Name: intracerebroventricular and intravascular injection of viral particles and fluorescent microbeads into the neonatal brain
Uploaded: 2016-07-24T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Intracerebroventricular and Intravascular Injection of Viral Particles and Fluorescent Microbeads into the Neonatal Brain at JoVE.com

The authors thank Mr. Masaaki Kaneta, Ms. Hiromi Suzuki, and Ms. Mitsue Kawashima (Department of Regenerative and Infectious Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine) for their excellent technical assistance. This work was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, KAKENHI Grant Number 23590445.

All the experimental protocols were approved by the Animal Care Committee of Hamamatsu University of School of Medicine.
1. Preparation of MCMV (Smith strain) and Recombinant M32-enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein (EGFP)-MCMV
<ol>
	<li>Generate recombinant M32-EGFP-MCMV according to the method as follows (1.2 - 1.9) and as previously described8.</li>
	<li>Use recombinant viruses derived from the Smith strain of wild-type MCMV (accession number: U68299). Insert EGFP (4,361 base pai...

<ol>
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A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intraventricular+brain+injection+of+adeno-associated+virus+type+1+(AAV1)+in+neonatal+mice+results+in+complementary+patterns+of+neuronal+transduction+to+AAV2+and+total+long-term+correction+of+storage+lesions+in+the+brains+of+beta-glucuronidase-deficient+mice.">Intraventricular brain injection of adeno-associated virus type 1 (AAV1) in neonatal mice results in complementary patterns of neuronal transduction to AAV2 and total long-term correction of storage lesions in the brains of beta-glucuronidase-deficient mice.</a> J Virol. 77 (12), 7034-7040 (2003).</li><li>Kim, J. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Viral+transduction+of+the+neonatal+brain+delivers+controllable+genetic+mosaicism+for+visualising+and+manipulating+neuronal+circuits+in+vivo.">Viral transduction of the neonatal brain delivers controllable genetic mosaicism for visualising and manipulating neuronal circuits in vivo.</a> Eur J Neurosci. 37 (8), 1203-1220 (2013).</li><li>McLean, J. 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In animal models, ICV, intraperitoneal, direct placental, and IV infections have been used to study the pathogenesis of viral encephalitis. We focused on the ICV and IV injection models of neonatal mice for the simplicity of the procedures and the benefit of direct injection of particles into the target region. Although intraperitoneal infection is an easy method, viral particles spread systemically via an indirect process5,24. Direct placental infection is a good method to study embryonic systemic infection. ...

