Name: analysis of simian immunodeficiency virus-specific cd8+ t-cells in rhesus macaques by peptide-mhc-i tetramer staining
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We would like to thank David Watkins for supporting the experiments that enabled the optimization of the present methodology. Research reported in this publication was supported in part by a pilot grant provided by the Miami Center for AIDS Research of the National Institutes of Health under award number P30AI073961. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

The peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) samples utilized in this manuscript were obtained from Indian rhesus macaques housed at the Wisconsin National Primate Research Center. These animals were cared for in accordance with the Weatherall Report under a protocol approved by the University of Wisconsin Graduate School Animal Care and Use Committee33. All animal procedures were performed under anesthesia and all efforts were made to minimize potential suffering.
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A few steps in this procedure merit discussion as they are crucial for yielding optimal results. First, since the quality of the biological specimens is a strong predictor of the success of any flow cytometric assay38, all care must be taken to ensure that the cells are viable and in suspension during the staining procedure. This is particularly relevant when working with cryopreserved samples since they are more prone to clumping and typically contain higher numbers of dead cells. In these cases, passing the ...

CD8+ T-cells comprise a crucial component of the adaptive immune system as they participate in tumor immune surveillance and contribute to the eradication of intracellular pathogens1. In simple terms, CD8+ T-cells express T-cell receptors (TCRs) that specifically recognize peptide-major histocompatibility complex class I (pMHC-I) molecules present on the plasma membrane of host cells. Since these peptides are derived from the proteolysis of endogenously synthesized proteins, cell surface pMHC-I complexes provide a window into the intracellular environment. Upon virus infection, for example, infected cells will display MHC-I molecules containing virus-derived peptides that can serve as ligands for TCRs expressed by patrolling CD8+ T-cells. In the event a virus-specific CD8+ T-cell encounters an infected cell presenting its pMHC-I ligand, TCR engagement will result in CD8+ T-cell activation and ultimately lead to target cell lysis. Given the critical nature of these TCR/pMHC-I interactions, determining the magnitude, specificity, and phenotype of responding CD8+ T-cells can often reveal important clues about human diseases.
Until the early 1990s, quantification of Ag-specific CD8+ T-cells relied on the technically demanding limiting dilution assay (LDA)2,3. Not only did the LDA require several days to be completed, it also failed to detect cells that lacked proliferative potential. As a result, the LDA vastly underestimated the actual frequency of antigen (Ag)-specific CD8+ T-cells participating in an immune response. Although the development of ELISPOT and intracellular cytokine staining assays greatly improved the ability to measure cellular immunity, these methods still required in vitro stimulation for quantifying Ag-specific T-cells4. It was not until 1996 that Altman, Davis, and colleagues published their landmark article reporting the development of the pMHC-I tetramer technology5. Critical to the success of this technique was the multimerization of pMHC-I molecules, which extended the half-life of TCR/pMHC-I interactions, thereby reducing the probability of pMHC-I tetramers falling off during the washing steps of flow cytometric assays. The main advantage of pMHC-I tetramers over the aforementioned assays is the ability to accurately detect Ag-specific CD8+ T-cells directly ex vivo without the need for in vitro re-stimulation. Moreover, the combination of pMHC-I tetramer staining with multi-color flow cytometry has allowed detailed analyses of the differentiation stage, memory phenotype, and activation status of Ag-specific CD8+ T-cells2-4. In light of recent technical advances for characterizing CD8+ T-cell repertoires by pMHC-I multimer staining6, the breadth of applications for this methodology is likely to continue expanding.
Few areas in biomedical research have benefited more from pMHC-I tetramer staining than the field of HIV immunology7. Although CD8+ T-cells had been temporally associated with the initial control of HIV viremia by the time of the publication by Altman, Davis, and colleagues8,9, the use of pMHC-I tetramers in the ensuing years significantly expanded our understanding of the HIV-specific CD8+ T-cell response. For example, pMHC-I tetramer staining helped confirm the robust size of virus-specific CD8+ T-cell responses in most HIV-infected individuals10-12. This methodology also facilitated the characterization of HIV- and SIV-specific CD8+ T-cell responses restricted by MHC-I molecules associated with spontaneous control of viral replication in the absence of antiretroviral therapy&#8212;a phenomenon known as &#34;elite control&#34;13-15. Furthermore, pMHC-I tetramers were instrumental in establishing the programmed death 1 (PD-1)/PD ligand 1 (PD-L1) axis as a reversible pathway for the dysfunctional phenotype of HIV-specific CD8+ T-cells in uncontrolled chronic infection16,17. Collectively, these studies underscore the utility of pMHC-I tetramers for monitoring CD8+ T-cell responses against the AIDS virus.
Experimental SIV infection of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) remains the best animal model for evaluating immune interventions against HIV/AIDS18,19. In the past 25 years, substantial progress has been made in the identification and characterization of SIV-specific CD8+ T-cells in this monkey species, including the discovery of MHC-I alleles and the definition of peptide binding motifs13,20-27. As a result, pMHC-I tetramers have been developed for the analysis of SIV-specific CD8+ T-cell responses in this animal model28. Most of these reagents are made of the gene products of four rhesus macaque MHC-I alleles: Mamu-A1*001, Mamu-A1*002:01, Mamu-B*008:01, and Mamu-B*017:01. Of note, rhesus macaques do not express an MHC-C locus29. The vast majority of the pMHC-I tetramers used in the present experiments were produced at the NIH Tetramer Core Facility at Emory University. Nevertheless, some of these reagents, including Mamu-A1*001 tetramers bound to the immunodominant Gag CM9 epitope, can only be obtained from commercial sources due to licensing agreements. Using pMHC-I tetramers of the four rhesus macaque alleles listed above, we have successfully enumerated CD8+ T-cells against a total of 21 SIV epitopes (Table 1), which were induced by vaccination or primary SIV infection30,31 (Martins et al., unpublished observations).
The present manuscript provides an optimized pMHC-I tetramer staining protocol for determining the frequency and memory phenotype of SIV-specific CD8+ T-cells in rhesus macaques. The assay begins with an elective 30 min incubation with a protein kinase inhibitor (PKI; here, Dasatinib is used) in order to decrease TCR internalization and thereby improve pMHC-I tetramer staining32. As described below, this treatment is especially useful when using Mamu-B*017:01 tetramers. Instructions on how to label the cells with fluorochrome-conjugated pMHC-I tetramers and monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are also provided. This protocol also includes a cell permeabilization step for the intracellular detection of the cytolysis-associated molecule granzyme B (Gzm B). The mAb against CD3 is added at this step as well to improve detection of this TCR signaling molecule. As a reference, all fluorochromes employed in this staining panel are listed.

