We wish to thank the administrative staff of CIBIO (University of Trento) and CNR Neuroscience Institute for assistance. Giovanni Provenzano is supported by a post-doctoral fellowship from Fondazione Veronesi (Milan, Italy). This work was funded by the Italian Ministry of University and Research (PRIN 2008 grant # 200894SYW2_002 and PRIN 2010-2011 grant # 2010N8PBAA_002 to Y.B.), University of Trento (CIBIO start-up grant to Y.B.) and Telethon Foundation (grant # GGP13034 to Y.B.).

All experiments were conducted in conformity with the European Community Directive 2010/63/EU and were approved by the Italian Ministry of Health.
1. Animal Care, Housing and Treatment
<ol>
	<li>Perform all experimental protocols using mice in accordance with the guidelines of the respective institutional animal care.</li>
	<li>Maintain animals in a 12 hr light/dark cycle with food and water available ad libitum.</li>
	<li>House the mice in groups of 2-4, in standard-sized polycarbonate mouse cages with sawdust and bedding material changed weekly.</li>
	<li>Use age and sex-matched mice, because susceptibility to disease can vary with age and gender in different mouse models of neurodevelopmental disorders.</li>
	<li>Choose an appropriate number of animals to reach statistical significance (a minimum of 10 mice per genotype for the behavioral study and 4 mice per genotype for the immunohistochemistry experiment).</li>
</ol>
2. Morris Water Maze (MWM)
<ol>
	<li>Use a Circular Tank (diameter 100 cm, height 50 cm).
	<ol>
		<li>Place some visual cues on the room dividers around the tank.</li>
		<li>Place a 10 cm diameter platform into the tank at a fixed location in the center of one of four imaginary quadrants. Keep the hidden platform in the same quadrant for all trials across all training sessions.</li>
		<li>Fill the pool with tap water until the platform is 1 cm above the water surface. Equilibrate water temperature should be close to 22 &#176;C; this step may take several hours. Add hot water to shorten the time required to equilibrate water temperature.</li>
		<li>Add approximately 1.5-2 L of white, non-toxic paint to make the water opaque.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Track Acquisition Procedure
	<ol>
		<li>Set up MWM&#8217;s tracking system with standard CCD cameras and video boards. Choose a video-tracking system to monitor and analyze several variables such as path length, escape latency, and time spent in each quadrant.</li>
		<li>Divide the arena in four quadrants and adjust detection settings to ensure optimal contrast between animals and background for live tracking.</li>
		<li>Specify the platform region.</li>
		<li>Set the maximum trial time as 60 sec.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>MWM Testing
	<ol>
		<li>Prior to behavior testing, allow mice an adaptation period of 20-25 min in an area where they cannot see the pool or spatial cues.</li>
		<li>Train each mouse for 9 days (two consecutive trials a day, with 20-30 min interval between them).</li>
		<li>Switch on the computer and the camera and start the video-tracking system software.</li>
		<li>Take the mouse by its tail and place it into water, with its head pointed towards the side of pool, starting from one of the four start positions (north, south, east, west). For each mouse, the start position should be different and pseudorandomized across trials.</li>
		<li>Let the mouse swim and search for the platform for a maximum of 60 sec. Once the animal reaches the platform, allow it to stay on the platform for 20 sec.</li>
		<li>If mouse failed to locate the platform within that time, gently guide the mouse to the platform, holding it by its tail and let it to stay there for 20 sec. Once the animal has completed all two trials, dry it off with a towel and put it back into cage.</li>
		<li>Each day of the training period, repeat the same procedure (steps 2.3.4-2.3.6).</li>
		<li>Perform the probe test on day 9 after the last training trail.</li>
		<li>Remove the platform from the pool.</li>
		<li>Let the mouse swim and search for the platform for a maximum of 60 sec.</li>
		<li>Periodically, check the water temperature so that it should be the same (22 &#176;C) and clean out the pool.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Preparation of Sections from Perfused Animals
<ol>
	<li>Sacrifice the mice at the end of MWM. Four mice per genotype must be anesthetized prior to euthanization according to local and international guidelines.</li>
	<li>Perfuse the animal transcardially (cut the right auriclewith a scissor to allow bleeding and introduce a butterfly cannula into the left ventricle to perfuse) with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) for 4-5 min, followed by 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS for 10-15 min22.</li>