When studying viral encephalitis, the initial distribution of viral particles is very important to understand disease pathogenesis and to identify viral targets in the brain. Most viruses range in size from 20 to 300 nm, although the Pandoravirus is more than 700 nm in size1. The distribution of the viral particles in the acute phase of infection may depend on the size of the particles, the distribution of cellular receptors, or the affinity of the cellular receptors for viruses. In animal models, intracerebroventricular (ICV), intraperitoneal, direct placental, and intravenous (IV) infections have been used to study the pathogenesis of viral encephalitis. ICV inoculation with virus is often used to establish central nervous system (CNS) infections in mice. Studies using this technique report widespread infection, particularly of cells in the periventricular zones and in regions of the brain in direct contact with the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), similar to the effects of viral ventriculoencephalitis. The small size of adeno-associated virus (AAV) particles (20 - 25 nm in diameter) facilitates their dissemination throughout the brain in ICV infections2-4. Intraperitoneal5, direct placental6, and IV injections7 represent hematogenic systemic administration. The penetration of viral particles through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) allows them to reach the parenchyma of the neonatal brain, representing diffuse microglial nodules8,9.
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common virus that belongs to the herpes virus family. In the United States, 50% - 80% of the people have had CMV infection by age 40. CMV infections are rarely harmful but can cause diseases in immunocompromised patients and fetuses. Of all deliveries, 0.2% - 2% are born with CMV10, resulting in severe symptoms such as microcephaly, periventricular calcification, cerebellar hypoplasia, microphthalmia, and optic nerve atrophy11,12. Furthermore, mental retardation, sensorineural hearing loss, visual defects, seizure, and epilepsy occur in about 10% of non-fatally CMV-infected infants13,14. CNS dysfunction is the most common characteristic symptom of CMV congenital anomaly. More children are permanently disabled each year by congenital CMV than by Down syndrome, fetal alcohol syndrome, or spina bifida15. There are no vaccinations against CMV available at the present, calling for a need of a safe and effective vaccine. Studying the interaction of CMV particles with their receptors in the earliest phase of infection is important to understand the effect of vaccination.
Ventriculoencephalitis and diffuse microglial nodules are the two main pathological characteristics of CMV encephalitis16. It has been uncertain how the CMV particles (150 - 300 nm) spread through the brain in the acute phase of infection and how the distribution of cellular receptors and their affinity for viruses contribute to the viral spread. Kawasaki et al. have evaluated ICV and IV infections from the perspective of the distribution of particles and their receptors (&#946;1 integrin) in the earliest phase of infection. We have found that the dissemination of CMV particles and the expression of &#946;1 integrin are well correlated in the earliest phase of infection in both ICV and IV infections8. ICV infection is a model of ventriculoencephalitis and IV infection is a model of diffuse microglial nodules. Studying the dynamics of viral or fluorescent particles would give useful information on the effect of particle size, viral interactions with cellular receptors, and the mechanism of BBB penetration in the brain. The following protocol could be used to investigate any viral infection and viral vector in the CNS.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="690">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:323px;">Tris; tris(hydroxymethyl)- aminomethane</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:80px;">T-6791</td>
			<td style="width:147px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">HCl</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H-1758</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">pEGFP-N1 vector&#160;</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td>#6085-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:23px;">D-sorbitol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S-1876</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">SPHERO TM Fluorescent Polystyrene Nile Red 0.04-0.06</td>
			<td>Spherotech, Inc.</td>
			<td>FP-00556-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">SPHERO TM Fluorescent Polystyrene Nile Red 0.1-0.3</td>
			<td>Spherotech, Inc.</td>
			<td>FP-0256-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">SPHERO TM Fluorescent Polystyrene Nile Red 1.7-2.2</td>
			<td>Spherotech, inc.&#160;</td>
			<td>FP-2056-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">10% mouse serum</td>
			<td>DAKO&#160;</td>
			<td>X0910</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">C57BL/6 mouse</td>
			<td>SLC, Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ICR mouse</td>
			<td>SLC, Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:323px;">Modified Microliter Syringes (7000 Series)</td>
			<td>Hamilton company</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">35-gauge needle</td>
			<td>Saito Medical</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">A Wee Sight Transilluminator</td>
			<td>Phillips Healthcare</td>
			<td>1017920</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">O.C.T.Compound</td>
			<td>Sakura Finetek</td>
			<td>4583</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">RNase A</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>R4642</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Nonidet(R) P-40</td>
			<td>Nacalai</td>
			<td>25223-04</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">citrate buffer (pH6) x10</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td colspan="2">C9999-100ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">pepsin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P6887</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">EDTA</td>
			<td>dojindo</td>
			<td>N001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Formamide</td>
			<td>TCI</td>
			<td>F0045</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Dextran sulfate sodium salt</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>42867-5G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Denhardt&#39;s Solution (50X)</td>
			<td>ThermoFishcer sceintific</td>
			<td>750018</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Yeast tRNA (10 mg/mL)</td>
			<td>ThermoFishcer sceintific</td>
			<td>AM7119</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">SSC x20</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S6639</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">DAPI</td>
			<td>ThermoFishcer sceintific</td>
			<td>D1306</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">n-Hexane</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>296090</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">superfrost plus glass</td>
			<td>ThermoFishcer sceintific</td>
			<td>12-55-18</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Cytokeep II</td>
			<td>Nippon Shoji Co.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">FITC-conjugated Griffonia simplicifolia isolectin B4</td>
			<td>Vector laboratories, Inc.</td>
			<td>L1104</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Anti-Mouse CD31 (PECAM-1) PE</td>
			<td>ebioscience</td>
			<td>12-0311</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ProLong&#160; Gold</td>
			<td>ThermoFishcer sceintific</td>
			<td>P36934</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">BIOREVO</td>
			<td>KEYENCE</td>
			<td style="width:80px;">BZ-9000E</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

intracerebroventricular and intravascular injection of viral particles and fluorescent microbeads into the neonatal brain

