This paper is dedicated to my beloved wife Maren and our little Karl.

1. Preparation of Bovine Eyes
<ol>
	<li>Obtain bovine eyes directly after the animal is slaughtered.</li>
	<li>Transport the protected eyes in &#8220;Sickel-solution&#8221; a special medium containing 120 mM NaCl, 2 mM KCl, 0.1 mM MgCl2, 0.15 mM CaCl2, 1.5 mM NaH2PO4, 13.5 mM Na2HPO4 and 5 mM glucose at RT.</li>
	<li>Perform the preparation of the retina under dark adapted conditions with a dim red light.</li>
	<li>Remove the anterior part of the eye. Perform an equatorial incision ca. 4 mm posterior to the limbus. Thereafter remove cornea, iris, ciliary body and lens in one piece. Keep the retinas in Sickel-solution.</li>
	<li>Mechanically loosen the vitreous attachments to the retinal surface and remove the vitreous from the open eye cup.</li>
	<li>Afterwards divide the eye into four quadrants and punch out round areas of ca. 7 mm diameter using a trephine.</li>
	<li>Gently separate the retina from the pigment epithelium and place it on a recording device inside a box protected from light. The recording device consists of a plastic maintainer with a mesh in the middle; place the retina on the mesh and then fix with a plastic ring directly on the electrodes. 
	NOTE: The plastic maintainer has two channels to allow a constant flow of the medium.</li>
</ol>
2. Recording the Electroretinogram (ERG)
<ol>
	<li>In order to record the electroretinogram, use two silver/silver-chloride electrodes on either side of the retina and perfuse the retina at a constant perfusion velocity of ca. 1 ml/min and constant temperature of 37 &#176;C. Use the &#8220;Sickel-solution&#8221; saturated with oxygen.</li>
	<li>Before starting the measurement, dark adapt the retina (protect it from light during all measurements) and use stimulus intervals of five min. Use a 1 Hz single white xenon flash for stimulation with an intensity set to 6.3 mlx at the retinal surface.</li>
	<li>Use calibrated neutral density filters and a light stimulus of 10 &#181;sec controlled by a timer in order to have optimal responses.</li>
	<li>To measure and process the data, filter the ERG and amplify it (100 Hz high pass filter, 50 Hz notch filter, 100,000 x amplification) using a Grass RPS312RM Amplifier. Try to filter out possible disturbing frequencies that may disturb the signal. In order to process the data, use an analog-to-digital data acquisition board on a desktop computer (PC compatible).</li>
	<li>After the dark adaptation period under constant perfusion, measure the amplitudes of the electrical signal until stable b-wave amplitudes are recorded. 
	NOTE: Amplitudes are considered stable if five single measurements reach a mean value and deviate less than 10%. A good example of single measurements is given in Figure 1.</li>
	<li>To start the testing, replace pure oxygen by either pure nitrogen (number of single experiments, n = 5) to test for hypoxia or 250 &#181;m glutamate (n = 5).</li>
	<li>Record the electrical responses every 5 min for 45 min.</li>
	<li>After the testing period, perfuse the retinas with standard medium saturated with oxygen for 75 min and look at the changes of the b-wave amplitude. This is the washout phase. Measure the b-wave amplitude from the trough of the a-wave to the peak of the b-wave.</li>
	<li>To investigate the effect of hypoxia or glutamate on the photoreceptor potential under scotopic conditions, suppress the b-wave by adding 1 mM to the nutrient solution.</li>
	<li>After recording a stable photoreceptor potential for 30 min, carry out the procedure as before, exposing the retinas 45 min to the different irrigation solutions with 1 mM aspartate. Use the same washout period (step 2.8) as mentioned earlier.</li>
</ol>
3. Data Analysis
<ol>
	<li>In order to statistically evaluate the data, ensure a normal distribution for all data, e.g. using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test15.</li>
	<li>Calculate the reduction of the a- and b-wave amplitudes in percentages after the exposure phase in comparison to the last measurement before the exposition. Compare the reduction of the ERG-amplitudes after 45 min &#8211; at the end of the exposition period &#8211; to ERG measured before application.</li>
	<li>Compare the a- and b- wave at the end of the washout phase to the corresponding amplitude before exposition to examine a possible recovery.</li>
	<li>For statistical analysis, use the software JMP statistical software or SPSS software. Calculate data throughout as the mean &#177; standard deviation. Estimate significance by the appropriate statistical test. 
	NOTE: These tests might be different depending on the experimental scope. In this setting, use the Student&#8217;s paired t-test.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Varma, D. D., Cugati, S., Lee, A. W., Chen, C. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+review+of+central+retinal+artery+occlusion:+clinical+presentation+and+management.">A review of central retinal artery occlusion: clinical presentation and management.</a> Eye (Lond). 27, 688-697 (2013).</li><li>Resch, M., Suveges, I., Nemeth, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hypertension-related+eye+disorders).">Hypertension-related eye disorders).</a> Orv Hetil. 154, 1773-1780 (2013).</li><li>Feltgen, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multicenter+study+of+the+European+Assessment+Group+for+Lysis+in+the+Eye+(EAGLE)+for+the+treatment+of+central+retinal+artery+occlusion:+design+issues+and+implications.+EAGLE+Study+report+no.+1+:+EAGLE+Study+report+no.+1.">Multicenter study of the European Assessment Group for Lysis in the Eye (EAGLE) for the treatment of central retinal artery occlusion: design issues and implications. EAGLE Study report no. 1 : EAGLE Study report no. 1.</a> Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 244, 950-956 (2006).</li><li>Dreyer, E. B., Zurakowski, D., Schumer, R. A., Podos, S. M., Lipton, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Elevated+glutamate+levels+in+the+vitreous+body+of+humans+and+monkeys+with+glaucoma.">Elevated glutamate levels in the vitreous body of humans and monkeys with glaucoma.</a> Arch Ophthalmol. 114, 299-305 (1996).</li><li>Bertram, K. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amino-acid+levels+in+subretinal+and+vitreous+fluid+of+patients+with+retinal+detachment.">Amino-acid levels in subretinal and vitreous fluid of patients with retinal detachment.</a> Eye (Lond). 22, 582-589 (2008).</li><li>Diederen, R. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Increased+glutamate+levels+in+the+vitreous+of+patients+with+retinal+detachment).">Increased glutamate levels in the vitreous of patients with retinal detachment).</a> Exp Eye Res. 83, 45-50 (2006).</li><li>Ientile, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Apoptosis+and+necrosis+occurring+in+excitotoxic+cell+death+in+isolated+chick+embryo+retina.">Apoptosis and necrosis occurring in excitotoxic cell death in isolated chick embryo retina.</a> J Neurochem. 79, 71-78 (2001).</li><li>Mali, R. S., Cheng, M., Chintala, S. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plasminogen+activators+promote+excitotoxicity-induced+retinal+damage.">Plasminogen activators promote excitotoxicity-induced retinal damage.</a> FASEB J. 19, 1280-1289 (2005).</li><li>Ambati, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Elevated+gamma-aminobutyric+acid,+glutamate,+and+vascular+endothelial+growth+factor+levels+in+the+vitreous+of+patients+with+proliferative+diabetic+retinopathy.">Elevated gamma-aminobutyric acid, glutamate, and vascular endothelial growth factor levels in the vitreous of patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy.</a> Arch Ophthalmol. 115, 1161-1166 (1997).</li><li>Vorwerk, C. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Depression+of+retinal+glutamate+transporter+function+leads+to+elevated+intravitreal+glutamate+levels+and+ganglion+cell+death.">Depression of retinal glutamate transporter function leads to elevated intravitreal glutamate levels and ganglion cell death.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 41, 3615-3621 (2000).</li><li>Schultheiss, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dulbecco's+Modified+Eagle+Medium+is+neuroprotective+when+compared+to+standard+vitrectomy+irrigation+solution.">Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium is neuroprotective when compared to standard vitrectomy irrigation solution.</a> Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 251, 1613-1619 (2013).</li><li>Januschowski, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparing+the+effects+of+two+different+irrigation+solutions+on+an+isolated+perfused+vertebrate+retina.">Comparing the effects of two different irrigation solutions on an isolated perfused vertebrate retina.</a> Ophthalmic Res. 48, 59-66 (2012).</li><li>Sickel, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Respiratory+and+Electrical+Responses+to+Light+Simulation+in+the+Retina+of+the+Frog.">Respiratory and Electrical Responses to Light Simulation in the Retina of the Frog.</a> Science. 148, 648-651 (1965).</li><li>Luke, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+isolated+perfused+bovine+retina--a+sensitive+tool+for+pharmacological+research+on+retinal+function.+Brain+research.">The isolated perfused bovine retina--a sensitive tool for pharmacological research on retinal function. Brain research.</a> Brain research protocols. 16, 27-36 (2005).</li><li>Henderson, A. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Testing+experimental+data+for+univariate+normality.">Testing experimental data for univariate normality.</a> Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry. 366, 112-129 (2006).</li><li>Alt, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+neuroprotective+potential+of+Rho-kinase+inhibition+in+promoting+cell+survival+and+reducing+reactive+gliosis+in+response+to+hypoxia+in+isolated+bovine+retina.">The neuroprotective potential of Rho-kinase inhibition in promoting cell survival and reducing reactive gliosis in response to hypoxia in isolated bovine retina.</a> Cell Physiol Biochem. 32, 218-234 (2013).</li><li>Green, D. G., Kapousta-Bruneau, N. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrophysiological+properties+of+a+new+isolated+rat+retina+preparation.">Electrophysiological properties of a new isolated rat retina preparation.</a> Vision research. 39, 2165-2177 (1999).</li><li>Richter, S. H., Garner, J. P., Wurbel, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Environmental+standardization:+cure+or+cause+of+poor+reproducibility+in+animal+experiments.">Environmental standardization: cure or cause of poor reproducibility in animal experiments.</a> Nat Methods. 6, 257-261 (2009).</li><li>Dutescu, R. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multifocal+ERG+recordings+under+visual+control+of+the+stimulated+fundus+in+mice.">Multifocal ERG recordings under visual control of the stimulated fundus in mice.</a> Investigative ophthalmology &amp; visual science. 54, 2582-2589 (2013).</li><li>Perlman, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Testing+retinal+toxicity+of+drugs+in+animal+models+using+electrophysiological+and+morphological+techniques.">Testing retinal toxicity of drugs in animal models using electrophysiological and morphological techniques.</a> Doc Ophthalmol. 118, 3-28 (2009).</li><li>Mukhopadhyay, A., Gupta, A., Mukherjee, S., Chaudhuri, K., Ray, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Did+myocilin+evolve+from+two+different+primordial+proteins.">Did myocilin evolve from two different primordial proteins.</a> Mol Vis. 8, 271-279 (2002).</li><li>Januschowski, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluating+retinal+toxicity+of+a+new+heavy+intraocular+dye,+using+a+model+of+perfused+and+isolated+retinal+cultures+of+bovine+and+human+origin.">Evaluating retinal toxicity of a new heavy intraocular dye, using a model of perfused and isolated retinal cultures of bovine and human origin.</a> Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 250, 1013-1022 (2012).</li><li>Luke, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+isolated+perfused+bovine+retina--a+sensitive+tool+for+pharmacological+research+on+retinal+function.">The isolated perfused bovine retina--a sensitive tool for pharmacological research on retinal function.</a> Brain Res Brain Res Protoc. 16, 27-36 (2005).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