	<li>Dissect and post-fix the brains in 4% paraformaldehyde at 4 &#176;C for at least 12 hr.</li>
	<li>Place the brains in 50 ml polystyrene conical tubes containing 15 ml of 0.02% Sodium Azide in 0.1 M PBS and store at 4 &#176;C until required for slicing.</li>
	<li>Cut and remove the cerebellum before vibratome cutting.</li>
	<li>Glue the brain upright with the cutting site, using superglue, onto the holder plate of the vibratome.</li>
	<li>Cut the brain into 20-40 &#181;m thick coronal sections, in serial order throughout the dorsal hippocampus, on appropriate vibratome.</li>
	<li>Collect vibratome slices with a paint brush and transfer to a 24 multi-well plate containing 1 ml of 0.1 M PBS for each well.</li>
	<li>Store sections for short term in PBS or long term in 0.02% Sodium Azide in PBS at 4 &#186;C (tissue might be used for up to one year).</li>
</ol>
4. Immunohistochemistry
<ol>
	<li>Transfer 3-5 dorsal hippocampal sections for each mouse, into 24 multi-well plate containing 500 &#181;l of 0.1 M PBS for each well.</li>
	<li>Wash the sections contained in each well with 500 &#181;l of 0.1 M PBS (5 min,&#160; 3 times with gentle shaking).</li>
	<li>Quench endogenous peroxidase activity, by incubating sections in 1% H2O2 in PBS for 20 min with gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Wash sections in 0.1 M PBS with gentle agitation (3 x 5 min).</li>
	<li>Permeabilization of tissue: incubate sections for 5 min in 0.2% Triton X-100 in PBS.</li>
	<li>During the above steps (4.4; 4.5), make enough blocking buffer (10% Goat Serum and 0.1% Triton-X100 in PBS) for the entire experiment (number of sections x 100 &#181;l x 3 steps).</li>
	<li>Note: Use serum from the same species in which the secondary Ab (conjugated to biotin) was made.</li>
	<li>Prevent non-specific binding of the antibody, by incubating sections in blocking buffer (100 &#181;l/section) for 1 hr at room temperature (RT) with gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Incubate sections in primary Ab (pERK) diluted in blocking buffer, overnight at 4 &#176;C, with gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Wash sections in 0.1 M PBS with gentle agitation (3 x 5 min).</li>
	<li>Incubate with the secondary Ab conjugated with biotin (1:250) diluted in blocking buffer (same as used in step 4.6) for 1 hr at RT with gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Prepare ABC reagent at the same time, because Avidin and biotin require at least 30 min at room temperature to complex.</li>
	<li>Prepare the required volume of ABC reagent according to manufacturers&#8217; protocol.</li>
	<li>Wash sections in 0.1 M PBS with gentle agitation (3 x 5 min).</li>
	<li>Incubate sections for 45 min at RT with ABC Reagent.</li>
	<li>Wash sections in 0.1 M PBS with gentle agitation (3 x 5 min).</li>
	<li>Prepare DAB working solution, every step involving DAB must be done in the fume hood as DAB is carcinogenic and teratogenic.</li>
	<li>Transfer DAB solution to a new plate by plastic transfer pipette.</li>
	<li>Place sections in the plate containing DAB working solution and slowly swirl plate by hand, to allow maximum exposure to sections.</li>
	<li>Monitor DAB reaction on microscope until adequate signal develops (2-5 min).</li>
	<li>Stop the reaction at the desired color intensity by washing the tissue in 0.1 M PBS (3 x 5 min).</li>
	<li>Use bleach to deactivate any remaining DAB substrate solution in the fume hood overnight and dispose of it according to laboratory guidelines.</li>
	<li>Mount sections on gelatin coated slides by floating in PBS. Then dry them at room temperature at least 3-4 hr.</li>
	<li>Dehydrate the sections sequentially in 50%, 70%, 95% and 100% ethanol for 2 min each, and clear in 100% xylene for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Coverslip using mounting medium and leave in fume hood to dry overnight.</li>
</ol>
5. Cell Count
<ol>
	<li>Count pERK-positive cells, three to five sections at the level of the dorsal hippocampus should be analyzed per animal.</li>
	<li>Acquire multiple bright-field images from each section at 200X magnification using an appropriate microscope, and then assemble them using an image processing software.</li>
	<li>Perform cell counts on tiff-converted mosaic images using the ImageJ free software.</li>
	<li>Count pERK-stained cells in the hilus and granule cell layer over two to three counting boxes of 100 &#215; 100 &#181;m each.</li>
	<li>Cell densities will be expressed as the number of labeled cells per counting window (100 &#215; 100 &#181;m).</li>
	<li>Perform statistical analysis to assess significant difference between genotypes. This can be accomplished with Student&#39;s t test or ANOVA followed by appropriate post hoc test using commercial softwares. Set statistical significance level at p &#60;0.05.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose

Here, we provide a pERK immunohistochemistry protocol for revealing neuronal activation following MWM in En2-/- mice, a mouse model of neurodevelopmental disorders. Decreased levels of pERK were detected in the CA3 subfield of En2-/- mutants compared to WT. Differently from what observed in CA3 subfield, a general increase of pERK-positive neurons was instead detected in both hilus and GCL of En2-/- mice compared to WT. A possible explanation of this opposite trend in ERK phosphorylation ...

Neurodevelopmental disorders include a wide and heterogeneous group of disorders such as Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome (FXS), Rett syndrome, neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis and ASD, in which the development and maturation of the central nervous system (CNS) is disturbed early during the prenatal period1. These developmental brain dysfunctions can cause profound, lifelong effects on motor function, language, learning and memory process. A plethora of genetic and environmental factors have been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental disorders during the last few years2,3. Even if the molecular mechanisms underlying the clinical phenotype remain unknown, the above mentioned findings have allowed the development of several mouse models of these disorders. Learning and memory deficits have been identified in a number of these mouse models such as Tsc1+/-, Tsc2+/-, Nf1+/- and En2-/- mice2,4-7. An important challenge in the field of neurodevelopmental disorders is the identification of cellular and molecular processes underlying memory and learning dysfunction. Selected signaling pathways activated during learning or memory can induce the transcription of specific genes and ultimately lead to de novo protein synthesis. Immediate-early genes (IEGs) activation and protein-dependent synaptic modifications are rapidly induced in brain neurons in response to neuronal activity and behavioral training8,9.
Deficits in signaling pathways involving neurofibromin have been associated with impaired learning in neurodevelopmental disorders. Neurofibromin is the product of the NF1 gene, whose mutation causes neurofibromatosis type 1, a complex genetic syndrome characterized by nervous system tumors, behavioral and motor delays, and cognitive disabilities10. Mice heterozygous for Nf1 deletion restricted to inhibitory neurons show deficits in the early phase of long-term potentiation (LTP), as well as compromised spatial learning in MWM5,11,12. Interestingly, Nf1 deficiency in this mouse model leads to an over-activation of Ras signaling in inhibitory interneurons during learning, resulting in increased ERK phosphorylation and finally in an abnormal enhancement of GABA release from these neurons5.
Based on these findings, the visualization of neuronal activity after behavioral tasks represents a way to reconstruct specific circuits involved in neurodevelopmental diseases. The immunohistochemistry protocol described here aims to assess and quantify hippocampal ERK phosphorylation levels following MWM in an ASD mouse model with cognitive deficits. MWM is widely used to investigate hippocampal dependent spatial learning and memory in rodents13,14. We decide to use ERK phosphorylation as molecular readout of task-dependent hippocampal learning, since ERK was shown to have an essential role in learning and memory formation15. Moreover, the ERK pathway is necessary for experience-dependent plasticity in the developing visual cortex16. Finally, mice lacking one of the two ERK isoforms (ERK2) in the CNS show marked anomalies in cognitive, emotional and social behaviors17, indicating that ERK signaling might play a critical role in the pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental disorders such as ASD.
We used Engrailed 2 knockout (En2-/-) mice as a model of neurodevelopmental disorders. En2-/- mice show anatomical and behavioral &#8220;ASD-like&#8221; features, including loss of forebrain interneurons18, reduced expression of ASD-related genes19, decreased sociability, and impaired cognitive flexibility6,7,20. Spatial learning and memory defects, such as those detected in MWM, are especially robust in En2-/- mice6,7 and might be relevant to the cognitive impairments observed in ASD patients21. Furthermore, we showed that impaired spatial learning in MWM is associated with reduced neurofibromin expression and increased pERK levels in the hilus of En2-/-adult mice7. Here we present the detailed protocol for the immunohistochemical characterization of pERK following MWM in this ASD mouse model.