In the study on the pathogenesis of viral encephalitis, the infection method is critical. The first of the two main infectious routes to the brain is the hematogenous route, which involves infection of the endothelial cells and pericytes of the brain. The second is the intracerebroventricular (ICV) route. Once within the central nervous system (CNS), viruses may spread to the subarachnoid space, meninges, and choroid plexus via the cerebrospinal fluid. In experimental models, the earliest stages of CNS viral distribution are not well characterized, and it is unclear whether only certain cells are initially infected. Here, we have analyzed the distribution of cytomegalovirus (CMV) particles during the acute phase of infection, termed primary viremia, following ICV or intravascular (IV) injection into the neonatal mouse brain. In the ICV injection model, 5 &#181;l of murine CMV (MCMV) or fluorescent microbeads were injected into the lateral ventricle at the midpoint between the ear and eye using a 10-&#181;l syringe with a 27 G needle. In the IV injection model, a 1-ml syringe with a 35 G needle was used. A transilluminator was used to visualize the superficial temporal (facial) vein of the neonatal mouse. We infused 50 &#181;l of MCMV or fluorescent microbeads into the superficial temporal vein. Brains were harvested at different time points post-injection. MCMV genomes were detected using the in situ hybridization method. Fluorescent microbeads or green fluorescent protein expressing recombinant MCMV particles were observed by fluorescent microscopy. These techniques can be applied to many other pathogens to investigate the pathogenesis of encephalitis.

In studies on the pathogenesis of viral encephalitis, the infection method is important. The hematogenous route represents an acute infection of the endothelial cells and pericytes of the brain, while the ICV route represents an acute infection spreading via the CSF through the subarachnoid space, reaching to the meninges and choroid plexus. To analyze the first distribution of particles in acute encephalitis, in situ hybridization detecting the MCMV genomes and direct observatio...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Intracerebroventricular and Intravascular Injection of Viral Particles and Fluorescent Microbeads into the Neonatal Brain at JoVE.com

Intracerebroventricular and Intravascular Injection of Viral Particles and Fluorescent Microbeads into the Neonatal Brain

Here, we describe a simple method of intracerebroventricular and intravascular injection of viral particles or fluorescent microbeads into the neonatal mouse brain. The localization pattern of the virus and nanoparticles could be detected by microscopic evaluation or by in situ hybridization.

In the study on the pathogenesis of viral encephalitis, the infection method is critical. The first of the two main infectious routes to the brain is the ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to observe the distribution of viral particles during the acute phase of infection in the central nervous system. This method can help answer key questions in the neurovirology field. Such as how do virus particles distribute in the immature central nervous system during the acute infection phase.The main advantage of this technique is that the initial distribution of viral particles can be observed directly with a microscope using two simple methods. Such as intercerebroventricular and intravascular injection. Begin my sterilizing a 10 microliter syringe and a 27 gauge needle with 70%alcohol.Then load five microliters of murine cytomegalovirus injection solution or fluorescent microbeads into the needle by carefully pulling the plunger of the syringe. After anesthetizing and immobilizing a PO.5 neonatal mouse by placing it on ice for three to four minutes, use the toe pinch response method to determine the depth of anesthesia. Mark the injection site on the anesthetized mouse with a non toxic laboratory pen at a location approximately 0.7 to 1.0 mm lateral to the saggital suture and 0.7 to 1.0 mm cuddle from the neonatal bregma.This diagram shows the site in more detail. For reference, mark 2 mm from the tip of the needle with a non toxic marker. Next, insert the needle 2 mm deep perpendicular to the skull surface at the marked injection site.Then slowly inject 5 microliters of murine cytomegalovirus into the lateral ventricle without opening the scalp. In another group of mice inject a 5 microliter solution containing fluorescent microbeads by the same method. After injection, allow the needle to remain in place for 10 to 20 seconds to prevent backflow.Then slowly remove the needle. Allow the injected animals to recover for 5 to 10 minutes in a warm container until movement and general responsiveness are restored. For intravenous injection secure the anesthetized neonate to the transilluminator using surgical tape and then visualize the superficial temporal vein.Next, while wearing 1.5x magnifying glasses use a 1 ml syringe with a 35 gauge needle to slowly infuse 50 microliters of murine cytomegalovirus virus into the superficial temporal vein. Again repeat the procedure with fluorescent microbeads of the appropriate size in the control group. After removing the needle use gauze containing 70%alcohol to apply pressure to the injection site until the bleeding ceases.Give the neonate approximately five minutes in a warm container to recover before returning it to the cage. Two hours after introcerbroventricular injection in the acute infection phase green recombinant M32 EGFP MCMV particles are mainly observed in the marginal area as indicated by the arrows and seen in the magnified region. At this time the M32 EGFP MCMV particles are also seen in the choroid plexus and subventricular zone.The MCMV genome is first detected in the subventricular zone at three hours post intracerebralventricular injection. Using fluorescent and C2 hybridization the MCV genome is visible as green spots and indicated by arrows in this magnified region. At three hours post intravenous injection the MCMV particles visible as green spots and indicated by arrows are found inside and outside of the vascular area of the parenchyma, as this increased magnification image demonstrates.At this time the MCMV particles are still visible in the choroid plexus and subventricular zone. Using fluorescent and C2 hybridization the MCMV genome is detected in the vascular area and meninges at 12 hours post IV injection. As indicated by the arrows.Once mastered, this technique can be done in five minutes if it is performed properly. After watching this video you should have a good understanding of how to observe the distribution of viral particles during the acute phase of infection in the central nervous system. Don't forget that working with a virus can be extremely hazardous and precaution such as wearing masks and gloves should always be taken while performing this procedure.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Intracranial Injection of Adeno-associated Viral Vectors

