process that involves coordinated interactions between translation initiation factors (eIFs), specific RNA binding proteins (RBDs), and RNA molecules1. mRNA translation is divided into three distinct phases: initiation, elongation, and termination. Although all three phases are subject to regulatory mechanisms, translational control mechanisms target mostly the initiation phase of translation, which thus constitutes the rate-limiting step of protein synthesis2.
Translation initiation is a highly ordered process that begins with the formation of the eIF2a.GTP.Met-tRNAiMet ternary complex and its subsequent binding to the 40S ribosome subunit, leading to the formation of the pre-initiation complex. The next step is the recruitment of the preinitiation complex to mRNA, which involves the activity of translation initiation factors such as eIF4F and eIF3. The 48S preinitiation complex thus formed undergoes specific conformational changes that enable this machinery to start scanning the 5&#39;-untranslated region of the mRNA until it recognizes the initiation codon AUG. Most of the translation initiation factors are then released and 60S subunits are recruited to form an 80S ribosome complex competent for translation, at which point protein synthesis starts (Figure 1). More than one 80S monosome can be translating the same mRNA at a time producing so called polysomes (or polyribosomes). The density of polysomes on a mRNA reflects the initiation, elongation and termination rates and thus is a measure of the translatability of a particular transcript. However, polysome profile is mainly used to assess changes in mRNA translation at the initiation step. Here we have used a proteasome inhibitor as translation initiation inhibitor. Treatment of cancer cells with this drug induces a stress response characterized by activation of the stress kinase named HRI which phosphorylates the translation initiation factor eIF2a3. Phosphorylation of eIF2a is one of the major events leading to the inhibition of translation initiation in mammalian cells4.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="875">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td style="width:311px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:279px;">HeLa cervical cancer cells</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, VA; ATCC)</td>
			<td>CCL-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:279px;">Schneider Drosophila embryonic cells</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, VA; ATCC)</td>
			<td>CRL-1963</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td style="width:311px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Culture medium and Supplements</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Schneider&#8217;s Drosophila Medium</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>SO146-500ml</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">DMEM</td>
			<td>Life technologies</td>
			<td>11995-073</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">FBS</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientist Scientist</td>
			<td>SH30396-03</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">penicillin/streptomycin</td>
			<td>Life technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">15140122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td style="width:311px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Sucrose solutions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">D-Sucrose</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientist</td>
			<td>BP220-212</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Glycerol</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>49767</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Blue Bromophenol</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientist</td>
			<td>B3925</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td style="width:311px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Lysis buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Tris Hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientist</td>
			<td>BP153-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:279px;">MgCl2 </td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M2670-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">NaCl</td>
			<td>Tekniscience</td>
			<td>3624-05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">DTT</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D 9779</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Nonidet P40 (Igepal CA-630 )</td>
			<td>MJS Biolynx</td>
			<td>19628</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">SDS</td>
			<td>Tekniscience</td>
			<td>4095-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:279px;">RNase inhibitor (RnaseOUT Recombinant Ribonuclease Inhibitor)</td>
			<td>Life technologies</td>
			<td>10777-019</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Antiproteases (complete, mini, EDTA free)</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11,836,170,001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td style="width:311px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">RNA Extraction</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Proteinase K</td>
			<td>Life technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">AM2542</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Phenol: Chloroforme</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientist</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP1754I-400</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Chloroforme</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Fisher Scientist</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C298-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Glycogen</td>
			<td>Life technologies</td>
			<td>10814-010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Isopropanol</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Acros organics</td>
			<td>327270010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td style="width:311px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Antibodies</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">anti-FMRP antibody</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:429px;">Fournier et al., Cancer Cell International, 2010</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">anti-Ribosomal Protein L28 antibody</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SC-50362</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td style="width:311px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Others</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Proteasome inhibitor : Bortezomib</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">LC Laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">B-1408</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">DEPC (Diethylpyrocarbonate)</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D5758-25ml</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">RNaseZAP Solution</td>
			<td>Life technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">AM9780</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td style="width:311px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Materials</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">T25 cell culture flask</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Corning</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">430639</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">1cc U100 Insulin Syringe 28 G1/2</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientist</td>
			<td>148291B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Tube ultra-centrifugation, PA, 12ml</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientist</td>
			<td>FSSP9763205</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Isco Model 160 gradient former</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Teledyne Isco, Lincoln, NE, USA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Ultracentrifuge Sorvall OTD Combi</td>
			<td style="width:311px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Thermo Scientific Sorvall Rotor TH-641</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Thermo scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">54295</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Automated Density Fractionation System</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Teledyne Isco, Lincoln, NE, USA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">67-9000-177</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Isco UA-6 UV-vis detector</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Teledyne Isco, Lincoln, NE, USA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:279px;">NanoDrop 2000 UV-Vis Spectrophotometer</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Thermo scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Ultracentrifuge C 5415</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Eppendorf</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:279px;">Optical Microscope</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Olympus CK2</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

analysis of translation initiation during stress conditions by polysome profiling