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	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:329px;">Dasatinib</td>
			<td style="width:236px;">Axon medchem</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Axon&#160;1392</td>
			<td style="width:757px;">Must be resuspended in DMSO and immediately stored at -20&#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">RPMI w/ Glutamax</td>
			<td>gibco/ Life Technologies</td>
			<td>61870-036</td>
			<td>Must be stored at 4 &#176;C&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Heat Inactivated FBS</td>
			<td>gibco/ Life Technologies</td>
			<td>10082-147</td>
			<td>Must be stored at 4 &#176;C&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Penicillin-Streptomycinp-Amphotericin B</td>
			<td>Lonza</td>
			<td>17-745E</td>
			<td>Must be stored at 4 &#176;C&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">DMSO, Anhydrous</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>D12345</td>
			<td>Store at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">5-mL Round-Bottom Polypropylene Tubes</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>60819-728</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Fluorochrome-conjugated pMHC-I tetramers</td>
			<td>NIH Tetramer Core or MBL, Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Must be stored and maintained at&#160; 4 &#176;C. Centrifuge at 20,000 x g for 15 min before use. Do not freeze.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Fluorochrome-conjugated mAbs</td>
			<td>Various companies</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Must be stored and maintained at&#160; 4 &#176;C. Do not freeze.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">LIVE/DEAD&#160;Fixable Aqua&#160;Dead&#160;Cell Stain Kit</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>l34957</td>
			<td>Must be stored at -20 &#176;C. Resuspend each aliquot in 50 &#956;L of DMSO prior to use.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Brilliant Stain Buffer</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>563794</td>
			<td>Must be stored at&#160; 4 &#176;C&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Phosphate Buffered Saline</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>97064-158</td>
			<td>Store at room temperature</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Albumine Bovine</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>700011-230</td>
			<td>Must be stored at&#160; 4 &#176;C&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sodium Azide</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>97064-646</td>
			<td>Store at room temperature. Toxic substance. Do not mix with bleach.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Bleach</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89501-620</td>
			<td>Corrosive chemical, cannot be mixed with sodium azide. Handle with care</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>15714-S</td>
			<td>Flammable, corrosive, and toxic reagent. Handle with care</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Polysorbate 20 (Tween-20)</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>L15029</td>
			<td>Store at room temperature</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Permeabilization Solution 2&#160;</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>340973</td>
			<td>Toxic and corrosive reagent. Handle with care</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sarsdet Tubes 1.5mL screw top</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>72.692.005</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">2.0ml DNA/RNA Low bind Tubes</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>22431048</td>
			<td>The use of Sterile microtubes is preffered&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Vortex mixer</td>
			<td>To discretion of scientist</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Biosafety Cabinet&#160;</td>
			<td>To discretion of scientist</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Milli Q Intergral Water Purification system</td>
			<td>EMD Millipore</td>
			<td>ZRXQ010WW</td>
			<td>Molecular Biology grade water from any provider may be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Microcentrifuge</td>
			<td>To discretion of scientist</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Centrifuge</td>
			<td>To discretion of scientist</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">4 &#176;C&#160; refrigerator</td>
			<td>To discretion of scientist</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">BD LSR II</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Flow cytometer must contain lasers and filters that are compatible with the staining panel used.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Deionized water</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Aluminum Foil</td>
			<td>VWR SCIENTIFIC INC.</td>
			<td>89068-738</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Incubator</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Must be able to maintain 37 &#176;C&#160; internal temperature</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">FACS Diva software</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Flowjo software version 9.6</td>
			<td>Flowjo</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Used to analyze FCS files generated by FACS Diva software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Micropippette tips</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