Intracranial injection of viral vectors engineered to express a fluorescent protein is a versatile labeling technique for visualization of specific subsets of cells in different brain regions both in vivo and in brain sections. Unlike the injection of fluorescent dyes, viral labeling offers targeting of individual cell types and is less expensive and time consuming than establishing transgenic mouse lines. In this technique, an adeno-associated viral (AAV) vector is injected intracranially using stereotaxic coordinates, a micropipette and an automated pump for precise delivery of AAV to the desired area with minimal damage to the surrounding tissue. Injection parameters can be tailored to individual experiments by adjusting the animal age at injection, injection location, volume of injection, rate of injection, AAV serotype and the promoter driving gene expression. Depending on the conditions chosen, virally-induced transgene expression can allow visualization of groups of cells, individual cells or fine cellular processes, down to the level of dendritic spines. The experiment shown here depicts an injection of double-stranded AAV expressing green fluorescent protein for the labeling of neurons and glia in the mouse primary visual cortex.

Here we present the intracranial injection of AAV vectors for fluorescent labeling of neurons and glia in the visual cortex.

Intracranial injection of viral vectors engineered to express a fluorescent protein is a versatile labeling technique for visualization of specific ...

Intracerebroventricular Viral Injection of the Neonatal Mouse Brain for Persistent and Widespread Neuronal Transduction

With the pace of scientific advancement accelerating rapidly, new methods are needed for experimental neuroscience to quickly and easily manipulate gene expression in the mouse brain. Here we describe a technique first introduced by Passini and Wolfe for direct intracranial delivery of virally-encoded transgenes into the neonatal mouse brain. In its most basic form, the procedure requires only an ice bucket and a microliter syringe. However, the protocol can also be adapted for use with stereotaxic frames to improve consistency for researchers new to the technique. The method relies on the ability of adeno-associated virus (AAV) to move freely from the cerebral ventricles into the brain parenchyma while the ependymal lining is still immature during the first 12-24 hr after birth. Intraventricular injection of AAV at this age results in widespread transduction of neurons throughout the brain. Expression begins within days of injection and persists for the lifetime of the animal. Viral titer can be adjusted to control the density of transduced neurons, while co-expression of a fluorescent protein provides a vital label of transduced cells. With the rising availability of viral core facilities to provide both off-the-shelf, pre-packaged reagents and custom viral preparation, this approach offers a timely method for manipulating gene expression in the mouse brain that is fast, easy, and far less expensive than traditional germline engineering.

Here we demonstrate a technique for widespread neuronal transduction by intraventricular injection of adeno-associated virus into the neonatal mouse brain. This method provides a rapid and easy way to attain lifelong expression of virally-delivered transgenes.

With the pace of scientific advancement accelerating rapidly, new methods are needed for experimental neuroscience to quickly and easily manipulate gene ...