In this study, a significant impact on the b-wave amplitude after 45 min of hypoxia was found. This reduction was still significant after the washout phase. A similar effect on the photoreceptor potential could be observed.
The results are supported by other published data16 and give us the opportunity to study possible neuroprotective effects after hypoxia.
After 45 min exposition of 250 &#181;M glutamate, we did find a statistically significant impact o...

Neuroprotection has been a strong field of investigation in ophthalmological research in the past decades. The retina is a highly sensitive neuronal network that depends significantly on oxygenation and is influenced strongly by the metabolism of its surrounding cells. Major ocular pathologies related to nerve cell damage are retinal vascular occlusions, glaucoma, and retinal detachment.
Retinal artery occlusion, as an example for retinal vascular occlusion, leads to a sudden loss of vision due to hypoxia of the inner retina1. It is often associated with general vascular pathologies2 and leads to a persistent visual loss1, with only 8% of patients recovering visual acuity significantly1. Although arterial fibrinolysis has been suggested as a treatment option, the benefit could not be shown in a randomized clinical trial3.
Glaucoma and retinal detachment both have an increase in glutamate concentration4-6. Glutamate under physiologic conditions is encountered as an excitatory transmitter throughout the whole central nervous system and the inner retina7,8. Elevated glutamate levels have been found not only in glaucoma&#160;and retinal detachment5,6 but also in proliferative diabetic retinopathy9. An increase in glutamate possibly leads to excitotoxicity and, therefore, nerve cell damage10. In most cases of retinal detachment and in some cases of proliferative diabetic retinopathy surgery on the retina (pars plana vitrectomy) are necessary. During pars plana vitrectomy mechanical manipulation, bright light of the optic fiber or shear stress exerted by high flow rates of irrigation solutions during long operations exert an additional stress on the retina11,12.
All the mentioned diseases have in common that the pathology is localized to the retina alone and pose the ophthalmologic community with the challenge to find ways to protect the retina as a neurosensory system.
The electroretinogram (ERG) is the standard method for the evaluation of in vivo photoreceptor function (a-wave) and the function of the inner retina (b-wave). The ERG is measured by silver-electrodes introduced into the cornea and the eyes are being stimulated by an increasing level of light to detect defects in rods or cones or in the inner retina. Different defects in the retina can be detected by changes in the amplitude (the strength of the response) or the latency (the time-to-response-interval) of the ERG. Different ERG protocol and measurement methods (pattern-ERG, multifocal-ERG or bright field ERG) allow further differentiation of defects. The technique of the isolated retina has been introduced recently, making it possible to evaluate effects on the retina without interferences from e.g. a study animal&#8217;s general reactions13,14.
It was the purpose of this study to evaluate and introduce a defined and standardized stress model for hypoxia and glutamate stress on the superfused isolated retina. Thus, we are hoping to lay the foundations for future studies on neuroprotective effects of certain agents or intraocular irrigation solutions.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="573">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;">120 mM NaCl&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Merck Pharma, Germany</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">1,064,041,000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">2 mM KCl,&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Merck Pharma, Germany</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">1,050,010,250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">0.1 mM MgCl2,&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Merck Pharma, Germany</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">58,330,250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">0.15 mM CaCl2</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Merck Pharma, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">111 TA106282</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">1.5 mM NaH2PO4/13.5 mM Na2HPO4&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Merck Pharma, Germany</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">1,065,860,500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">5 mM glucose</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Merck Pharma, Germany</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">40,741,000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