<table><tbody><tr><td>EthoVision XT 8</td><td>Noldus Information Technology</td><td></td><td>This software platform is not a requirement &amp;ndash; there are many other behavioral softwares on the market.</td></tr><tr><td>Tempera Paint</td><td>Giotto - Fila Group Company</td><td></td><td>White and liquid, non toxic. Used to prepare opaque water in the Morris water maze.</td></tr><tr><td>Vibratome</td><td>Leica</td><td>VT1200</td><td>Equivalent models from other companies can be used.</td></tr><tr><td>24 well plate</td><td>Sigma</td><td>CLS3524</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>100% ethanol</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>A406-20</td><td>Used to make ethanol gradient for dehydration prior to slide mounting.</td></tr><tr><td>Xylene</td><td>VWR</td><td>66004-950</td><td>Toxic - to be used under hood. Change xylene every month depending on use.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium Azide</td><td>Sigma</td><td>&amp;nbsp;S2002</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PBS</td><td>Sigma</td><td>P3813-10PAK</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ddH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Triton X-100</td><td>Sigma&amp;nbsp;</td><td>T-8787</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hydrogen Peroxide</td><td>Sigma</td><td>H1009-100ML</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Normal Goat Serum</td><td>Abcam</td><td>G9023-10ML</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ABC kit Vectastain&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Vector Laboratories</td><td>PK-6100</td><td>Add in a volume of 5 ml of PBS 2 drops of reagent A, mix and then add 2 drops of reagent B and mix.</td></tr><tr><td>DAB peroxidase substrate</td><td>Vector Laboratories</td><td>SK-4100</td><td>Add in a volume of 5 ml ddH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O: 2 drops of buffer stock solution and mix; 4 drops of DAB and mix; 2 drops of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and mix.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4">[header]</td></tr><tr><td>pERK antibody</td><td>Cell Signaling Technologies&amp;nbsp;</td><td>4370</td><td>Dilution 1:500</td></tr><tr><td>Biotinylated Goat Anti-Rabbit IgG Antibody</td><td>Vector Laboratories</td><td>BA-1000&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Dilution 1:250</td></tr><tr><td>SuperFrost Slides&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Carl Roth</td><td>1879</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Coverslips</td><td>Fisher</td><td>12-548-B</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DPX</td><td>Sigma</td><td>317616</td><td>Mounting medium for slides. Equivalent mounting medium can be used.</td></tr><tr><td>Microscope</td><td>&amp;nbsp;Zeiss&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Axio Imager.M2</td><td>Equivalent microscope can be used.</td></tr><tr><td>Adobe Photoshop</td><td>Adobe Systems, San Jose, CA</td><td></td><td>To assemble images.</td></tr><tr><td>ImageJ Software</td><td>National Institute of Health</td><td></td><td>Free software can be downloaded at http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/</td></tr><tr><td>SigmaPlot 11.0</td><td>Systat Software Inc. (USA)</td><td></td><td>Equivalent softwares for statistical analysis can be used.</td></tr><tr><td>Prism 6</td><td>GraphPad Software, Inc. (La Jolla, CA, USA)</td><td></td><td>Equivalent softwares for statistical analysis can be used.</td></tr></tbody></table>