analysis of simian immunodeficiency virus-specific cd8+ t-cells in rhesus macaques by peptide-mhc-i tetramer staining

Peptide-major histocompatibility complex class I (pMHC-I) tetramers have been an invaluable tool to study CD8+ T-cell responses. Because these reagents directly bind to T-cell receptors on the surface of CD8+ T-lymphocytes, fluorochrome-labeled pMHC-I tetramers enable the accurate detection of antigen (Ag)-specific CD8+ T-cells without the need for in vitro re-stimulation. Moreover, when combined with multi-color flow cytometry, pMHC-I tetramer staining can reveal key aspects of Ag-specific CD8+ T-cells, including differentiation stage, memory phenotype, and activation status. These types of analyses have been especially useful in the field of HIV immunology where CD8+ T-cells can affect progression to AIDS. Experimental infection of rhesus macaques with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) provides an invaluable tool to study cellular immunity against the AIDS virus. As a result, considerable progress has been made in defining and characterizing T-cell responses in this animal model. Here we present an optimized protocol for enumerating SIV-specific CD8+ T-cells in rhesus macaques by pMHC-I tetramer staining. Our assay permits the simultaneous quantification and memory phenotyping of two pMHC-I tetramer+ CD8+ T-cell populations per test, which might be useful for tracking SIV-specific CD8+ T-cell responses generated by vaccination or SIV infection. Considering the relevance of nonhuman primates in biomedical research, this methodology is applicable for studying CD8+ T-cell responses in multiple disease settings.

The protocol described here has been used to determine the magnitude and memory phenotype of vaccine-induced, Gag CM9-specific CD8+ T-cell responses in a Mamu-A1*001+ rhesus macaque. For this analysis, an APC-conjugated Mamu-A1*001/Gag CM9 tetramer was used in an 8-color flow cytometric staining panel. Figure 1A-F shows the gating strategy used to analyze the data, which should be applied for both tetramers present in each test. Note t...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Analysis of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus-specific CD8+ T-cells in Rhesus Macaques by Peptide-MHC-I Tetramer Staining at JoVE.com

Analysis of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus-specific CD8+ T-cells in Rhesus Macaques by Peptide-MHC-I Tetramer Staining

Here, we present an optimized protocol for enumerating and characterizing rhesus macaque CD8+ T cells against the AIDS virus. This article is useful not only to the field of HIV immunology, but also to other areas of biomedical research where CD8+ T cell responses are known to affect disease outcome.

Analysis of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus-specific CD8+ T-cells in Rhesus Macaques by Peptide-MHC-I Tetramer Staining

Peptide-major histocompatibility complex class I (pMHC-I) tetramers have been an invaluable tool to study CD8+ T-cell responses. Because these reagents ...