glutamate and hypoxia as a stress model for the isolated perfused vertebrate retina

Neuroprotection has been a strong field of investigation in ophthalmological research in the past decades and affects diseases such as glaucoma, retinal vascular occlusion, retinal detachment, and diabetic retinopathy. It was the object of this study to introduce a standardized stress model for future preclinical therapeutic testing.
Bovine retinas were prepared and perfused with an oxygen saturated standard solution, and the ERG was recorded. After recording stable b-waves, hypoxia (pure N2) or glutamate stress (250 &#181;m glutamate) was exerted for 45 min. To investigate the effects on photoreceptor function alone, 1 mM aspartate was added to obtain a-waves. ERG-recovery was monitored for 75 min.
For hypoxia, a decrease in a-wave amplitude of 87.0% was noted (p &#60;0.01) after an exposition time of 45 min (decrease of 36.5% after the end of the washout p = 0.03). Additionally, an initial decrease in b-wave amplitudes of 87.23% was recorded, that reached statistical significance (p &#60;0.01, decrease of 25.5% at the end of the washout, p = 0.03).
For 250 &#181;m glutamate, an initial 7.8% reduction of a-wave amplitudes (p &#62;0.05) followed by a reduction of 1.9% (p &#62;0.05). A reduction of 83.7% of b-wave amplitudes (p &#60;0.01) was noted; after a washout of 75 min the reduction was 2.3% (p = 0.62). In this study, a standardized stress model is presented that may be useful to identify possible neuroprotective effects in the future.

After 1 hr of perfusion of the retinal preparations with oxygen-saturated standard solution (Figure 1A and B) ERG-amplitudes showed stabilization and less variation of amplitudes between single measurements. pH, osmotic pressure, temperature, and pO2 (except for hypoxia testing) were kept constant for all tests.
To isolate the photoreceptor signal from the signal of the inner retina, 1 mM aspartate was added to the standard solution to suppress the b-wave (Figure 1A...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Glutamate and Hypoxia as a Stress Model for the Isolated Perfused Vertebrate Retina at JoVE.com

Glutamate and Hypoxia as a Stress Model for the Isolated Perfused Vertebrate Retina

With this study, we introduce a standardized stress model for the isolated superfused bovine retina for future preclinical therapeutic testing. The effect of either hypoxia (pure N2) or glutamate stress (250 &#181;M glutamate) on retinal function represented by a- and b-wave amplitudes was evaluated.

Neuroprotection has been a strong field of investigation in ophthalmological research in the past decades and affects diseases such as glaucoma, retinal ...

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7.8K Views.  University Eye Hospital Tübingen. With this study, we introduce a standardized stress model for the isolated superfused bovine retina for future preclinical therapeutic testing. The effect of either hypoxia (pure N2) or glutamate stress (250 µM glutamate) on retinal function represented by a- and b-wave amplitudes was evaluated.

Video: Glutamate and Hypoxia as a Stress Model for the Isolated Perfused Vertebrate Retina