immunohistochemical visualization of hippocampal neuron activity after spatial learning in a mouse model of neurodevelopmental disorders

Induction of phosphorylated extracellular-regulated kinase (pERK) is a reliable molecular readout of learning-dependent neuronal activation. Here, we describe a pERK immunohistochemistry protocol to study the profile of hippocampal neuron activation following exposure to a spatial learning task in a mouse model characterized by cognitive deficits of neurodevelopmental origin. Specifically, we used pERK immunostaining to study neuronal activation following Morris water maze (MWM, a classical hippocampal-dependent learning task) in Engrailed-2 knockout (En2-/-) mice, a model of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). As compared to wild-type (WT) controls, En2-/- mice showed significant spatial learning deficits in the MWM. After MWM, significant differences in the number of pERK-positive neurons were detected in specific hippocampal subfields of En2-/- mice, as compared to WT animals. Thus, our protocol can robustly detect differences in pERK-positive neurons associated to hippocampal-dependent learning impairment in a mouse model of ASD. More generally, our protocol can be applied to investigate the profile of hippocampal neuron activation in both genetic or pharmacological mouse models characterized by cognitive deficits.

The protocol described here was designed to visualize, by immunohistochemistry, the expression of a specific marker of hippocampal neuron activity after MWM in a mouse model of neurodevelopmental disorders. All the experimental data shown herein were taken from our recent work7. Male and female WT and En2-/- age-matched adult littermates (3-5 months old; weight = 25-35 g) obtained from heterozygous matings were used. Twenty-two mice (11 per genotype) were used for the MWM. Eight mice (4 per genotype...

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Immunohistochemical Visualization of Hippocampal Neuron Activity After Spatial Learning in a Mouse Model of Neurodevelopmental Disorders

We describe an immunohistochemistry protocol to study the profile of hippocampal neuron activation following exposure to a spatial learning task in a mouse model characterized by cognitive deficits of neurodevelopmental origin. This protocol can be applied to both genetic or pharmacological mouse models characterized by cognitive deficits.

Induction of phosphorylated extracellular-regulated kinase (pERK) is a reliable molecular readout of learning-dependent neuronal activation. Here, we ...

immunohistochemical-visualization-hippocampal-neuron-activity-after

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

11.2K Views.  University of Trento. We describe an immunohistochemistry protocol to study the profile of hippocampal neuron activation following exposure to a spatial learning task in a mouse model characterized by cognitive deficits of neurodevelopmental origin. This protocol can be applied to both genetic or pharmacological mouse models characterized by cognitive deficits.

Video: Immunohistochemical Visualization of Hippocampal Neuron Activity After Spatial Learning in a Mouse Model of Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Longitudinal Two-Photon Imaging of Dorsal Hippocampal CA1 in Live Mice

Two-photon microscopy is a fundamental tool for neuroscience as it permits investigation of the brain of live animals at spatial scales ranging from subcellular to network levels and at temporal scales from milliseconds to weeks. In addition, two-photon imaging can be combined with a variety of behavioral tasks to explore the causal relationships between brain function and behavior. However, in mammals, limited penetration and scattering of light have limited two-photon intravital imaging mostly to superficial brain regions, thus precluding longitudinal investigation of deep-brain areas such as the hippocampus. The hippocampus is involved in spatial navigation and episodic memory and is a long-standing model used to study cellular as well as cognitive processes important for learning and recall, both in health and disease. Here, a preparation that enables chronic optical access to the dorsal hippocampus in living mice is detailed. This preparation can be combined with two-photon optical imaging at cellular and subcellular resolution in head fixed, anesthetized live mice over several weeks. These techniques enable repeated imaging of neuronal structure or activity-evoked plasticity in tens to hundreds of neurons in the dorsal hippocampal CA1. Furthermore, this chronic preparation can be used in combination with other techniques such as micro-endoscopy, head-mounted wide field microscopy or three-photon microscopy, thus greatly expanding the toolbox to study cellular and network processes involved in learning and memory.