The overall goal of this assay, is to enumerate and characterize Simian Immunodeficiency Virus-specific CD8 positive T-cell populations generated by vaccination or primary infection. This method can help answer key questions in the T-cell immunology field, such as what is the frequency of antigen-specific CD8 T-cells induced either by vaccination or infection. The main advantage of this technique is that it can quantify antigen-specific CD8 T-cells in biological samples obtained directly ex vivo without the need for in vitro re-stimulation.The implications of this technique extend toward the evaluation of incision specific CD8 T-cell in the rhesus macaque, and for studying CDB T-cell responses in multiple disease settings. Generally, individuals new to this method will struggle because of the incomplete knowledge available for rhesus macaque MHC genetics, and because the flow cytometric staining requires precise antibody application. Begin by re-suspending the rhesus PBMC in R10 medium.Add a 1.6 times 10 to the seventh cells per milliliter concentration. Aliquot 50 microliters of cells to the appropriate number of flow cytometry tubes, and add 50 microliters of protein kinase inhibitor to each tube. Vortex each tube and incubate the samples at 37 degrees Celsius for 30 minutes.The correct amount of titrated peptide MHC tetramer must be diluted in enough master mix to stain all of the experimental tubes. Therefore, it is important to prepare a 15%excess of the master mix, to account for pippetting errors. While the cells are incubating, pellet the protein aggregates in the tetramer solution by centrifugation, to minimize the background staining.Next, dilute the tetramers in enough stain buffer, so that 25 microliters of the tetramer master mix can be added to each flow cytometry tube. Then vortex the sample tubes and incubate the PBMC tetramer solutions in the dark, at room temperature for 45 minutes. At the end of the incubation, add 50 microliters of staining master mix to the appropriate sample tubes.And mix the tubes for vortexing. After 25 minutes in the dark at room temperature, wash the cells with wash buffer, pellet the cells by centrifugation, and careful decant the supernatants without disturbing the pellets. Vortex the cells in the leftover buffer in each tube, and fix the samples with 250 microliters of 2%paraformaldehyde per tube.Immediately vortex and incubate the tubes in the dark, at 4 degrees Celsius. After 20 minutes, wash the cells in fresh wash buffer. Pellet the cells by centrifugation, and decant the supernatant without disturbing the pellet.Re-suspend the cells in 500 microliters of permeabilization buffer, vortex, and incubate at room temperature for 10 minutes in the dark. Then wash and pellet the cells. Then decant the supernatants as described previously.Proceed to adding 50 microliters of intracellular stain master mix to the appropriate tubes. Vortex each sample, and incubate at room temperature in the dark for 30 minutes. After the incubation is done, wash and pellet the cells.The samples are now ready to be acquired in a flow cytometer. Mamu-B017.01 tetramers typically yield a dim staining, which can be substantially improved by pre-treatment of the cells, with a protein kinase inhibitor. To avoid background staining, MHC class one matched cells that do or do not contain the antigen-specific CD8 positive T-cell population of interest, should be labelled with the relevant tetramer and multiple dilutions, to determine the optimum amount that results in the best separation between tetramer positive and negative CD8 positive T-cells.In these graphs, the gating strategy used to analyze the magnitude and memory phenotype of vaccine-induced Gag CM9 specific CD8 positive T-cells responses in a Mamu-A 01 positive rhesus macaque, are shown. Note that the tetramer positive CD8 positive T-cell population, is well-separated with minimal background staining. And with the memory subsets clearly delineated by their CD28, CCR7 and Granzyme B expression within the tetramer gate.Once mastered, this technique can be completed in about three hours if it is performed properly. While attempting this procedure, it is important to remember to add the correct reagents to each antibody or tetramer master mix, and to work with the experimental tubes each time as demonstrated. After its development, this technique paved the way for researchers in the field of immunology to explore the specificity and phenotype of antigen-specific CD8 T-cells.After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to set up an MHC class one tetramer staining in the assay of the rhesus macaque model of human HIV-1 AIDS research. Don't forget that working with biological specimens from rhesus macaques requires special precautions such as wearing the appropriate personal protective equipment during the sample processing.

analysis-simian-immunodeficiency-virus-specific-cd8-t-cells-rhesus

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Multicolor Flow Cytometry Analyses of Cellular Immune Response in Rhesus Macaques

The rhesus macaque model is currently the best available model for HIV-AIDS with respect to understanding the pathogenesis as well as for the development of vaccines and therapeutics1,2,3. Here, we describe a method for the detailed phenotypic and functional analyses of cellular immune responses, specifically intracellular cytokine production by CD4+ and CD8+ T cells as well as the individual memory subsets. We obtained precise quantitative and qualitative measures for the production of interferon gamma (INF-) and interleukin (IL) -2 in both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from the rhesus macaque PBMC stimulated with PMA plus ionomycin (PMA+I). The cytokine profiles were different in the different subsets of memory cells. Furthermore, this protocol provided us the sensitivity to demonstrate even minor fractions of antigen specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell subsets within the PBMC samples from rhesus macaques immunized with an HIV envelope peptide cocktail vaccine developed in our laboratory. The multicolor flow cytometry technique is a powerful tool to precisely identify different populations of T cells 4,5 with cytokine-producing capability6 following non-specific or antigen-specific stimulation 5,7.

