Name: a simple and rapid protocol for measuring neutral lipids in algal cells using fluorescence
Uploaded: 2014-05-30T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Simple and Rapid Protocol for Measuring Neutral Lipids in Algal Cells Using Fluorescence at JoVE.com

The authors would like to thank the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada for providing financial support for this project.

1. Isolation of Dry Algal Biomass to be Used as Standards for Fluorescence Readings
<ol>
	<li>Remove a sample volume from the growing algal culture that will provide at least 200 mg of dry biomass, 400-600 mg is preferable.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge sample at 4 &#176;C for 10 min at 10,000 x g. Discard the supernatant and wash the pellet with an equal volume of phosphate buffer formulated to the same pH as the growth media.</li>
	<li>Repeat step 1.2 for a total of 3 washing steps.</li>
	<li>Re-suspend the pellet in de-ioniz...

<ol>
	<li>Chisti, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biodiesel+from+microalgae.">Biodiesel from microalgae.</a> Biotechnol. Adv. 25, 294-306 (2007).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=National+Algal+Biofuels+Technology+Roadmap.+Energy+Efficiency+&amp;+Renewable+Energy.">National Algal Biofuels Technology Roadmap. Energy Efficiency &amp; Renewable Energy.</a> U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Biomass Program. , (2010).</li><li>de la Hoz Siegler, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimization+of+microalgal+productivity+using+an+adaptive,+non-linear+model+based+strategy.">Optimization of microalgal productivity using an adaptive, non-linear model based strategy.</a> Bioresour. Technol. 104, 537-546 (2012).</li><li>Bligh, E. G., Dyer, W. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Rapid+method+of+total+lipid+extraction+and+purification.">A Rapid method of total lipid extraction and purification.</a> Can. J. Biochem. Physiol. 37, 911-917 (1959).</li><li>Hara, A., Radin, N. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lipid+extraction+of+tissues+with+a+low-toxicity+solvent.">Lipid extraction of tissues with a low-toxicity solvent.</a> Anal. Biochem. 90, 420-426 (1978).</li><li>Han, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Review+of+methods+used+for+microalgal+lipid-content+analysis.">Review of methods used for microalgal lipid-content analysis.</a> Energ. Procedia. 12, 944-950 (2011).</li><li>Pino, E. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biochemical+and+high+throughput+microscopic+assessment+of+fat+mass+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Biochemical and high throughput microscopic assessment of fat mass in Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (73), (2013).</li><li>Sitepu, I. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+improved+high-throughput+Nile+red+fluorescence+assay+for+estimating+intracellular+lipids+in+a+variety+of+yeast+species.">An improved high-throughput Nile red fluorescence assay for estimating intracellular lipids in a variety of yeast species.</a> J. Microbiol. Meth. 91, 321-328 (2012).</li><li>Izard, J., Limberger, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+screening+method+for+quantitation+of+bacterial+cell+lipids+from+whole+cells.">Rapid screening method for quantitation of bacterial cell lipids from whole cells.</a> J. Microbiol. Meth. 55, 411-418 (2003).</li><li>Chen, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+high+throughput+Nile+red+method+for+quantitative+measurement+of+neutral+lipids+in+microalgae.">A high throughput Nile red method for quantitative measurement of neutral lipids in microalgae.</a> J. Microbiol. Meth. 77, 41-47 (2009).</li><li>de la Hoz Siegler, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improving+the+reliability+of+fluorescence-based+neutral+lipid+content+measurements+in+microalgal+cultures.">Improving the reliability of fluorescence-based neutral lipid content measurements in microalgal cultures.</a> Algal Res. 1, 176-184 (2012).</li><li>de la Jara, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flow+cytometric+determination+of+lipid+content+in+a+marine+dinoflagellate,+Crypthecodinium+cohnii.">Flow cytometric determination of lipid content in a marine dinoflagellate, Crypthecodinium cohnii.</a> J. Appl. Phycol. 15, 433-438 (2003).</li><li>Elsey, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescent+measurement+of+microalgal+neutral+lipids.">Fluorescent measurement of microalgal neutral lipids.</a> J. Microbiol. Meth. 68, 639-642 (2007).</li><li>Feng, G. -. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+FT-IR+and+Nile+Red+methods+for+microalgal+lipid+characterization+and+biomass+composition+determination.">Evaluation of FT-IR and Nile Red methods for microalgal lipid characterization and biomass composition determination.</a> Bioresour. Technol. 128, 107-112 (2013).</li><li>Guzm&#225;n, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Estimate+by+means+of+flow+cytometry+of+variation+in+composition+of+fatty+acids+from+Tetraselmis+suecica+in+response+to+culture+conditions.">Estimate by means of flow cytometry of variation in composition of fatty acids from Tetraselmis suecica in response to culture conditions.</a> Aquacult. Int. 18, 189-199 (2010).</li><li>Huang, G. -. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+screening+method+for+lipid+production+in+alga+based+on+Nile+red+fluorescence.">Rapid screening method for lipid production in alga based on Nile red fluorescence.</a> Biomass Bioenerg. 33, 1386-1392 (2009).</li><li>Lee, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+method+for+the+determination+of+lipid+from+the+green+alga+Botryococcus+braunii.">Rapid method for the determination of lipid from the green alga Botryococcus braunii.</a> Biotechnol. Tech. 12, 553-556 (1998).</li><li>Montero, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+of+high-lipid+content+strains+of+the+marine+microalga+Tetraselmis+suecica+for+biodiesel+production+by+flow+cytometry+and+single-cell+sorting.">Isolation of high-lipid content strains of the marine microalga Tetraselmis suecica for biodiesel production by flow cytometry and single-cell sorting.</a> J. Appl. Phycol. 23, 1053-1057 (2011).</li><li>Vigeolas, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+and+partial+characterization+of+mutants+with+elevated+lipid+content+in+Chlorella+sorokiniana+and+Scenedesmus+obliquus.">Isolation and partial characterization of mutants with elevated lipid content in Chlorella sorokiniana and Scenedesmus obliquus.</a> J. Biotechnol. 162, 3-12 (2012).</li><li>Bertozzini, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Application+of+the+standard+addition+method+for+the+absolute+quantification+of+neutral+lipids+in+microalgae+using+Nile+red.">Application of the standard addition method for the absolute quantification of neutral lipids in microalgae using Nile red.</a> J. Microbiol. Meth. 87, 17-23 (2011).</li><li>Kou, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescent+measurement+of+lipid+content+in+the+model+organism+Chlamydomonas+reinhardtii.">Fluorescent measurement of lipid content in the model organism Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.</a> J. Appl. Phycol. , 1-9 (2013).</li></ol>