Development of a Unilaterally-lesioned 6-OHDA Mouse Model of Parkinson's Disease

The unilaterally lesioned 6-hyroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-lesioned rat model of Parkinson's disease (PD) has proved to be invaluable in advancing our understanding of the mechanisms underlying parkinsonian symptoms, since it recapitulates the changes in basal ganglia circuitry and pharmacology observed in parkinsonian patients1-4. However, the precise cellular and molecular changes occurring at cortico-striatal synapses of the output pathways within the striatum, which is the major input region of the basal ganglia remain elusive, and this is believed to be site where pathological abnormalities underlying parkinsonian symptoms arise3,5.
In PD, understanding the mechanisms underlying changes in basal ganglia circuitry following degeneration of the nigro-striatal pathway has been greatly advanced by the development of bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) mice over-expressing green fluorescent proteins driven by promoters specific for the two striatal output pathways (direct pathway: eGFP-D1; indirect pathway: eGFP-D2 and eGFP-A2a)8, allowing them to be studied in isolation. For example, recent studies have suggested that there are pathological changes in synaptic plasticity in parkinsonian mice9,10. However, these studies utilised juvenile mice and acute models of parkinsonism. It is unclear whether the changes described in adult rats with stable 6-OHDA lesions also occur in these models. Other groups have attempted to generate a stable unilaterally-lesioned 6-OHDA adult mouse model of PD by lesioning the medial forebrain bundle (MFB), unfortunately, the mortality rate in this study was extremely high, with only 14% surviving the surgery for 21 days or longer11. More recent studies have generated intra-nigral lesions with both a low mortality rate &gt;80% loss of dopaminergic neurons, however expression of L-DOPA induced dyskinesia11,12,13,14 was variable in these studies. Another well established mouse model of PD is the MPTP-lesioned mouse15. Whilst this model has proven useful in the assessment of potential neuroprotective agents16, it is less suitable for understanding mechanisms underlying symptoms of PD, as this model often fails to induce motor deficits, and shows a wide variability in the extent of lesion17, 18.
Here we have developed a stable unilateral 6-OHDA-lesioned mouse model of PD by direct administration of 6-OHDA into the MFB, which consistently causes &gt;95% loss of striatal dopamine (as measured by HPLC), as well as producing the behavioural imbalances observed in the well characterised unilateral 6-OHDA-lesioned rat model of PD. This newly developed mouse model of PD will prove a valuable tool in understanding the mechanisms underlying generation of parkinsonian symptoms.

Development of a Unilaterally-lesioned 6-OHDA Mouse Model of Parkinson&#039;s Disease

A protocol for performing unilateral 6-OHDA lesions of the medial forebrain bundle in mice is described. This method has a low mortality rate (13.3 %) with 89% of the surviving animals showing &#62;95% loss of striatal dopamine and 90.63&#177;-4.02 % ipsiversive rotational bias towards the side of the lesion.

The unilaterally lesioned 6-hyroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-lesioned rat model of Parkinson's disease (PD) has proved to be invaluable in advancing our ...

The Trier Social Stress Test Protocol for Inducing Psychological Stress

This article demonstrates a psychological stress protocol for use in a laboratory setting. Protocols that allow researchers to study the biological pathways of the stress response in health and disease are fundamental to the progress of research in stress and anxiety.1 Although numerous protocols exist for inducing stress response in the laboratory, many neglect to provide a naturalistic context or to incorporate aspects of social and psychological stress. Of psychological stress protocols, meta-analysis suggests that the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) is the most useful and appropriate standardized protocol for studies of stress hormone reactivity.2 In the original description of the TSST, researchers sought to design and evaluate a procedure capable of inducing a reliable stress response in the majority of healthy volunteers.3 These researchers found elevations in heart rate, blood pressure and several endocrine stress markers in response to the TSST (a psychological stressor) compared to a saline injection (a physical stressor).3 Although the TSST has been modified to meet the needs of various research groups, it generally consists of a waiting period upon arrival, anticipatory speech preparation, speech performance, and verbal arithmetic performance periods, followed by one or more recovery periods. The TSST requires participants to prepare and deliver a speech, and verbally respond to a challenging arithmetic problem in the presence of a socially evaluative audience.3 Social evaluation and uncontrollability have been identified as key components of stress induction by the TSST.4 In use for over a decade, the goal of the TSST is to systematically induce a stress response in order to measure differences in reactivity, anxiety and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) or sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) axis during the task.1 Researchers generally assess changes in self-reported anxiety, physiological measures (e.g. heart rate), and/or neuroendocrine indices (e.g. the stress hormone cortisol) in response to the TSST. Many investigators have adopted salivary sampling for stress markers such as cortisol and alpha-amylase (a marker of autonomic nervous system activation) as an alternative to blood sampling to reduce the confounding stress of blood-collection techniques. In addition to changes experienced by an individual completing the TSST, researchers can compare changes between different treatment groups (e.g. clinical versus healthy control samples) or the effectiveness of stress-reducing interventions.1

This article describes a protocol for inducing psychological stress in participants, which enables researchers to measure psychological, physiological and neuroendocrine responses to stress within single participants or between groups.

This article demonstrates a psychological stress protocol for use in a laboratory setting.  Protocols that allow researchers to study the biological ...