We demonstrate the utility of multicolor flow cytometry for detailed phenotypic and functional characterization of total as well as memory subsets of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in rhesus macaques, the ideal model for HIV/AIDS vaccine studies.

The rhesus macaque model is currently the best available model for HIV-AIDS with respect to understanding the pathogenesis as well as for the development ...

Retroviral Transduction of T-cell Receptors in Mouse T-cells

T-cell receptors (TCRs) play a central role in the immune system. TCRs on T-cell surfaces can specifically recognize peptide antigens presented by antigen presenting cells (APCs)1. This recognition leads to the activation of T-cells and a series of functional outcomes (e.g. cytokine production, killing of the target cells). Understanding the functional role of TCRs is critical to harness the power of the immune system to treat a variety of immunology related diseases (e.g. cancer or autoimmunity).
It is convenient to study TCRs in mouse models, which can be accomplished in several ways. Making TCR transgenic mouse models is costly and time-consuming and currently there are only a limited number of them available2-4. Alternatively, mice with antigen-specific T-cells can be generated by bone marrow chimera. This method also takes several weeks and requires expertise5. Retroviral transduction of TCRs into in vitro activated mouse T-cells is a quick and relatively easy method to obtain T-cells of desired peptide-MHC specificity. Antigen-specific T-cells can be generated in one week and used in any downstream applications. Studying transduced T-cells also has direct application to human immunotherapy, as adoptive transfer of human T-cells transduced with antigen-specific TCRs is an emerging strategy for cancer treatment6.
Here we present a protocol to retrovirally transduce TCRs into in vitro activated mouse T-cells. Both human and mouse TCR genes can be used. Retroviruses carrying specific TCR genes are generated and used to infect mouse T-cells activated with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 antibodies. After in vitro expansion, transduced T-cells are analyzed by flow cytometry.

We present a protocol to produce antigen-specific mouse T-cells using retroviral transduction

T-cell receptors (TCRs) play a central role in the immune system. TCRs on T-cell surfaces can specifically recognize peptide antigens presented by antigen ...

Determining Optimal Cytotoxic Activity of Human Her2neu Specific CD8 T cells by Comparing the Cr51 Release Assay to the xCELLigence System

Cytotoxic CD8 T cells constitute a subgroup of T cells that are capable of inducing the death of infected or malignant host cells1. These cells express a specialized receptor, called the T cell receptor (TCR), which can recognize a specific antigenic peptide bound to HLA class I molecules2. Engagement of infected cells or tumor cells through their HLA class I molecule results in production of lytic molecules such as granzymes and perforin resulting in target cell death. While it is useful to determine frequencies of antigen-specific CD8 T cells using assays such as the ELIspot or flow cytometry, it is also helpful to ascertain the strength of CD8 T cell responses using cytotoxicity assays3. The most recognizable assay for assessing cytotoxic function is the Chromium Release Assay (CRA), which is considered a standard assay 4. The CRA has several limitations, including exposure of cells to gamma radiation, lack of reproducibility, and a requirement for large numbers of cells. Over the past decade, there has been interest in adopting new strategies to overcome these limitations. Newer approaches include those that measure caspase 
release 4, BLT esterase activity 5 and surface expression of CD107 6. The impedance-based assay, using the Roche xCelligence system, was examined in the present paper for its potential as an alternative to the CRA. Impedance or opposition to an electric current occurs when adherent tumor cells bind to electrode plates. Tumor cells detach following killing and electrical impedance is reduced which can be measured by the xCelligence system. The ability to adapt the impedance-based approach to assess cell-mediated killing rests on the observation that T cells do not adhere tightly to most surfaces and do not appear to have much impact on impedance thus diminishing any concern of direct interference of the T cells with the measurement. Results show that the impedance-based assay can detect changes in the levels of antigen-specific cytotoxic CD8 T cells with increased sensitivity relative to the standard CRA. Based on these results, impedance-based approaches may be good alternatives to CRAs or other approaches that aim to measure cytotoxic CD8 T cell functionality.

The chromium release assay, a common assay for detecting cytotoxic T cell activity, has several limitations. Using antigen-specific CD8 T cells and the human breast cancer tumor line, SKBR3, in the present article, an impedance-based approach was examined for the capability of detecting cell killing.