Experimental Demyelination and Remyelination of Murine Spinal Cord by Focal Injection of Lysolecithin

Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system characterized by plaque formation containing lost oligodendrocytes, myelin, axons, and neurons. Remyelination is an endogenous repair mechanism whereby new myelin is produced subsequent to proliferation, recruitment, and differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells into myelin-forming oligodendrocytes, and is necessary to protect axons from further damage. Currently, all therapeutics for the treatment of multiple sclerosis target the aberrant immune component of the disease, which reduce inflammatory relapses but do not prevent progression to irreversible neurological decline. It is therefore imperative that remyelination-promoting strategies be developed which may delay disease progression and perhaps reverse neurological symptoms. Several animal models of demyelination exist, including experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and curprizone; however, there are limitations in their use for studying remyelination. A more robust approach is the focal injection of toxins into the central nervous system, including the detergent lysolecithin into the spinal cord white matter of rodents. In this protocol, we demonstrate that the surgical procedure involved in injecting lysolecithin into the ventral white matter of mice is fast, cost-effective, and requires no additional materials than those commercially available. This procedure is important not only for studying the normal events involved in the remyelination process, but also as a pre-clinical tool for screening candidate remyelination-promoting therapeutics.

Demyelinating diseases can be modeled in animals by focal application of lysolecithin into the CNS. A single injection of lysolecithin into mouse spinal cord produces a lesion that spontaneously repairs over time. The goal is to study factors involved in de- and remyelination, and to test agents for enhancing repair.

Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system characterized by plaque formation containing lost ...

Stereotaxic Infusion of Oligomeric Amyloid-beta into the Mouse Hippocampus

Alzheimer&#8217;s disease is a neurodegenerative disease affecting the aging population. A key neuropathological feature of the disease is the over-production of amyloid-beta and the deposition of amyloid-beta plaques in brain regions of the afflicted individuals. Throughout the years scientists have generated numerous Alzheimer&#8217;s disease mouse models that attempt to replicate the amyloid-beta pathology. Unfortunately, the mouse models only selectively mimic the disease features. Neuronal death, a prominent effect in the brains of Alzheimer&#8217;s disease patients, is noticeably lacking in these mice. Hence, we and others have employed a method of directly infusing soluble oligomeric species of amyloid-beta - forms of amyloid-beta that have been proven to be most toxic to neurons - stereotaxically into the brain. In this report we utilize male C57BL/6J mice to document this surgical technique of increasing amyloid-beta levels in a select brain region. The infusion target is the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus because this brain structure, along with the basal forebrain that is connected by the cholinergic circuit, represents one of the areas of degeneration in the disease. The results of elevating amyloid-beta in the dentate gyrus via stereotaxic infusion reveal increases in neuron loss in the dentate gyrus within 1 week, while there is a concomitant increase in cell death and cholinergic neuron loss in the vertical limb of the diagonal band of Broca of the basal forebrain. These effects are observed up to 2 weeks. Our data suggests that the current amyloid-beta infusion model provides an alternative mouse model to address region specific neuron death in a short-term basis. The advantage of this model is that amyloid-beta can be elevated in a spatial and temporal manner.

Here, we present a protocol for direct stereotaxic brain infusion of amyloid-beta. This methodology provides an alternative in vivo mouse model to address the short-term effects of amyloid-beta on brain neurons.

Alzheimer&#8217;s disease is a neurodegenerative disease affecting the aging population. A key neuropathological feature of the disease is the ...

In Vivo Direct Reprogramming of Resident Glial Cells into Interneurons by Intracerebral Injection of Viral Vectors

Converting resident glia in the brain into functional and subtype-specific neurons in vivo provides a step forward towards the development of alternative cell replacement therapies while also creating tools to study cell fate in situ. To date, it has been possible to obtain neurons via in vivo reprogramming, but the precise phenotype of these neurons or how they mature has not been analyzed in detail. In this protocol, we describe a more efficient conversion and cell-specific identification of the in vivo reprogrammed neurons, using an AAV-based viral vector system. We also provide a protocol for functional assessment of the reprogrammed cells&#8217; neuronal maturation. By injecting flip-excision (FLEX) vectors, containing the reprogramming and synapsin-driven reporter genes&#160;to specific cell types in the brain that serve as the target for cell reprogramming. This technique allows for the easy identification of newly reprogrammed neurons. Results show that the obtained reprogrammed neurons functionally mature over time, receive synaptic contacts and show electrophysiological properties of different types of interneurons. Using the transcription factors Ascl1, Lmx1a and Nurr1, the majority of the reprogrammed cells have properties of fast-spiking, parvalbumin-containing interneurons.

This protocol aims at generating directly reprogrammed interneurons in vivo, using an AAV-based viral system in the brain and a FLEX synapsin-driven GFP reporter, which allows for cell identification and further analysis in vivo.

Converting resident glia in the brain into functional and subtype-specific neurons in vivo provides a step forward towards the development of alternative ...