Precise control of mRNA translation is fundamental for eukaryotic cell homeostasis, particularly in response to physiological and pathological stress. Alterations of this program can lead to the growth of damaged cells, a hallmark of cancer development, or to premature cell death such as seen in neurodegenerative diseases. Much of what is known concerning the molecular basis for translational control has been obtained from polysome analysis using a density gradient fractionation system. This technique relies on ultracentrifugation of cytoplasmic extracts on a linear sucrose gradient. Once the spin is completed, the system allows fractionation and quantification of centrifuged zones corresponding to different translating ribosomes populations, thus resulting in a polysome profile. Changes in the polysome profile are indicative of changes or defects in translation initiation that occur in response to various types of stress. This technique also allows to assess the role of specific proteins on translation initiation, and to measure translational activity of specific mRNAs. Here we describe our protocol to perform polysome profiles in order to assess translation initiation of eukaryotic cells and tissues under either normal or stress growth conditions.

As aforementioned, polysome profile allows the analysis of changes of translation initiation under stress conditions. Figure 1 is a simplified view of translation initiation which as described earlier is a multistep process involving an ordered assembly of translation initiation complexes. Under normal growth conditions, translation initiation complexes are converted into polyribosomes whose detection by polysome profile attest for an active translation initiation (Figure 2; Untreated). ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Analysis of Translation Initiation During Stress Conditions by Polysome Profiling at JoVE.com

Analysis of Translation Initiation During Stress Conditions by Polysome Profiling

Here, we describe a method to analyze changes in the initiation of mRNA translation of eukaryotic cells in response to stress conditions. This method is based on the velocity separation on sucrose gradients of translating ribosomes from non-translating ribosomes.

Precise control of mRNA translation is fundamental for eukaryotic cell homeostasis, particularly in response to physiological and pathological stress. ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

18.2K Views.  Laval University. Here, we describe a method to analyze changes in the initiation of mRNA translation of eukaryotic cells in response to stress conditions. This method is based on the velocity separation on sucrose gradients of translating ribosomes from non-translating ribosomes.

Video: Analysis of Translation Initiation During Stress Conditions by Polysome Profiling

Monitoring Plant Hormones During Stress Responses

Plant hormones and related signaling compounds play an important role in the regulation of plant responses to various environmental stimuli and stresses. Among the most severe stresses are insect herbivory, pathogen infection, and drought stress. For each of these stresses a specific set of hormones and/or combinations thereof are known to fine-tune the responses, thereby ensuring the plant's survival. The major hormones involved in the regulation of these responses are jasmonic acid (JA), salicylic acid (SA), and abscisic acid (ABA). To better understand the role of individual hormones as well as their potential interaction during these responses it is necessary to monitor changes in their abundance in a temporal as well as in a spatial fashion. For the easy, sensitive, and reproducible quantification of these and other signaling compounds we developed a method based on vapor phase extraction and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis (1, 2, 3, 4). After extracting these compounds from the plant tissue by acidic aqueous 1-propanol mixed with dichloromethane the carboxylic acid-containing compounds are methylated, volatilized under heat, and collected on a polymeric absorbent. After elution into a sample vial the analytes are separated by gas chromatography and detected by chemical ionization mass spectrometry. The use of appropriate internal standards then allows for the simple quantification by relating the peak areas of analyte and internal standard.

A simple method is provided that allows for the rapid extraction and analysis of multiple plant hormones from small tissue samples. The procedure uses vapor phase extraction as the solemn purification step. Samples are analyzed by GC/MS with chemical ionization that produces mainly (M+1)+ ions.

Plant hormones and related signaling compounds play an important role in the regulation of plant responses to various environmental stimuli and stresses. ...