Cytotoxic CD8 T cells constitute a subgroup of T  cells that are capable of inducing the death of infected or malignant host  cells1. These cells express ...

Peptide:MHC Tetramer-based Enrichment of Epitope-specific T cells

A basic necessity for researchers studying adaptive immunity with in vivo experimental models is an ability to identify T cells based on their T cell antigen receptor (TCR) specificity. Many indirect methods are available in which a bulk population of T cells is stimulated in vitro with a specific antigen and epitope-specific T cells are identified through the measurement of a functional response such as proliferation, cytokine production, or expression of activation markers1. However, these methods only identify epitope-specific T cells exhibiting one of many possible functions, and they are not sensitive enough to detect epitope-specific T cells at naive precursor frequencies. A popular alternative is the TCR transgenic adoptive transfer model, in which monoclonal T cells from a TCR transgenic mouse are seeded into histocompatible hosts to create a large precursor population of epitope-specific T cells that can be easily tracked with the use of a congenic marker antibody2,3. While powerful, this method suffers from experimental artifacts associated with the unphysiological frequency of T cells with specificity for a single epitope4,5. Moreover, this system cannot be used to investigate the functional heterogeneity of epitope-specific T cell clones within a polyclonal population.
	The ideal way to study adaptive immunity should involve the direct detection of epitope-specific T cells from the endogenous T cell repertoire using a method that distinguishes TCR specificity solely by its binding to cognate peptide:MHC (pMHC) complexes. The use of pMHC tetramers and flow cytometry accomplishes this6, but is limited to the detection of high frequency populations of epitope-specific T cells only found following antigen-induced clonal expansion. In this protocol, we describe a method that coordinates the use of pMHC tetramers and magnetic cell enrichment technology to enable detection of extremely low frequency epitope-specific T cells from mouse lymphoid tissues3,7. With this technique, one can comprehensively track entire epitope-specific populations of endogenous T cells in mice at all stages of the immune response.

This protocol describes the use of peptide:MHC tetramers and magnetic microbeads to isolate low frequency populations of epitope-specific T cells and analyze them by flow cytometry. This method enables the direct study of endogenous T cell populations of interest from in vivo experimental systems.

A  basic necessity for researchers studying adaptive immunity with in vivo experimental models is an  ability to identify T cells based on their T cell ...

Preparation of CD4+ T Cells for Analysis of GD3 and GD2 Ganglioside Membrane Expression by Microscopy

The methods described herein for activation of na&#239;ve CD4+ T cells in suspension and their adherence in coverslips for confocal microscopy analysis allow the spatial localization and visualization of gangliosides involved in CD4+ T cell activation, that complement expression profiling experiments such as flow cytometry, western blotting or real-time PCR. The quantification of ganglioside expression through flow cytometry and their cellular localization through microscopy can be obtained by the use of anti-ganglioside antibodies with high affinity and specificity. Nonetheless, an adequate handling of cells in suspension involves the treatment of culture plates to promote the necessary adherence required for fluorescence or confocal microscopy acquisition. In this work, we describe a protocol for determining GD3 and GD2 ganglioside expression and colocalization with the TCR during na&#239;ve CD4+ T cell activation. Also, real-time PCR experiments using &#60;40,000 cells are described for the determination of the GD3 and GM2/GD2 synthase genes, demonstrating that gene analysis experiments can be performed with a low number of cells and without the need of additional low input RNA kits.

Preparation of CD4+ T Cells for Analysis of GD3 and GD2 Ganglioside Membrane Expression by Microscopy

We describe a standard antibody staining protocol for use in microscopy to determine the membrane expression and localization of gangliosides in resting and activated human na&#239;ve CD4+ T cells. Also described are real-time PCR experiments using &#60;40,000 cells that do not require additional low input RNA kits.

The methods described herein for activation of na&#239;ve CD4+ T cells in suspension and their adherence in coverslips for confocal microscopy analysis ...