Biomarkers in an Animal Model for Revealing Neural, Hematologic, and Behavioral Correlates of PTSD

Identification of biomarkers representing the evolution of the pathophysiology of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is vitally important, not only for objective diagnosis but also for the evaluation of therapeutic efficacy and resilience to trauma. Ongoing research is directed at identifying molecular biomarkers for PTSD, including traumatic stress induced proteins, transcriptomes, genomic variances and genetic modulators, using biologic samples from subjects' blood, saliva, urine, and postmortem brain tissues. However, the correlation of these biomarker molecules in peripheral or postmortem samples to altered brain functions associated with psychiatric symptoms in PTSD remains unresolved. Here, we present an animal model of PTSD in which both peripheral blood and central brain biomarkers, as well as behavioral phenotype, can be collected and measured, thus providing the needed correlation of the central biomarkers of PTSD, which are mechanistic and pathognomonic but cannot be collected from people, with the peripheral biomarkers and behavioral phenotypes, which can.
Our animal model of PTSD employs restraint and tail shocks repeated for three continuous days - the inescapable tail-shock model (ITS) in rats. This ITS model mimics the pathophysiology of PTSD 17, 7, 4, 10. We and others have verified that the ITS model induces behavioral and neurobiological alterations similar to those found in PTSD subjects 17, 7, 10, 9. Specifically, these stressed rats exhibit (1) a delayed and exaggerated startle response appearing several days after stressor cessation, which given the compressed time scale of the rat's life compared to a humans, corresponds to the one to three months delay of symptoms in PTSD patients (DSM-IV-TR PTSD Criterian D/E 13), (2) enhanced plasma corticosterone (CORT) for several days, indicating compromise of the hypothalamopituitary axis (HPA), and (3) retarded body weight gain after stressor cessation, indicating dysfunction of metabolic regulation.
The experimental paradigms employed for this model are: (1) a learned helplessness paradigm in the rat assayed by measurement of acoustic startle response (ASR) and a charting of body mass; (2) microdissection of the rat brain into regions and nuclei; (3) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for blood levels of CORT; (4) a gene expression microarray plus related bioinformatics tools 18. This microarray, dubbed rMNChip, focuses on mitochondrial and mitochondria-related nuclear genes in the rat so as to specifically address the neuronal bioenergetics hypothesized to be involved in PTSD.

We describe a rat model of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) that reveals the persistent alterations in neuroendocrine function and the delayed long-term, exaggerated fear response, characteristic of PTSD patients. The animal model and methods described here are useful for correlating biomarkers in brain nuclei, which are mechanistic but cannot be measured in patients, with biomarkers in peripheral white blood cells, which can.

Identification of biomarkers representing the evolution of the pathophysiology of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is vitally important, not only for ...

The In ovo CAM-assay as a Xenograft Model for Sarcoma

Sarcoma is a very rare disease that is heterogeneous in nature, all hampering the development of new therapies. Sarcoma patients are ideal candidates for personalized medicine after stratification, explaining the current interest in developing a reproducible and low-cost xenotransplant model for this disease. The chick chorioallantoic membrane is a natural immunodeficient host capable of sustaining grafted tissues and cells without species-specific restrictions. In addition, it is easily accessed, manipulated and imaged using optical and fluorescence stereomicroscopy. Histology further allows detailed analysis of heterotypic cellular interactions.
This protocol describes in detail the in ovo grafting of the chorioallantoic membrane with fresh sarcoma-derived tumor tissues, their single cell suspensions, and permanent and transient fluorescently labeled established sarcoma cell lines (Saos-2 and SW1353). The chick survival rates are up to 75%. The model is used to study graft- (viability, Ki67 proliferation index, necrosis, infiltration) and host (fibroblast infiltration, vascular ingrowth) behavior. For localized grafting of single cell suspensions, ECM gel provides significant advantages over inert containment materials. The Ki67 proliferation index is related to the distance of the cells from the surface of the CAM and the duration of application on the CAM, the latter determining a time frame for the addition of therapeutic products.

The In ovo CAM-assay as a Xenograft Model for Sarcoma

The in ovo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) is grafted with fresh sarcoma-derived tumor tissues, their single cell suspensions, and permanent and transient fluorescently labeled established sarcoma cell lines. The model is used to study graft- (viability, Ki67 proliferation index, necrosis, infiltration) and host (fibroblast infiltration, vascular ingrowth) behavior.

Sarcoma is a very rare disease that is heterogeneous in nature, all hampering the development of new therapies. Sarcoma patients are ideal candidates for ...