Antibody Profiling by Luciferase Immunoprecipitation Systems (LIPS)

Technologies for comprehensively understanding and quantifying antibody profiles to autoantigens and infectious agents may yield new insights into disease mechanisms and may elucidate new markers to substratify disease with different clinical features and better understand pathogenesis. We have developed a highly quantitative method called Luciferase Immunoprecipitation Systems (LIPS) for profiling patient sera antibody responses to autoantigens and pathogen antigens associated with infection. Unlike ELISAs, the highly sensitive LIPS is easily implemented to survey humoral serological response profiles to different antigens in a universal format and produces dynamic antibody titer ranges up to 6 log10 for some antigens. In these studies, quantitative profiling by LIPS of patient humoral responses against panels of antigens or even the entire proteome of some pathogens (i.e. HIV), is typically more informative than testing a single antigen by ELISA. In addition, LIPS also eliminates time and effort needed to produce highly purified antigens as well as the labor-intensive assay optimization steps needed for standard ELISAs. Here we provide a detailed protocol describing the technical aspects of performing LIPS assays for readily profiling antibody responses to single or multiple antigens.

Antibody Profiling by Luciferase Immunoprecipitation Systems LIPS

The technical aspects of performing LIPS (Luciferase Immunoprecipitation Systems) are described. The overall approach involves expressing chimeric genes encoding antigens fused to Renilla luciferase (Ruc) in mammalian cells. Crude Ruc-antigen extracts are then prepared and, without purification, employed in immunoprecipitation assays to quantify antibodies.

Technologies for comprehensively understanding and quantifying antibody profiles to autoantigens and infectious agents may yield new insights into disease ...

Analysis of Oxidative Stress in Zebrafish Embryos

High levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) may cause a change of cellular redox state towards oxidative stress condition. This situation causes oxidation of molecules (lipid, DNA, protein) and leads to cell death. Oxidative stress also impacts the progression of several pathological conditions such as diabetes, retinopathies, neurodegeneration, and cancer. Thus, it is important to define tools to investigate oxidative stress conditions not only at the level of single cells but also in the context of whole organisms. Here, we consider the zebrafish embryo as a useful in vivo system to perform such studies and present a protocol to measure in vivo oxidative stress. Taking advantage of fluorescent ROS probes and zebrafish transgenic fluorescent lines, we develop two different methods to measure oxidative stress in vivo: i) a &#8220;whole embryo ROS-detection method&#8221; for qualitative measurement of oxidative stress and ii) a &#8220;single-cell&#160;ROS detection method&#8221; for quantitative measurements of oxidative stress. Herein, we demonstrate the efficacy of these procedures by increasing oxidative stress in tissues by oxidant agents and physiological or genetic methods. This protocol is amenable for forward genetic screens and it will help address cause-effect relationships of ROS in animal models of oxidative stress-related pathologies such as neurological disorders and cancer.

Here we report a protocol to measure oxidative stress in living zebrafish embryos. This procedure allows reactive oxygen species (ROS) detection in both whole embryo tissues and single-cell populations. This protocol will accomplish both qualitative and quantitative analyses.

High levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) may cause a change of cellular redox state towards oxidative stress condition. This situation causes ...

Profiling Individual Human Embryonic Stem Cells by Quantitative RT-PCR

Heterogeneity of stem cell population hampers detailed understanding of stem cell biology, such as their differentiation propensity toward different lineages. A single cell transcriptome assay can be a new approach for dissecting individual variation. We have developed the single cell qRT-PCR method, and confirmed that this method works well in several gene expression profiles. In single cell level, each human embryonic stem cell, sorted by OCT4::EGFP positive cells, has high expression in OCT4, but a different level of NANOG expression. Our single cell gene expression assay should be useful to interrogate population heterogeneities.

Single cell gene expression assay is needed for understanding stem cell heterogeneities.

Heterogeneity of stem cell population hampers detailed understanding of stem cell biology, such as their differentiation propensity toward different ...