In Situ MHC-tetramer Staining and Quantitative Analysis to Determine the Location, Abundance, and Phenotype of Antigen-specific CD8 T Cells in Tissues

T cells are critical to many immunological processes, including detecting and eliminating virus-infected cells, preventing autoimmunity, assisting in B-cell and plasma-cell production of antibodies, and detecting and eliminating cancer cells. The development of MHC-tetramer staining of antigen-specific T cells analyzed by flow cytometry has revolutionized our ability to study and understand the immunobiology of T cells. While extremely useful for determining the quantity and phenotype of antigen-specific T cells, flow cytometry cannot determine the spatial localization of antigen-specific T cells to other cells and structures in tissues, and current disaggregation techniques to extract the T cells needed for flow cytometry have limited effectiveness in non-lymphoid tissues. In situ MHC-tetramer staining (IST) is a technique to visualize T cells that are specific for antigens of interest in tissues. In combination with immunohistochemistry (IHC), IST can determine the abundance, location, and phenotype of antigen-specific CD8 and CD4 T cells in tissues. Here, we describe a protocol to stain and enumerate antigen-specific CD8 T cells, with specific phenotypes located within specific tissue compartments. These procedures are the same that we used in our recent publication by Li et al., entitled &#34;Simian Immunodeficiency Virus-Producing Cells in Follicles Are Partially Suppressed by CD8+ Cells In Vivo.&#34; The methods described are broadly applicable because they can be used to localize, phenotype, and quantify essentially any antigen-specific CD8 T cell for which MHC tetramers are available, in any tissue.

In Situ MHC-tetramer Staining and Quantitative Analysis to Determine the Location, Abundance, and Phenotype of Antigen-specific CD8 T Cells in Tissues

Here, we describe a method that combines in situ MHC-tetramer staining with immunohistochemistry to determine localization, phenotype, and quantity of antigen-specific T cells in tissues. This protocol is used to determine the spatial and phenotypic characteristics of antigen-specific CD8 T cells relative to other cell type and structures in tissues.

T cells are critical to many immunological processes, including detecting and eliminating virus-infected cells, preventing autoimmunity, assisting in ...

Zika Virus Specific Diagnostic Epitope Discovery

High-density peptide microarrays allow screening of more than six thousand peptides on a single standard microscopy slide. This method can be applied for drug discovery, therapeutic target identification, and developing of diagnostics. Here, we present a protocol to discover specific Zika virus (ZIKV) diagnostic peptides using a high-density peptide microarray. A human serum sample validated for ZIKV infection was incubated with a high-density peptide microarray containing the entire ZIKV protein translated into 3,423 unique 15 linear amino acid (aa) residues with a 14-aa residue overlap printed in duplicate. Staining with different secondary antibodies within the same array, we detected peptides that bind to Immunoglobulin M (IgM) and Immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies present in serum. These peptides were selected for further validation experiments. In this protocol, we describe the strategy followed to design, process, and analyze a high-density peptide microarray.

In this protocol, we describe a technique to discover Zika virus specific diagnostic peptides using a high-density peptide microarray. This protocol can readly be adapted for other emerging infectious diseases.

High-density peptide microarrays allow screening of more than six thousand peptides on a single standard microscopy slide. This method can be applied for ...

Single-cell Quantitation of mRNA and Surface Protein Expression in Simian Immunodeficiency Virus-infected CD4+ T Cells Isolated from Rhesus macaques

Single-cell analysis is an important tool for dissecting heterogeneous populations of cells. The identification and isolation of rare cells can be difficult. To overcome this challenge, a methodology combining indexed flow cytometry and high-throughput multiplexed quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was developed. The objective was to identify and characterize simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected cells present within rhesus macaques. Through quantitation of surface protein by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and mRNA by qPCR, virus-infected cells are identified by viral gene expression, which is combined with host gene and protein measurements to create a multidimensional profile. We term the approach, targeted Single-Cell Proteo-transcriptional Evaluation, or tSCEPTRE. To perform the method, viable cells are stained with fluorescent antibodies specific for surface markers used for FACS isolation of a cell subset and/or downstream phenotypic analysis. Single cells are sorted followed by immediate lysis, multiplex reverse transcription (RT), PCR pre-amplification, and high throughput qPCR of up to 96 transcripts. FACS measurements are recorded at the time of sorting and subsequently linked to the gene expression data by well position to create a combined protein and transcriptional profile. To study SIV-infected cells directly ex vivo, cells were identified by qPCR detection of multiple viral RNA species. The combination of viral transcripts and the quantity of each provide a framework for classifying cells into distinct stages of the viral life cycle (e.g., productive versus non-productive). Moreover, tSCEPTRE of SIV+ cells were compared to uninfected cells isolated from the same specimen to assess differentially expressed host genes and proteins. The analysis revealed previously unappreciated viral RNA expression heterogeneity among infected cells as well as in vivo SIV-mediated post-transcriptional gene regulation with single-cell resolution. The tSCEPTRE method is relevant for the analysis of any cell population amenable to identification by expression of surface protein marker(s), host or pathogen gene(s), or combinations thereof.