Microdissection of Mouse Brain into Functionally and Anatomically Different Regions

The brain is the command center for the mammalian nervous system and an organ with enormous structural complexity. Protected within the skull, the brain consists of an outer covering of grey matter over the hemispheres known as the cerebral cortex. Underneath this layer reside many other specialized structures that are essential for multiple phenomenon important for existence. Acquiring samples of specific gross brain regions requires quick and precise dissection steps.&#160;It is understood that at the microscopic level, many sub-regions exist and likely cross the arbitrary regional boundaries that we impose for the purpose of this dissection.
Mouse models are routinely used to study human brain functions and diseases. Changes in gene expression patterns may be confined to specific brain areas targeting a particular phenotype depending on the diseased state. Thus, it is of great importance to study regulation of transcription with respect to its well-defined structural organization. A complete understanding of the brain requires studying distinct brain regions, defining connections, and identifying key differences in the activities of each of these brain regions. A more comprehensive understanding of each of these distinct regions may pave the way for new and improved treatments in the field of neuroscience. Herein, we discuss a step-by-step methodology for dissecting the mouse brain into sixteen distinct regions. In this procedure, we have focused on male mouse C57Bl/6J (6-8 week old) brain removal and dissection into multiple regions using neuroanatomical landmarks to identify and sample discrete functionally-relevant and behaviorally-relevant&#160;brain regions. This work will help lay a strong foundation in the field of neuroscience, leading to more focused approaches in the deeper understanding of brain function.

We present a hands-on, step-by-step, rapid protocol for mouse brain removal and dissection of discrete regions from fresh brain tissue. Obtaining brain regions for molecular analysis has become routine in many neuroscience labs. These brain regions are immediately frozen to obtain high quality transcriptomic data for system level analysis.

The brain is the command center for the mammalian nervous system and an organ with enormous structural complexity. Protected within the skull, the brain ...

Targeting the Corticospinal Tract in Neonatal Rats with a Double-Viral Vector using Combined Brain and Spine Surgery

Successfully tackling the obstacles that constrain research on neonatal rats is important for studying the differences in outcomes seen in pediatric spinal cord injuries (SCIs) compared to adult SCIs. In addition, reliably introducing therapies into the target cells of the central nervous system (CNS) can be challenging, and inaccuracies can compromise the efficacy of the study or therapy. This protocol combines viral vector technology with a novel surgical technique&#160;to accurately introduce gene therapies into neonatal rats at postnatal day 5. Here, a virus engineered for retrograde transport (retroAAV2) of Cre is introduced at the axon terminals of corticospinal neurons in the spinal cord, where it is subsequently transported to the cell bodies. A double-floxed&#160;inverted orientation (DIO) designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drug(s) (DREADD) virus is then injected into the somatomotor cortex of the brain. This double-infection technique promotes the expression of the DREADDs only in the co-infected corticospinal tract (CST) neurons.&#160;Thus, the simultaneous co-injection of the somatomotor cortex and cervical CST terminals is a valid method for studying the chemogenetic modulation of recovery following cervical SCI models in neonatal rats.

This protocol demonstrates a novel method for applying gene therapies to subpopulations of cells in neonatal rats at postnatal ages 5-10 days by injecting an anterograde chemogenetic modifier into the somatomotor cortex and a retrogradely transportable Cre recombinase into the cervical spinal cord.

Successfully tackling the obstacles that constrain research on neonatal rats is important for studying the differences in outcomes seen in pediatric ...

Stereotaxic Viral Injection and Gradient-Index Lens Implantation for Deep Brain In Vivo Calcium Imaging

A miniature fluorescence microscope (miniscope) is a potent tool for in vivo calcium imaging from freely behaving animals. It offers several advantages over conventional multi-photon calcium imaging systems: (1) compact; (2) light-weighted; (3) affordable; and (4) allows recording from freely behaving animals. This protocol describes brain surgeries for deep brain in vivo calcium imaging using a custom-developed miniscope recording system. The preparation procedure consists of three steps, including (1) stereotaxically injecting the virus at the desired brain region of a mouse brain to label a specific subgroup of neurons with genetically encoded calcium sensor; (2) implantation of gradient-index (GRIN) lens that can relay calcium image from deep brain region to the miniscope system; and (3) affixing the miniscope holder over the mouse skull where miniscope can be attached later. To perform in vivo calcium imaging, the miniscope is fastened onto the holder, and neuronal calcium images are collected along with simultaneous behavior recordings. The present surgery protocol is compatible with any commercial or custom-built single-photon and two-photon imaging systems for deep brain in vivo calcium imaging.