The algae used in the standard curve must be the same species cultivated under the same experimental conditions as those being measured. Significant changes in media composition, cultivation technique, and staining protocol can affect the intensity of the fluorescence reading. Hexane extraction (described in sections 1 and 2) was used to determine the neutral lipid content of samples used in the standard curve. For accurate fluorescence intensity measurements, all samples must be analyzed at the same biomass concentratio...

Due to their ability to store lipid bodies under certain stress conditions, algae have received a great deal of attention in recent years as a potential renewable fuel source1,2. Neutral lipids can account for over 60% of the cell dry weight under appropriate growth conditions3. Yet the industry does not have a simple, clean, rapid, and reliable standardized protocol to quantitate lipid content of algal cells in order to properly monitor bioprocess performance, analyze cultures, and screen for new strains.
The Bligh-Dyer gravimetric method developed some 50 years ago remains among the most common techniques used today4,5. While this procedure is simple, reliable, and easy to carry out, it is time-consuming, necessitates large sample volumes, and makes use of toxic solvents. It is not practical for analyzing many samples from a fermentation run or screening for new oil-rich strains. Other methods have been developed, but usually require advanced equipment and have not been standardized6.
An alternative that has garnered a great deal of interest is the Nile Red stain. Nile Red, a dye that fluoresces preferentially in non-polar environments, has been used to identify or quantify lipid bodies in various organisms including nematodes7, yeast8, bacteria9, and algae10-19. Initial techniques involving Nile Red were mostly qualitative or semi-quantitative, combining the stain with single-cuvette spectrophotometry or flow cytometry. In addition, some classes of algae such as green algae have thick cell wells that are mostly impermeable to the dye, which limited the range of the technique10.
Recent improvements to the Nile Red staining method have been reported that bypass the initial shortcomings of the protocol10,11. Staining the cells in the presence of a carrier solvent such as DMSO10 or ethanol10,11 linearizes the relationship between oil content and absorbance, allowing for reliable quantitative measurements. The solvent helps permeabilize the cell membrane so that the Nile Red molecules can pass through. In addition, incorporating a spectrophotometer with micro-plate reading capabilities enables high throughput protocols suitable for quantitative analysis.
In this article we detail a simple method for measuring oil content of algal cells by staining cultures with Nile Red in the presence of ethanol, a mild solvent. In order to most accurately account for background noise in the measurements, a standard curve correlating fluorescence intensity to oil content is developed using algal cells of known oil composition. The method is adapted from previously published protocols10,11. By using a 96-well spectrophotometer, one is able to analyze the same amount of samples in an hour that would take days to monitor by gravimetric methods. Furthermore, by calibrating using representative samples of the desired algal species this method produces relatively precise measurements that are directly interpretable. There exist many protocols outlining methods of staining algae with Nile Red optimized for different strains and applications; the protocol presented here was originally developed by de la Hoz Siegler et al.11 for Auxenochlorella protothecoides, Chlorella vulgaris, Scenedesmus dimorphus, and Scenedesmus obliquus, although it is likely suitable for many more species and classes. It has been designed with the specific application of monitoring bioprocess performance and it works equally well for previously dried samples and wet samples from a growing culture.