Polysome Fractionation and Analysis of Mammalian Translatomes on a Genome-wide Scale

mRNA translation plays a central role in the regulation of gene expression and represents the most energy consuming process in mammalian cells. Accordingly, dysregulation of mRNA translation is considered to play a major role in a variety of pathological states including cancer. Ribosomes also host chaperones, which facilitate folding of nascent polypeptides, thereby modulating function and stability of newly synthesized polypeptides. In addition, emerging data indicate that ribosomes serve as a platform for a repertoire of signaling molecules, which are implicated in a variety of post-translational modifications of newly synthesized polypeptides as they emerge from the ribosome, and/or components of translational machinery. Herein, a well-established method of ribosome fractionation using sucrose density gradient centrifugation is described. In conjunction with the in-house developed &#8220;anota&#8221; algorithm this method allows direct determination of differential translation of individual mRNAs on a genome-wide scale. Moreover, this versatile protocol can be used for a variety of biochemical studies aiming to dissect the function of ribosome-associated protein complexes, including those that play a central role in folding and degradation of newly synthesized polypeptides.

Ribosomes play a central role in protein synthesis. Polyribosome (polysome) fractionation by sucrose density gradient centrifugation allows direct determination of translation efficiencies of individual mRNAs on a genome-wide scale. In addition, this method can be used for biochemical analysis of ribosome- and polysome-associated factors such as chaperones and signaling molecules.

mRNA translation plays a central role in the regulation of gene expression and represents the most energy consuming process in mammalian cells. ...

Assessment of Selective mRNA Translation in Mammalian Cells by Polysome Profiling

Regulation of protein synthesis represents a key control point in cellular response to stress. In particular, discreet RNA regulatory elements were shown to allow to selective translation of specific mRNAs, which typically encode for proteins required for a particular stress response. Identification of these mRNAs, as well as the characterization of regulatory mechanisms responsible for selective translation has been at the forefront of molecular biology for some time. Polysome profiling is a cornerstone method in these studies. The goal of polysome profiling is to capture mRNA translation by immobilizing actively translating ribosomes on different transcripts and separate the resulting polyribosomes by ultracentrifugation on a sucrose gradient, thus allowing for a distinction between highly translated transcripts and poorly translated ones. These can then be further characterized by traditional biochemical and molecular biology methods. Importantly, combining polysome profiling with high throughput genomic approaches allows for a large scale analysis of translational regulation.

The ability of cells to adapt to stress is crucial for their survival. Regulation of mRNA translation is one such adaptation strategy, providing for rapid regulation of the proteome. Here, we provide a standardized polysome profiling protocol to identify specific mRNAs that are selectively translated under stress conditions.

Regulation of protein synthesis represents a key control point in cellular response to stress. In particular, discreet RNA regulatory elements were shown ...

Fecal Glucocorticoid Analysis: Non-invasive Adrenal Monitoring in Equids

Adrenal activity can be assessed in the equine species by analysis of feces for corticosterone metabolites. During a potentially aversive situation, corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) is released from the hypothalamus in the brain. This stimulates the release of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary gland, which in turn stimulates release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal gland. In horses the glucocorticoid corticosterone is responsible for several adaptations needed to support equine flight behaviour and subsequent removal from the aversive situation. Corticosterone metabolites can be detected in the feces of horses and assessment offers a non-invasive option to evaluate long term patterns of adrenal activity. Fecal assessment offers advantages over other techniques that monitor adrenal activity including blood plasma and saliva analysis. The non-invasive nature of the method avoids sampling stress which can confound results. It also allows the opportunity for repeated sampling over time and is ideal for studies in free ranging horses. This protocol describes the enzyme linked immunoassay (EIA) used to assess feces for corticosterone, in addition to the associated biochemical validation.

Adrenal activity can be assessed in the equine species by analysis of feces for corticosterone metabolites. The method offers a non-invasive option to assess long term patterns in both domestic and free ranging horses. This protocol describes the enzyme linked immunoassay involved and the associated biochemical validation.

Adrenal activity can be assessed in the equine species by analysis of feces for corticosterone metabolites. During a potentially aversive situation, ...

An Easy Method for Plant Polysome Profiling

Translation of mRNA to protein is a fundamental and highly regulated biological process. Polysome profiling is considered as a gold standard for the analysis of translational regulation. The method described here is an easy and economical way for fractionating polysomes from various plant tissues. A sucrose gradient is made without the need for a gradient maker by sequentially freezing each layer. Cytosolic extracts are then prepared in a buffer containing cycloheximide and chloramphenicol to immobilize the cytosolic and chloroplastic ribosomes to mRNA and are loaded onto the sucrose gradient. After centrifugation, six fractions are directly collected from the bottom to the top of the gradient, without piercing the ultracentrifugation tube. During collection, the absorbance at 260 nm is read continuously to generate a polysome profile that gives a snapshot of global translational activity. Fractions are then pooled to prepare three different mRNA populations: the polysomes, mRNAs bound to several ribosomes; the monosomes, mRNAs bound to one ribosome; and mRNAs that are not bound to ribosomes. mRNAs are then extracted. This protocol has been validated for different plants and tissues including Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings and adult plants, Nicotiana benthamiana, Solanum lycopersicum, and Oryza sativa leaves.