Stereotaxic Viral Injection and Gradient-Index Lens Implantation for Deep Brain In Vivo Calcium Imaging

Miniscope in vivo calcium imaging is a powerful technique to study neuronal dynamics and microcircuits in freely behaving mice. This protocol describes performing brain surgeries to achieve good in vivo calcium imaging using a miniscope.

A miniature fluorescence microscope (miniscope) is a potent tool for in vivo calcium imaging from freely behaving animals. It offers several advantages ...

Whole-Brain Single-Cell Imaging and Analysis of Intact Neonatal Mouse Brains Using MRI, Tissue Clearing, and Light-Sheet Microscopy

Tissue clearing followed by light-sheet microscopy (LSFM) enables cellular-resolution imaging of intact brain structure, allowing quantitative analysis of structural changes caused by genetic or environmental perturbations. Whole-brain imaging results in more accurate quantification of cells and the study of region-specific differences that may be missed with commonly used microscopy of physically sectioned tissue. Using light-sheet microscopy to image cleared brains greatly increases acquisition speed as compared to confocal microscopy. Although these images produce very large amounts of brain structural data, most computational tools that perform feature quantification in images of cleared tissue are limited to counting sparse cell populations, rather than all nuclei.
Here, we demonstrate NuMorph (Nuclear-Based Morphometry), a group of analysis tools, to quantify all nuclei and nuclear markers within annotated regions of a postnatal day 4 (P4) mouse brain after clearing and imaging on a light-sheet microscope. We describe magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to measure brain volume prior to shrinkage caused by tissue clearing dehydration steps, tissue clearing using the iDISCO+ method, including immunolabeling, followed by light-sheet microscopy using a commercially available platform to image mouse brains at cellular resolution. We then demonstrate this image analysis pipeline using NuMorph, which is used to correct intensity differences, stitch image tiles, align multiple channels, count nuclei, and annotate brain regions through registration to publicly available atlases.
We designed this approach using publicly available protocols and software, allowing any researcher with the necessary microscope and computational resources to perform these techniques. These tissue clearing, imaging, and computational tools allow measurement and quantification of the three-dimensional (3D) organization of cell-types in the cortex and should be widely applicable to any wild-type/knockout mouse study design.

This protocol describes methods for conducting magnetic resonance imaging, clearing, and immunolabeling of intact mouse brains using iDISCO+, followed by a detailed description of imaging using light-sheet microscopy, and downstream analyses using NuMorph.

Tissue clearing followed by light-sheet microscopy (LSFM) enables cellular-resolution imaging of intact brain structure, allowing quantitative analysis of ...

Visualization of Brain Pericyte Contractility Post-Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Imaging Vital and Non-vital Brain Pericytes in Brain Slices following Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Pericytes are crucial mural cells situated within cerebral microcirculation, pivotal in actively modulating cerebral blood flow via contractility adjustments. Conventionally, their contractility is gauged by observing morphological shifts and nearby capillary diameter changes under specific circumstances. Yet, post-tissue fixation, evaluating vitality and ensuing pericyte contractility of imaged brain pericytes becomes compromised. Similarly, genetically labeling brain pericytes falls short in distinguishing between viable and non-viable pericytes, particularly in neurologic conditions like subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), where our preliminary investigation validates brain pericyte demise. A reliable protocol has been devised to surmount these constraints, enabling simultaneous fluorescent tagging of both functional and non-functional brain pericytes in brain sections. This labeling method allows high-resolution confocal microscope visualization, concurrently marking the brain slice microvasculature. This innovative protocol offers a means to appraise brain pericyte contractility, its impact on capillary diameter, and pericyte structure. Investigating brain pericyte contractility within the SAH context yields insightful comprehension of its effects on cerebral microcirculation.

Author Spotlight: Imaging Pericytes Post-Subarachnoid Hemorrhaging in Rodents 

The preliminary inquiry confirms that subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) causes brain pericyte demise. Evaluating pericyte contractility post-SAH requires differentiation between viable and non-viable brain pericytes. Hence, a procedure has been developed to label viable and non-viable brain pericytes concurrently in brain sections, facilitating observation using a high-resolution confocal microscope.