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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Dry Weight</td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">25 ml disposable pipettes</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">13-676-10K</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Pipette Bulb</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">13-681-51</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">40 ml Nalgene Teflon Centrifuge Tubes</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">05-562-16A</td>
			<td>Teflon needed for hexane</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Weigh Dishes (polypropylene)</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">2-202B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">1.5 ml micro-centrifuge tubes</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">05-408-129</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Centrifuge</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Sorvall</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">RC6plus</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Drying Oven (Fisher 625D)</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">13-254-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Storage vials</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">0337-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Bench-top microcentrifuge (Eppendorf 5415D)</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">05-40-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Gravimetric Quantification</td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Porcelain Mortar (Coorstek)</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">12-961A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Porcelain Pestle (Coorstek)</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">12-961-5A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">40 ml Centrifugation tubes (FEP)</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">05-562-16A</td>
			<td>Could also use glass tubes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Pasteur Glass Pipettes</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">13-678-20C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Aluminum weigh dishes</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">08-732-101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Hexanes</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">H292-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:18px;width:347px;">Fluorometric quantification of oil content</td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:347px;">Fluorescence multi-well plate reader</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Thermo Lab Systems</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fluoroskan Ascent</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Fluorescence reader software</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Thermo Lab Systems</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Ascent Software 2.6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">COSTAR 96 well plate with round bottom</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">06-443-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Nile Red&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">N3013-100MG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Ethanol (Alcohol reagent grade)</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">AC65109-0020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Imaging Fluorescent cells</td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td style="width:152px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Leica DMRXA2 (or equivalent) microscope</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Leica</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">DMRXA2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Microscope slides</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">12-550-15</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Microscope cover slips</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">12-541B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Camera</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Qimaging</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Retiga Ex</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:347px;">Imaging software</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">Qimaging</td>
			<td style="width:152px;">QCapture v.1.1.8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a simple and rapid protocol for measuring neutral lipids in algal cells using fluorescence

Algae are considered excellent candidates for renewable fuel sources due to their natural lipid storage capabilities. Robust monitoring of algal fermentation processes and screening for new oil-rich strains requires a fast and reliable protocol for determination of intracellular lipid content. Current practices rely largely on gravimetric methods to determine oil content, techniques developed decades ago that are time consuming and require large sample volumes. In this paper, Nile Red, a fluorescent dye that has been used to identify the presence of lipid bodies in numerous types of organisms, is incorporated into a simple, fast, and reliable protocol for measuring the neutral lipid content of Auxenochlorella protothecoides, a green alga. The method uses ethanol, a relatively mild solvent, to permeabilize the cell membrane before staining and a 96 well micro-plate to increase sample capacity during fluorescence intensity measurements. It has been designed with the specific application of monitoring bioprocess performance. Previously dried samples or live samples from a growing culture can be used in the assay.

Representative algal cells stained with Nile Red dye are depicted in Figure 1. Parts A and B of Figure 1 display images of A. protothecoides grown in excess nitrogen, leading to very low intracellular lipid accumulation. In parts C and D, samples of A. protothecoides grown under nitrogen limitation are shown. Under transmission illumination, the lipid bodies of the cell can be visualized with careful in...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Simple and Rapid Protocol for Measuring Neutral Lipids in Algal Cells Using Fluorescence at JoVE.com

A Simple and Rapid Protocol for Measuring Neutral Lipids in Algal Cells Using Fluorescence

A simple protocol to determine the neutral lipid content of algal cells using a Nile Red staining procedure is described. This time-saving technique offers an alternative to traditional gravimetric-based lipid quantification protocols. It has been designed for the specific application of monitoring bioprocess performance.

Algae are considered excellent candidates for renewable fuel sources due to their natural lipid storage capabilities. Robust monitoring of algal ...

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Norbornene can be polymerized by a variety of mechanisms, including insertion polymerization whereby the double bond is polymerized and the bicyclic ...

A Protocol for Safe Lithiation Reactions Using Organolithium Reagents

Organolithium reagents are powerful tools in the synthetic chemist&#39;s toolbox. However, the extreme pyrophoric nature of the most reactive reagents ...

An Optimized Protocol for the Efficient Radiolabeling of Gold Nanoparticles by Using a 125I-labeled Azide Prosthetic Group

An Optimized Protocol for the Efficient Radiolabeling of Gold Nanoparticles by Using a 125I-labeled Azide Prosthetic Group

Here, we demonstrate a detailed protocol for the radiosynthesis of a 125I-labeled azide prosthetic group and its application to the efficient ...

Simultaneous Measurement of HDAC1 and HDAC6 Activity in HeLa Cells Using UHPLC-MS

The search for new histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors is of increasing interest in drug discovery. Isoform selectivity has been in the spotlight since ...

Quantifying X-Ray Fluorescence Data Using MAPS

The quantification of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) microscopy maps by fitting the raw spectra to a known standard is crucial for evaluating chemical ...

Fabrication and Testing of Catalytic Aerogels Prepared Via Rapid Supercritical Extraction

Protocols for preparing and testing catalytic aerogels by incorporating metal species into silica and alumina aerogel platforms are presented. Three ...