Retinal Detachment Model in Rodents by Subretinal Injection of Sodium Hyaluronate

Subretinal injection of sodium hyaluronate is a widely accepted method of inducing retinal detachment (RD). However, the height and duration of RD or the occurrence of subretinal hemorrhage can affect photoreceptor cell death in the detached retina. Hence, it is advantageous to create reproducible RDs without subretinal hemorrhage for evaluating photoreceptor cell death. We modified a previously reported method to create bullous and persistent RDs in a reproducible location with rare occurrence of subretinal hemorrhage. The critical step of this modified method is the creation of a self-sealing scleral incision, which can prevent leakage of sodium hyaluronate after injection into the subretinal space. To make the self-sealing scleral incision, a scleral tunnel is created, followed by scleral penetration into the choroid with a 30 G needle. Although choroidal hemorrhage may occur during this step, astriction with a surgical spear reduces the rate of choroidal hemorrhage. This method allows a more reproducible and reliable model of photoreceptor death in diseases that involve RD such as rhegmatogenous RD, retinopathy of prematurity, diabetic retinopathy, central serous chorioretinopathy, and age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

Creating experimental retinal detachments with a reproducible and sustained height of detachment, and without subretinal hemorrhage, is important for studying the pathophysiology of photoreceptor cell loss in retinal disease and evaluating potential therapeutic interventions. Here, we report such a method in detail.

Subretinal injection of sodium hyaluronate is a widely accepted method of inducing retinal detachment (RD). However, the height and duration of RD or the ...

Excitotoxic Stimulation of Brain Microslices as an In vitro Model of Stroke

Examining molecular mechanisms involved in neuropathological conditions, such as ischemic stroke, can be difficult when using whole animal systems. As such, primary or &#39;neuronal-like&#39; cell culture systems are commonly utilized. While&#160;these systems are relatively easy to work with, and are useful model systems in which various functional outcomes (such as cell death) can be readily quantified, the examined outcomes and pathways in cultured immature neurons (such as excitotoxicity-mediated cell death pathways) are not necessarily the same as those observed in mature brain, or in intact tissue. Therefore, there is the need to develop models in which cellular mechanisms in mature neural tissue can be examined. We have developed an in vitro technique that can be used to investigate a variety of molecular pathways in intact nervous tissue. The technique described herein utilizes rat cortical tissue, but this technique can be adapted to use tissue from a variety of species (such as mouse, rabbit, guinea pig, and chicken) or brain regions (for example, hippocampus, striatum, etc.). Additionally, a variety of stimulations/treatments can be used (for example, excitotoxic, administration of inhibitors, etc.). In conclusion, the brain slice model described herein can be used to examine a variety of molecular mechanisms involved in excitotoxicity-mediated brain injury.

Excitotoxic Stimulation of Brain Microslices as an In vitro Model of Stroke

We have developed a brain slice model which can be used to examine molecular mechanisms involved in excitotoxicity-mediated brain injury.&#160;This technique generates viable mature brain tissue and reduces animal numbers required for experimentation, whilst keeping the neuronal circuitry, cellular interactions, and postsynaptic compartments partly intact.

Examining molecular mechanisms involved in neuropathological conditions, such as ischemic stroke, can be difficult when using whole animal systems. As ...

Isolated Hepatic Perfusion as a Treatment for Liver Metastases of Uveal Melanoma

Isolated hepatic perfusion (IHP) is a procedure where the liver is surgically isolated and perfused with a high concentration of the chemotherapeutic agent melphalan. Briefly, the procedure starts with the setup of a percutaneous veno-venous bypass from the femoral vein to the external jugular vein. Via a laparotomy, catheters are then inserted into the proper hepatic artery and the caval vein. The portal vein and the caval vein, both supra- and infrahepatically, are then clamped. The arterial and venous catheters are connected to a heart lung machine and the liver is perfused with melphalan (1 mg/kg body weight) for 60 min. This way it is possible to locally perfuse the liver with a high dose of a chemotherapeutic agent, without leakage to the systemic circulation.
In previous studies including patients with isolated liver metastases of uveal melanoma, an overall response rate of 33-100% and a median survival between 9 and 13 months, have been reported. The aim of this protocol is to give a clear description of how to perform the procedure and to discuss IHP as a treatment option for liver metastases of uveal melanoma.

Here, we present a protocol how to perform an isolated liver perfusion (IHP) with melphalan and we also discuss IHP as a treatment option for liver metastases of uveal melanoma.

Isolated hepatic perfusion (IHP) is a procedure where the liver is surgically isolated and perfused with a high concentration of the chemotherapeutic ...