Single-cell Quantitation of mRNA and Surface Protein Expression in Simian Immunodeficiency Virus-infected CD4+ T Cells Isolated from Rhesus macaques

Described is a methodology to quantitate the expression of 96 genes and 18 surface proteins by single cells ex vivo, allowing for the identification of differentially expressed genes and proteins in virus-infected cells relative to uninfected cells. We apply the approach to study SIV-infected CD4+ T cells isolated from rhesus macaques.

Single-cell analysis is an important tool for dissecting heterogeneous populations of cells. The identification and isolation of rare cells can be ...

Simultaneous Quantification of Anti-vector and Anti-transgene-Specific CD8+ T Cells Via MHC I Tetramer Staining After Vaccination with a Viral Vector

Upon viral infection, antigen-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) arise and contribute to the elimination of infected cells to prevent the spread of pathogens. Therefore, the frequency of antigen-specific CTLs is indicative of the strength of the T cell response against a specific antigen. Such analysis is important in basic immunology, vaccine development, cancer immunobiology and the adaptive immunology. In the vaccine field, the CTL response directed against components of a viral vector co-determines how effective the generation of antigen-specific cells against the antigen of interest (i.e., transgene) is. Antigen-specific CTLs can either be detected by stimulation with specific peptides followed by intracellular cytokine staining or by the direct staining of antigen-specific T cell receptors (TCRs) and analysis by flow cytometry. The first method is rather time-consuming since it requires sacrificing of animals to isolate cells from organs. Also, it requires isolation of blood from small animals which is difficult to perform. The latter method is rather fast, can be easily done with small amounts of blood and is not dependent on specific effector functions, such as cytolytic activity. MHC tetramers are an ideal tool to detect antigen-specific TCRs.
Here, we describe a protocol to simultaneously detect antigen-specific CTLs for the immunodominant peptides of the viral vector VSV-GP (LCMV-GP, VSV-NP) and transgenes (OVA, HPV 16 E7, eGFP) by MHC I tetramer staining and flow cytometry. Staining is possible either directly from blood or from single cell suspensions of organs, such as spleen. Blood or single cell suspensions of organs are incubated with tetramers. After staining with antibodies against CD3 and CD8, antigen-specific CTLs are quantified by flow cytometry. Optionally, antibodies against CD43, CD44, CD62L or others can be included to determine the activation status of antigen-specific CD8+T cells and to discriminate between na&#239;ve and effector cells.

Simultaneous Quantification of Anti-vector and Anti-transgene-Specific CD8+ T Cells Via MHC I Tetramer Staining After Vaccination with a Viral Vector

Here, we present a protocol for the ex vivo qualitative detection of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells. Analysis is possible with single cell suspensions from organs or from small amounts of blood. A broad range of studies require the analysis of cytotoxic T cell responses (vaccination and cancer immunotherapy studies).

Upon viral infection, antigen-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) arise and contribute to the elimination of infected cells to prevent the spread of ...

Isolation of Mouse Kidney-Resident CD8+ T cells for Flow Cytometry Analysis

Tissue-resident memory T cell (TRM) is a rapidly expanding field of immunology research. Isolating T cells from various non-lymphoid tissues is one of the key steps to investigate TRMs. There are slight variations in lymphocyte isolation protocols for different organs. Kidney is an essential non-lymphoid organ with numerous immune cell infiltration especially after pathogen exposure or autoimmune activation. In recent years, multiple labs including our own have started characterizing kidney resident CD8+ T cells in various physiological and pathological settings in both mouse and human. Due to the abundance of T lymphocytes, kidney represents an attractive model organ to study TRMs in non-mucosal or non-barrier tissues. Here, we will describe a protocol commonly used in TRM-focused labs to isolate CD8+ T cells from mouse kidneys following systemic viral infection. Briefly, using an acute lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection model in C57BL/6 mice, we demonstrate intravascular CD8+ T cell labeling, enzymatic digestion, and density gradient centrifugation to isolate and enrich lymphocytes from mouse kidneys to make samples ready for the subsequent flow cytometry analysis.

Isolation of Mouse Kidney-Resident CD8+ T cells for Flow Cytometry Analysis

Following viral infection, kidney harbors a relatively large number of CD8+ T cells and offers an opportunity to study non-mucosal TRM cells. Here, we describe a protocol to isolate mouse kidney lymphocytes for flow cytometry analysis.

Tissue-resident memory T cell (TRM) is a rapidly expanding field of immunology research. Isolating T cells from various non-lymphoid tissues is one of the ...