This method describes a chronic preparation that allows optical access to the hippocampus of living mice. This preparation can be used to perform longitudinal optical imaging of neuronal structural plasticity and activity-evoked cellular plasticity over a period of several weeks.

Two-photon microscopy is a fundamental tool for neuroscience as it permits investigation of the brain of live animals at spatial scales ranging from ...

Behavior

Assessment of Dendritic Arborization in the Dentate Gyrus of the Hippocampal Region in Mice

Dendritic arborization has been shown to be a reliable marker for examination of structural and functional integrity of neurons. Indeed, the complexity and extent of dendritic arborization correlates well with the synaptic plasticity in these cells. A reliable method for assessment of dendritic arborization is needed to characterize the deleterious effects of neurological disorders on these structures and to determine the effects of therapeutic interventions. However, quantification of these structures has proven to be a formidable task given their complex and dynamic nature. Fortunately, sophisticated imaging techniques can be paired with conventional staining methods to assess the state of dendritic arborization, providing a more reliable and expeditious means of assessment. Below is an example of how these imaging techniques were paired with staining methods to characterize the dendritic arborization in wild type mice. These complementary imaging methods can be used to qualitatively and quantitatively assess dendritic arborization that span a rather wide area within the hippocampal region.

We describe two methods for visualization and quantification of dendritic arborization in the hippocampus of mouse models: real-time and extended depth of field imaging. While the former method allows sophisticated topographical tracing and quantification of the extent of branching, the latter allows speedy visualization of the dendritic tree.

Dendritic arborization has been shown to be a reliable marker for examination of structural and functional integrity of neurons. Indeed, the complexity ...

Craniotomy Procedure for Visualizing Neuronal Activities in Hippocampus of Behaving Mice

Imaging neuronal activities at single-cell resolution in awake behaving animals is a very powerful approach for the investigation of neural circuit functions in systems neuroscience. However, high absorbance and scattering of light in mammalian tissue limit intravital imaging mostly to superficial brain regions, leaving deep-brain areas, such as the hippocampus, out of reach for optical microscopy. In this video, we show the preparation and implantation of the custom-made imaging window to enable chronic in vivo imaging of the dorsal hippocampal CA1 region in head-fixed behaving mice. The custom-made window is supplemented with an infusion cannula that allows targeted delivery of viral vectors and drugs to the imaging area. By combining this preparation with wide-field imaging, we performed a long-term recording of neuronal activity using a fluorescent calcium indicator from large subsets of neurons in behaving mice over several weeks. We also demonstrated the applicability of this preparation for voltage imaging with single-spike resolution. High-performance genetically encoded indicators of neuronal activity and scientific CMOS cameras allowed the recurrent visualization of subcellular morphological details of single neurons at high temporal resolution. We also discuss the advantages and potential limitations of the described method and its compatibility with other imaging techniques.

This article demonstrates the preparation of a custom-made imaging window supplemented with infusion cannula and its implantation onto the CA1 region of the hippocampus in mice.

Imaging neuronal activities at single-cell resolution in awake behaving animals is a very powerful approach for the investigation of neural circuit ...