A Thrombotic Stroke Model Based On Transient Cerebral Hypoxia-ischemia

Stroke research has endured many setbacks in translating neuroprotective therapies into clinical practice. In contrast, the real-world therapy (tPA thrombolysis) rarely produces benefits in mechanical occlusion-based experimental models, which dominate preclinical stroke research. This split between the bench and bedside suggests the need to employ tPA-responsive models in preclinical stroke research. To this end, a simple and tPA-reactive thrombotic stroke model is invented and described here. This model consists of transient occlusion of the unilateral common carotid artery and delivery of 7.5% oxygen through a face mask in adult mice for 30 min, while maintaining the animal rectal temperature at 37.5 &#177; 0.5 &#176;C. Although reversible ligation of the unilateral carotid artery or hypoxia each suppressed cerebral blood flow only transiently, the combination of both insults caused lasting reperfusion deficits, fibrin and platelet deposition, and large infarct in the middle cerebral artery-supplied territory. Importantly, tail-vein injection of recombinant tPA at 0.5, 1, or 4 hr post-tHI (10 mg/kg) provided time-dependent reduction of the mortality rate and infarct size. This new stroke model is simple and can be standardized across laboratories to compare experimental results. Further, it induces thrombosis without craniectomy or introducing pre-formed emboli. Given these unique merits, the tHI model is a useful addition to the repertoire of preclinical stroke research.

Thromboembolic stroke models are vital tools for optimizing the recanalization therapy. Here we report a murine thrombotic stroke model based on transient cerebral hypoxic-ischemic (tHI) insult, which triggers thrombosis and infarction, and responds favorably to tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)-mediated fibrinolysis in a therapeutic window similar to those in stroke patients.

Stroke research has endured many setbacks in translating neuroprotective therapies into clinical practice. In contrast, the real-world therapy (tPA ...

A Model to Simulate Clinically Relevant Hypoxia in Humans

In case of apnea, arterial partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) decreases, while partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) increases. To avoid damage to hypoxia sensitive organs such as the brain, compensatory circulatory mechanisms help to maintain an adequate oxygen supply. This is mainly achieved by increased cerebral blood flow. Intermittent hypoxia is a commonly seen phenomenon in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Acute airway obstruction can also result in hypoxia and hypercapnia. Until now, no adequate model has been established to simulate these dynamics in humans. Previous investigations focusing on human hypoxia used inhaled hypoxic gas mixtures. However, the resulting hypoxia was combined with hyperventilation and is therefore more representative of high altitude environments than of apnea. Furthermore, the transferability of previously performed animal experiments to humans is limited and the pathophysiological background of apnea induced physiological changes is poorly understood. In this study, healthy human apneic divers were utilized to mimic clinically relevant hypoxia and hypercapnia during apnea. Additionally, pulse-oximetry and Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) were used to evaluate changes in cerebral and peripheral oxygen saturation before, during, and after apnea.

Hypoxia simulation in humans has usually been performed by inhaling hypoxic gas mixtures. For this study, apneic divers were used to simulate dynamic hypoxia in humans. Additionally, physiological changes in desaturation and re-saturation kinetics were evaluated with non-invasive tools such as Near-Infrared-Spectroscopy (NIRS) and peripheral oxygenation saturation (SpO2).

In case of apnea, arterial partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) decreases, while partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) increases. To avoid damage to ...

Isometric Contractility Measurement of the Mouse Mesenteric Artery Using Wire Myography

The wire myograph technique is used to assess the contractility of vascular smooth muscles in response to depolarization, GPCR agonists/inhibitors and drugs. It is widely used in many studies on the physiological functions of vascular smooth muscle, the pathogenesis of vascular diseases such as hypertension, and the development of smooth muscle relaxant drugs. The mouse is a widely used model animal with a large pool of disease models and genetically modified strains. We introduced this method to measure the isometric contraction of mouse mesenteric artery in detail. A 1.4-mm segment of mouse mesenteric resistance artery was isolated and mounted on a myograph chamber by passing two steel wires through its lumen. After equilibration and normalization steps, the vessel segment was potentiated by a high-K+ solution twice prior to the contraction assay. As an example of the application of this method in drug development, we measured the relaxant effect of a novel natural substance, neoliensinine, isolated from a Chinese herb, embryos of the lotus seed (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) on mouse mesenteric arteries. The vessel segments mounted on the myograph chamber were stimulated with a high-K+ solution. When the force tension reached a stable sustained phase, cumulative doses of neoliensinine were added to the chamber. We found that neoliensinine had a dose-dependent relaxant effect on smooth muscle contraction, thus suggesting that it bears potential activity against hypertension. In addition, as the vessel segment can survive at least 4 hours after mounting and maintain contractility induced by the high-K+ solution for many times, we suggest that the wire myograph system may be used for the time-consuming process of drug screening.

The wire myograph technique is used to investigate vascular smooth muscle functions and screen new drugs. We report a detailed protocol for measuring the isometric contractility of the mouse mesenteric artery and for screening new relaxants of vascular smooth muscle.

The wire myograph technique is used to assess the contractility of vascular smooth muscles in response to depolarization, GPCR agonists/inhibitors and ...