This protocol describes an easy method to extract and fractionate transcripts from plant tissues on the basis of the number of bound ribosomes. It allows a global estimate of translation activity and the determination of the translational status of specific mRNAs.

Translation of mRNA to protein is a fundamental and highly regulated biological process. Polysome profiling is considered as a gold standard for the ...

Analysis of the Gap Junction-dependent Transfer of miRNA with 3D-FRAP Microscopy

Small antisense RNAs, like miRNA and siRNA, play an important role in cellular physiology and pathology and, moreover, can be used as therapeutic agents in the treatment of several diseases. The development of new, innovative strategies for miRNA/siRNA therapy is based on an extensive knowledge of the underlying mechanisms. Recent data suggest that small RNAs are exchanged between cells in a gap junction-dependent manner, thereby inducing gene regulatory effects in the recipient cell. Molecular biological techniques and flow cytometric analysis are commonly used to study the intercellular exchange of miRNA. However, these methods do not provide high temporal resolution, which is necessary when studying the gap junctional flux of molecules. Therefore, to investigate the impact of miRNA/siRNA as intercellular signaling molecules, novel tools are needed that will allow for the analysis of these small RNAs at the cellular level. The present protocol describes the application of three-dimensional fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (3D-FRAP) microscopy to elucidating the gap junction-dependent exchange of miRNA molecules between cardiac cells. Importantly, this straightforward and non-invasive live-cell imaging approach allows for the visualization and quantification of the gap junctional shuttling of fluorescently labeled small RNAs in real time, with high spatio-temporal resolution. The data obtained by 3D-FRAP confirm a novel pathway of intercellular gene regulation, where small RNAs act as signaling molecules within the intercellular network.

Here, we describe the application of three-dimensional fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (3D-FRAP) for the analysis of the gap junction-dependent shuttling of miRNA. In contrast to commonly applied methods, 3D-FRAP allows for the quantification of the intercellular transfer of small RNAs in real time, with high spatio-temporal resolution.

Small antisense RNAs, like miRNA and siRNA, play an important role in cellular physiology and pathology and, moreover, can be used as therapeutic agents ...

In Vitro Analysis of E3 Ubiquitin Ligase Function

The covalent attachment of ubiquitin (Ub) to internal lysine residue(s) of a substrate protein, a process termed ubiquitylation, represents one of the most important post-translational modifications in eukaryotic organisms. Ubiquitylation is mediated by a sequential cascade of three enzyme classes including ubiquitin-activating enzymes (E1 enzymes), ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes (E2 enzymes), and ubiquitin ligases (E3 enzymes), and sometimes, ubiquitin-chain elongation factors (E4 enzymes). Here, in vitro protocols for ubiquitylation assays are provided, which allow the assessment of E3 ubiquitin ligase activity, the cooperation between E2-E3 pairs, and substrate selection. Cooperating E2-E3 pairs can be screened by monitoring the generation of free poly-ubiquitin chains and/or auto-ubiquitylation of the E3 ligase. Substrate ubiquitylation is defined by selective binding of the E3 ligase and can be detected by western blotting of the in vitro reaction. Furthermore, an E2~Ub discharge assay is described, which is a useful tool for the direct assessment of functional E2-E3 cooperation. Here, the E3-dependent transfer of ubiquitin is followed from the corresponding E2 enzyme onto free lysine amino acids (mimicking substrate ubiquitylation) or internal lysines of the E3 ligase itself (auto-ubiquitylation). In conclusion, three different in vitro protocols are provided that are fast and easy to perform to address E3 ligase catalytic functionality.

In Vitro Analysis of E3 Ubiquitin Ligase Function

The present study provides detailed in vitro ubiquitylation assay protocols for the analysis of E3 ubiquitin ligase catalytic activity. Recombinant proteins were expressed using prokaryotic systems such as Escherichia coli culture.

The covalent attachment of ubiquitin (Ub) to internal lysine residue(s) of a substrate protein, a process termed ubiquitylation, represents one of the ...