In Vivo Chronic Two-Photon Imaging of Microglia in the Mouse Hippocampus

Microglia, the only immune cells resident in the brain, actively participate in neural circuit maintenance by modifying synapses and neuronal excitability. Recent studies have revealed the differential gene expression and functional heterogeneity of microglia in different brain regions. The unique functions of the hippocampal neural network in learning and memory may be associated with the active roles of microglia in synapse remodeling. However, inflammatory responses induced by surgical procedures have been problematic in the two-photon microscopic analysis of hippocampal microglia. Here, a method is presented that enables the chronic observation of microglia in all layers of the hippocampal CA1 through an imaging window. This method allows the analysis of morphological changes in microglial processes for more than 1 month. Long-term and high-resolution imaging of the resting microglia requires minimally invasive surgical procedures, appropriate objective lens selection, and optimized imaging techniques. The transient inflammatory response of hippocampal microglia may prevent imaging immediately after surgery, but the microglia restore their quiescent morphology within a few weeks. Furthermore, imaging neurons simultaneously with microglia allows us to analyze the interactions of multiple cell types in the hippocampus. This technique may provide essential information about microglial function in the hippocampus.

In Vivo Chronic Two-Photon Imaging of Microglia in the Mouse Hippocampus

This paper describes a method for chronic in vivo observation of the resting microglia in the mouse hippocampal CA1 using precisely controlled surgery and two-photon microscopy.

Microglia, the only immune cells resident in the brain, actively participate in neural circuit maintenance by modifying synapses and neuronal ...

Transplantation of Human Stem Cell-Derived GABAergic Neurons into the Early Postnatal Mouse Hippocampus to Mitigate Neurodevelopmental Disorders

A reduced number or dysfunction of inhibitory interneurons is a common contributor to neurodevelopmental disorders. Therefore, cell therapy using interneurons to replace or mitigate the effects of altered neuronal circuits is an attractive therapeutic avenue. To this end, more knowledge is needed about how human stem cell-derived GABAergic interneuron-like cells (hdINs) mature, integrate, and function over time in the host circuitry. Of particular importance in neurodevelopmental disorders is a better understanding of whether these processes in transplanted cells are affected by an evolving and maturing host brain. The present protocol describes a fast and highly efficient generation of hdINs from human embryonic stem cells based on the transgenic expression of the transcription factors Ascl1 and Dlx2. These neuronal precursors are transplanted unilaterally, after 7 days in vitro, to the hippocampus of neonatal 2-day-old mice. The transplanted neurons disperse in the ipsi- and contralateral hippocampus of a mouse model of cortical dysplasia-focal epilepsy syndrome and survive for up to 9 months after transplantation. This approach allows for investigating the cellular identity, integration, functionality, and therapeutic potential of transplanted interneurons over an extended time in developing healthy and diseased brains.

Transplantation of human pluripotent stem cell-derived GABAergic neurons generated by neuronal programming could be a potential treatment approach for neurodevelopmental disorders. This protocol describes the generation and transplantation of human stem cell-derived GABAergic neuronal precursors into the brains of neonatal mice, allowing long-term investigation of grafted neurons and evaluation of their therapeutic potential.

A reduced number or dysfunction of inhibitory interneurons is a common contributor to neurodevelopmental disorders. Therefore, cell therapy using ...

Imaging Hippocampal Neuronal Activation In Mouse Brain Sections

<a href='https://app.jove.com/v/52919/immunohistochemical-visualization-hippocampal-neuron-activity-after'>Source: Provenzano, G., et al.&#160;Immunohistochemical Visualization of Hippocampal Neuron Activity After Spatial Learning in a Mouse Model of Neurodevelopmental Disorders. J. Vis. Exp.&#160;(2015)</a>This video demonstrates immunohistochemical imaging to visualize hippocampal neuronal activation. Stained brain sections reveal darker regions under a bright-field microscope, indicating activated neurons.

Source: Provenzano, G., et al.&#160;Immunohistochemical Visualization of Hippocampal Neuron Activity After Spatial Learning in a Mouse Model of ...

JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments

Neuroimaging

Structural & Functional Brain Imaging

Fluorescence Immunostaining of Rat Hippocampal Neurons within a Microfluidic Chip

Source: Nagendran, T., et al., <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/58421">Use of Pre-Assembled Plastic Microfluidic Chips for Compartmentalizing Primary Murine Neurons.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2018)
This video demonstrates immunofluorescence staining of rat hippocampal neurons cultured within a microfluidic chip to analyze neuronal maturation and connectivity.

1. Fluorescence Immunostaining within the Chip

	Prepare 4% formaldehyde fixation solution in PBS (4% formaldehyde, 1 &#181;M MgCl2, 0.1 &#181;m CaCl2, ...

Neuropathology

Trauma

Immunofluorescence Staining for Visualizing Proliferated Neural Stem Cells in Mouse Brain Sections

Source: Quintanilla, L. J., et al. <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/59237">Assaying Circuit Specific Regulation of Adult Hippocampal Neural Precursor Cells.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2019)
This video demonstrates the procedure for staining newly proliferated neural stem cells in brain tissue sections using EdU incorporation, followed by immunofluorescence to visualize specific proteins, enhancing the understanding of cell dynamics and proliferation.

All procedures involving animal samples have been reviewed and approved by the appropriate animal ethical review committee.
1. Immunohistochemistry

	...

Developmental and Pediatric Disorders

Microscopic Analysis of Synapses in Mouse Hippocampal Slices Using Immunofluorescence

<a href='https://app.jove.com/v/56153/evaluation-of-synapse-density-in-hippocampal-rodent-brain-slices'>Source: McLeod, F., et al. Evaluation of Synapse Density in Hippocampal Rodent Brain Slices. J. Vis. Exp. (2017).</a>This video demonstrates a method for visualizing synaptic markers in hippocampal brain slices using confocal immunofluorescence analysis. The slices are immunostained with primary antibodies targeting presynaptic and postsynaptic markers, followed by fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibodies. The labeled markers are then visualized using confocal microscopy to evaluate the synaptic architecture through their colocalization.

Source: McLeod, F., et al. Evaluation of Synapse Density in Hippocampal Rodent Brain Slices. J. Vis. Exp. (2017).This video demonstrates a method for ...

Synaptic & Cellular Imaging

An Immunofluorescence Staining Technique to Detect Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis

Source: Ansorg, A., et al. <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/52551">Immunohistochemistry and Multiple Labeling with Antibodies from the Same Host Species to Study Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2015)
The video illustrates an immunofluorescence staining method used to examine neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus. Initially, a mouse brain section undergoes treatment with primary antibodies directed at marker proteins associated with neurogenesis in neuronal progenitor cells. Next, it is labeled with secondary antibodies tagged with fluorophores. The brain section is then observed under a confocal microscope to distinguish various subtypes of progenitor cells, based on the expression patterns of distinct combinations of marker proteins.

All procedures involving animal models have been reviewed by the local institutional animal care committee and the JoVE veterinary review board.
1. Tissue ...

Immunohistochemical Visualization of Hippocampal Neuron Activity After Spatial Learning in a Mouse Model of Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Summary

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Chapters in this video

Longitudinal Two-Photon Imaging of Dorsal Hippocampal CA1 in Live Mice

Assessment of Dendritic Arborization in the Dentate Gyrus of the Hippocampal Region in Mice

Craniotomy Procedure for Visualizing Neuronal Activities in Hippocampus of Behaving Mice

In Vivo Chronic Two-Photon Imaging of Microglia in the Mouse Hippocampus

Transplantation of Human Stem Cell-Derived GABAergic Neurons into the Early Postnatal Mouse Hippocampus to Mitigate Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Imaging Hippocampal Neuronal Activation In Mouse Brain Sections

Fluorescence Immunostaining of Rat Hippocampal Neurons within a Microfluidic Chip

Immunofluorescence Staining for Visualizing Proliferated Neural Stem Cells in Mouse Brain Sections

Microscopic Analysis of Synapses in Mouse Hippocampal Slices Using Immunofluorescence

An Immunofluorescence Staining Technique to Detect Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis