Name: visualization and quantitative analysis of embryonic angiogenesis in xenopus tropicalis
Uploaded: 2017-05-25T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualization and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Angiogenesis in Xenopus tropicalis at JoVE.com

This study was inspired by the work of Levine et al., which described this experimental method and provided a comprehensive description of vascular development in Xenopus laevis. We thank the members of our laboratory for their input. This study was supported by the Yonsei University Future-leading Research Initiative of 2015 (2015-22- 0095) and the Bio &#38; Medical Technology Development Program of the National Research Foundation (NRF) funded by the ministry of Science, ICT &#38; Future Planning (NRF-2013M3A9D5072551)

All experiments complied with protocols approved by the Yonsei University College of Medicine Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees.
1. Preparation of Xenopus tropicalis Embryos
NOTE: Xenopus tropicalis embryos were produced as previously described10, with slight modification. Xenopus tropicalis embryos were staged according to the tables of Nieuwkoop and Faber11 .
<ol>
	<li>Induction of ovulatio...

<ol>
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The protocol presented here was first developed by Ali H. Brivanlou and colleagues to investigate developmental events during vascular formation in Xenopus laevis4, but, as shown in this manuscript, it can be applied to other small animals. Dye injection into the heart is simple to perform, and the entire vascular network can be imaged under a fluorescence dissection microscope, as well as a confocal microscope. If the dye is injected into the heart during vessel development, the dynamics...

Vasculogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from newly born endothelial cells, and angiogenesis, the formation of new vessels from pre-existing vessels, are two distinct processes that shape embryonic vasculature1. Any dysregulation in these processes results in various heart diseases and structural abnormalities of vessels. Furthermore, tumor growth is associated with uncontrolled vessel growth. As such, molecular mechanisms underlying vasculogenesis and angiogenesis are the subject of intense investigation2.
Xenopus and zebrafish are attractive vertebrate models for vasculogenesis and angiogenesis studies, for several reasons. First, their embryos are small; therefore, it is relatively easy to image the entire vasculature. Second, embryonic development is rapid; it only takes a couple of days for the entire vasculature to develop, during which time the developing vasculature can be imaged. Third, genetic and pharmacological interventions before and during vessel formation are easy to perform, such as through the microinjection of antisense morpholino nucleotides (MOs) into the developing embryo or through the bath application of drugs3,4,5.
The unique advantage of Xenopus over zebrafish is that embryological manipulations can be performed because Xenopus follows stereotypical holoblastic cleavages and the embryonic fate map is well defined6. For example, it is possible to generate an embryo in which only one lateral side is genetically manipulated by injecting an antisense MO to one cell at the two-cell stage. It is also possible to transplant the heart primordium from one embryo to another to determine whether the gene exerts its function by a cell-intrinsic or -extrinsic mechanism7. Although these techniques have mostly been developed in Xenopus laevis, which is allotetraploid and is therefore not ideal for genetic studies, they can be directly applied to Xenopus tropicalis, a closely related diploid species8.
One way to visualize the vasculature in a live Xenopus embryo is to inject a fluorescent dye to label the blood vessels. Acetylated low density lipoprotein (AcLDL) labeled with a fluorescent molecule such as DiI is a very useful probe. Unlike unacetylated LDL, AcLDL does not bind to the LDL receptor9 but is endocytosed by macrophages and endothelial cells. The injection of DiI-AcLDL into the heart of a live animal results in the specific fluorescent labeling of endothelial cells, and the entire vasculature can be imaged by fluorescence microscopy in live or fixed embryos4.
Here, we present detailed protocols for the visualization and quantification of blood vessels using DiI-AcLDL in Xenopus tropicalis (Figure 1). We provide key practical points, with examples of successful and unsuccessful experiments. In addition, we provide a straightforward method for the quantitative analysis of vascular complexity, which might be useful in assessing the effects of genetic and environmental factors on the shaping of the vascular network.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="539">
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	<tbody>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">35mm Petri dish</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">SPL</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">10035</td>
			<td style="width:180px;">Sylgard mold frame</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">60mm Petri dish</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">SPL</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">10060</td>
			<td>Embryo raising tray</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:153px;">Borosilicate Glass</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Sutter instrument</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">B100-50-10</td>
			<td>Needle for injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">BSA</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">A3059-10G</td>
			<td>Coating reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:153px;">CaCl2</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">D.S.P.GR Reagent</td>
			<td style="width:93px;"></td>
			<td>0.1X MBS component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">Coverslip</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Superior</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">HSU-0111520</td>
			<td>For confocal imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:153px;">DiI-AcLDL</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">L3484</td>
			<td>Vessel staining solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">FBS</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Hyclone</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">SH.30919.02</td>
			<td>For storage of testis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:153px;">Fiber Optical Illuminator</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Z-LITE-Z</td>
			<td>Light</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">Ficoll</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">F4375</td>
			<td>Injection buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:153px;">Flaming/Brown Micropipette Puller</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Sutter instrument</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">P-97</td>
			<td>Injection needle puller</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:153px;">Forcep</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Fine Science Tool</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">11255-20</td>
			<td style="width:180px;">For embryo hatching and 
			needle tip cutting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">Glass Bottom dish</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">SPL</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">100350</td>
			<td>For confocal imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">hCG</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">MNS Korea</td>
			<td style="width:93px;"></td>
			<td>For priming of frogs</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">HEPES</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">H3375</td>
			<td>Buffering agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">Incubator</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Lab. Companion</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">ILP-02</td>
			<td>For raising embryos</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">KCl</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">DAEJUNG</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">6566-4400</td>
			<td>MBS component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">L15 medium</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">11415-114</td>
			<td>For storage of testis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">L-cysteine</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">168149-100G</td>
			<td>De-jellying reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">MgSO4</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">M7506</td>
			<td>MBS component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">Microtube</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Axygen</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">MCT-175-C-S</td>
			<td>For storage of testis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">MS222</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">E10521</td>
			<td>Anesthetic powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">NaCl</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">DAEJUNG</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">7647-14-5</td>
			<td>MBS component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">NaOH</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">S-0899</td>
			<td>pH adjusting reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">P6148</td>
			<td>Fixatives</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">PBS</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">BIOSESANG</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">P2007</td>
			<td>Buffer for imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">pH paper</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">P4536-100EA</td>
			<td>For confirming pH</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:153px;">PICO-LITER INJECTOR</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Waner instruments</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">PLI-100A</td>
			<td>For injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">Pin</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Pinservice</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">26002-10</td>
			<td>For incision</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">Pinholder</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Scitech Korea</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">26016-12</td>
			<td>For incision</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:153px;">Precision Stereo Zoom Binocular Microscope</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">PZMIII</td>
			<td>For visual screening</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:153px;">Standard Manual Control Micromanipulator&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Waner instruments</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">W4 64-0056</td>
			<td>For microinjection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:153px;">SYLGARD 184 Kit</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Dow Corning</td>
			<td style="width:93px;"></td>
			<td>For DiI injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:153px;">Transfer pipette</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Korea Ace Scientific Co.</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">YM.B78-400</td>
			<td>For eggs and 
			embryo collection</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

visualization and quantitative analysis of embryonic angiogenesis in xenopus tropicalis

Blood vessels supply oxygen and nutrients throughout the body, and the formation of the vascular network is under tight developmental control. The efficient in vivo visualization of blood vessels and the reliable quantification of their complexity are key to understanding the biology and disease of the vascular network. Here, we provide a detailed method to visualize blood vessels with a commercially available fluorescent dye, human plasma acetylated low density lipoprotein DiI complex (DiI-AcLDL), and to quantify their complexity in Xenopus tropicalis. Blood vessels can be labeled by a simple injection of DiI-AcLDL into the beating heart of an embryo, and blood vessels in the entire embryo can be imaged in live or fixed embryos. Combined with gene perturbation by the targeted microinjection of nucleic acids and/or the bath application of pharmacological reagents, the roles of a gene or of a signaling pathway on vascular development can be investigated within one week without resorting to sophisticated genetically engineered animals. Because of the well-defined venous system of Xenopus and its stereotypic angiogenesis, the sprouting of pre-existing vessels, vessel complexity can be quantified efficiently after perturbation experiments. This relatively simple protocol should serve as an easily accessible tool in diverse fields of cardiovascular research.

Timeline of experiments (Figures 1 and 2)
Shortly after fertilization, targeted microinjection can be performed to modulate gene expression. For example, an antisense MO that specifically binds to the initiation codon of the endogenous Tie2 mRNA can be injected, inhibiting the translation of Tie2 target mRNA by steric hindrance. A MO can be conjugated to fluorescein for the easy visual screening of successfully injected embryos. Al...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualization and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Angiogenesis in Xenopus tropicalis at JoVE.com

Visualization and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Angiogenesis in Xenopus tropicalis

This protocol demonstrates a fluorescence-based method to visualize the vasculature and to quantify its complexity in Xenopus tropicalis. Blood vessels can be imaged minutes after the injection of a fluorescent dye into the beating heart of an embryo after genetic and/or pharmacological manipulations to study cardiovascular development in vivo.

Visualization and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Angiogenesis in Xenopus tropicalis

Blood vessels supply oxygen and nutrients throughout the body, and the formation of the vascular network is under tight developmental control. The ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to visualize the vasculature of Xenopus tropicalis tadpoles. This method can help answer key questions in the field of cardiovascular biology such as how angiogenesis is regulated. The main advantage of this technique is that blood vessels in an intact well type embryo can be visualized by a simple fluorescent dye injection.Begin by using a micro loader to fill a tapered glass micro pipette with approximately five microliters of clear diI acetylated LDL solution taking care that no precipitated particles are loaded. Under a dissecting microscope use a fine pair of number 55 forceps to clip the tip of the pipette to adjust the volume of the uploaded complex and set the pressure controlled injection system to eject approximately five nano liters of solution per injection. Then submerge the pipette tip in 0.04%MS-222 in 0.1X modified Barth's saline or MBS in a custom made Sylgard mold.Next transfer Xenopus tropicalis embryo to the Sylgard mold and confirm complete sedation with a lack of response to dorsal fin stimulation. Under the dissecting microscope load the embryo ventral side up into the V shaped indentation of the mold in a slightly oblique position. Tightly fit two 0.1 millimeter minutian pins to a pin holder and use one pin to puncture the skin over the heart which should be visibly pulsing.Insert the pin through the hole in the space between the heart and the skin without puncturing the heart and position the inserted tip within the region where the incision will be made. Then rub the second pin against the inserted pin to make a linear incision and use both pins together to gently widen the incision, exposing the heart. To inject the DiI acetylated LDL solution, insert the glass pipette tip into the heart and inject 50 to 60 nano liters of the DiI acetylated LDL in approximately 10 ejection pulses.When all of the dye solution has been delivered confirm that the heart is still beating and transfer the embryo into a new Petri dish containing 0.1X MBS. After five to 10 minutes the tadpole should recover from anesthesia and begin to move. After an appropriate number of embryos have been injected, visually screen the correctly labeled anesthetized embryos under a fluorescence microscope discarding any animals that have other organs labeled.Embryos that have been insufficiently labeled can be injected again. Then capture images of the correctly labeled embryos. For a more thorough imaging of the blood vessels, fix re anesthetized embryos in 4%paraformaldehyde for one hour at room temperature protected from light for visualization by confocal microscopy.If a sufficient amount of diI acetylated LDL is injected into the heart, the posterior cardinal vein, or PCV, should be immediately visible under a fluorescence microscope. The intersomitic veins, or ISV's, emerge dorsally from the PCV in an anterior to posterior wave beginning at stage 36 and ending around stage 40 to 41 becoming lightly branched around stage 43. The PCV and ISV's grow in a stereotypical angiogenic pattern that is under tight developmental control.Interestingly, the knockdown of TIE-2 signaling by antisense morphalinos decreases the length and the complexity of the ISV's whereas expression of the constitutively active form of TIE-2 induces excessive ISV branching. A Vein Complexity Index can be calculated to assess the complexity of the ISV's and rendered paths can be generated to visualize the overall architecture of the embryonic Xenopus tropicalis vasculature. The original protocol was described for using Xenopus laevis by Levin and Colics and we adapted it for Xenopus tropicalis.Once mastered, this technique can be completed in one hour if it is performed properly. Before this procedure, genetic and pharmacological manipulations can be performed to answer additional questions such as which genes and signaling pathways regulate vascular development. Using this procedure the labeled vasculature can be imaged in an intact animal in real time providing a powerful tool for investigating the dynamics of vascular development.After watching this video you should have a good understanding of how to inject diI acetylated LDL into the heart of a Xenopus tropicalis tadpole to visualize it's vasculature.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

Manipulation and In Vitro Maturation of Xenopus laevis Oocytes, Followed by Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection, to Study Embryonic Development

Amphibian eggs have been widely used to study embryonic development. Early embryonic development is driven by maternally stored factors accumulated during oogenesis. In order to study roles of such maternal factors in early embryonic development, it is desirable to manipulate their functions from the very beginning of embryonic development. Conventional ways of gene interference are achieved by injection of antisense oligonucleotides (oligos) or mRNA into fertilized eggs, enabling under- or over-expression of specific proteins, respectively. However, these methods normally require more than several hours until protein expression is affected, and, hence, the interference of gene functions is not effective during early embryonic stages. Here, we introduce an experimental system in which expression levels of maternal proteins can be altered before fertilization. Xenopus laevis oocytes obtained from ovaries are defolliculated by incubating with enzymes. Antisense oligos or mRNAs are injected into defolliculated oocytes at the germinal vesicle (GV) stage. These oocytes are in vitro matured to eggs at the metaphase II (MII) stage, followed by intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). By this way, up to 10% of ICSI embryos can reach the swimming tadpole stage, thus allowing functional tests of specific gene knockdown or overexpression. This approach can be a useful way to study roles of maternally stored factors in early embryonic development.

Manipulation and In Vitro Maturation of Xenopus laevis Oocytes, Followed by Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection, to Study Embryonic Development

We describe methods of manipulating Xenopus laevis immature oocytes, in vitro maturation of oocytes to eggs, and intracytoplasmic sperm injection. This protocol allows degradation of some maternal proteins and overexpression of genes of interest at fertilization, and hence is valuable to study roles of specific factors in early embryonic development.

Amphibian eggs have been widely used to study embryonic development. Early embryonic development is driven by maternally stored factors accumulated during ...

Analysis of Cardiomyocyte Development using Immunofluorescence in Embryonic Mouse Heart

During heart development, the generation of myocardial-specific structural and functional units including sarcomeres, contractile myofibrils, intercalated discs, and costameres requires the coordinated assembly of multiple components in time and space. Disruption in assembly of these components leads to developmental heart defects. Immunofluorescent staining techniques are used commonly in cultured cardiomyocytes to probe myofibril maturation, but this ex vivo approach is limited by the extent to which myocytes will fully differentiate in culture, lack of normal in vivo mechanical inputs, and absence of endocardial cues. Application of immunofluorescence techniques to the study of developing mouse heart is desirable but more technically challenging, and methods often lack sufficient sensitivity and resolution to visualize sarcomeres in the early stages of heart development. Here, we describe a robust and reproducible method to co-immunostain multiple proteins or to co-visualize a fluorescent protein with immunofluorescent staining in the embryonic mouse heart and use this method to analyze developing myofibrils, intercalated discs, and costameres. This method can be further applied to assess cardiomyocyte structural changes caused by mutations that lead to developmental heart defects.

Mutations that lead to congenital heart defects benefit from in vivo investigation of cardiac structure during development, but high-resolution structural studies in the mouse embryonic heart are technically challenging. Here we present a robust immunofluorescence and image analysis method to assess cardiomyocyte-specific structures in the developing mouse heart.

During heart development, the generation of myocardial-specific structural and functional units including sarcomeres, contractile myofibrils, intercalated ...

Visualization of Chondrocyte Intercalation and Directional Proliferation via Zebrabow Clonal Cell Analysis in the Embryonic Meckel&#8217;s Cartilage

Development of the vertebrate craniofacial structures requires precise coordination of cell migration, proliferation, adhesion and differentiation. Patterning of the Meckel&#39;s cartilage, a first pharyngeal arch derivative, involves the migration of cranial neural crest (CNC) cells and the progressive partitioning, proliferation and organization of differentiated chondrocytes. Several studies have described CNC migration during lower jaw&#160;morphogenesis, but the details of how the chondrocytes achieve organization in the growth and extension of Meckel&#8217;s cartilage remains unclear. The sox10 restricted and chemically induced Cre recombinase-mediated recombination generates permutations of distinct fluorescent proteins (RFP, YFP and CFP), thereby creating a multi-spectral labeling of progenitor cells and their progeny, reflecting distinct clonal populations. Using confocal time-lapse photography, it is possible to observe the chondrocytes behavior during the development of the zebrafish Meckel&#8217;s cartilage.
Multispectral cell labeling enables scientists to demonstrate extension of the Meckel&#8217;s chondrocytes.&#160;During extension phase of the Meckel&#8217;s cartilage, which prefigures the mandible, chondrocytes intercalate to effect extension as they stack in an organized single-cell layered row. Failure of this organized intercalating process to mediate cell extension provides the cellular mechanistic explanation for hypoplastic mandible that we observe in mandibular malformations.

Visualization of Chondrocyte Intercalation and Directional Proliferation via Zebrabow Clonal Cell Analysis in the Embryonic Meckel&amp;#8217;s Cartilage

Cell organization of craniofacial bones has long been hypothesized but never directly visualized. Multi-spectral cell labeling and in vivo live imaging allows visualization of dynamic cell behavior in zebrafish lower jaw. Here, we detail the protocol to manipulate Zebrabow transgenic fish and directly observe cell intercalation and morphological changes of chondrocytes in the Meckel&#8217;s cartilage.

Development of the vertebrate craniofacial structures requires precise coordination of cell migration, proliferation, adhesion and differentiation. ...

Stem cell-like Xenopus Embryonic Explants to Study Early Neural Developmental Features In Vitro and In Vivo

Understanding the genetic programs underlying neural development is an important goal of developmental and stem cell biology. In the amphibian blastula, cells from the roof of the blastocoel are pluripotent. These cells can be isolated, and programmed to generate various tissues through manipulation of genes expression or induction by morphogens. In this manuscript protocols are described for the use of Xenopus laevis blastocoel roof explants as an assay system to investigate key in vivo and in vitro features of early neural development. These protocols allow the investigation of fate acquisition, cell migration behaviors, and cell autonomous and non-autonomous properties. The blastocoel roof explants can be cultured in a serum-free defined medium and grafted into host embryos. This transplantation into an embryo allows the investigation of the long-term lineage commitment, the inductive properties, and the behavior of transplanted cells in vivo. These assays can be exploited to investigate molecular mechanisms, cellular processes and gene regulatory networks underlying neural development. In the context of regenerative medicine, these assays provide a means to generate neural-derived cell types in vitro that could be used in drug screening.

Stem cell-like Xenopus Embryonic Explants to Study Early Neural Developmental Features In Vitro and In Vivo

In Xenopus embryos, cells from the roof of the blastocoel are pluripotent and can be programmed to generate various tissues. Here, we describe protocols to use amphibian blastocoel roof explants as an assay system to investigate key in vivo and in vitro features of early neural development.

Understanding the genetic programs underlying neural development is an important goal of developmental and stem cell biology. In the amphibian blastula, ...

Transcriptome Profiling of In-Vivo Produced Bovine Pre-implantation Embryos Using Two-color Microarray Platform

Early embryonic loss is a large contributor to infertility in cattle. Moreover, bovine becomes an interesting model to study human preimplantation embryo development due to their similar developmental process. Although genetic factors are known to affect early embryonic development, the discovery of such factors has been a serious challenge. Microarray technology allows quantitative measurement and gene expression profiling of transcript levels on a genome-wide basis. One of the main decisions that have to be made when planning a microarray experiment is whether to use a one- or two-color approach. Two-color design increases technical replication, minimizes variability, improves sensitivity and accuracy as well as allows having loop designs, defining the common reference samples. Although microarray is a powerful biological tool, there are potential pitfalls that can attenuate its power. Hence, in this technical paper we demonstrate an optimized protocol for RNA extraction, amplification, labeling, hybridization of the labeled amplified RNA to the array, array scanning and data analysis using the two-color analysis strategy.

Transcriptome Profiling of In-Vivo Produced Bovine Pre-implantation Embryos Using Two-color Microarray Platform

Microarray technology allows quantitative measurement and gene expression profiling of transcripts on a genome-wide basis. Therefore, this protocol provides an optimized technical procedure in a two-color custom made bovine array using Day 7 bovine embryos to demonstrate the feasibility of using low amount of total RNA.

Early embryonic loss is a large contributor to infertility in cattle. Moreover, bovine becomes an interesting model to study human preimplantation embryo ...

Technique to Target Microinjection to the Developing Xenopus Kidney

The embryonic kidney of Xenopus&#160;laevis (frog), the pronephros, consists of a single nephron, and can be used as a model for kidney disease. Xenopus embryos are large, develop externally, and can be easily manipulated by microinjection or surgical procedures. In addition, fate maps have been established for early Xenopus embryos. Targeted microinjection into the individual blastomere that will eventually give rise to an organ or tissue of interest can be used to selectively overexpress or knock down gene expression within this restricted region, decreasing secondary effects in the rest of the developing embryo. In this protocol, we describe how to utilize established Xenopus fate maps to target the developing Xenopus kidney (the pronephros), through microinjection into specific blastomere of 4- and 8-cell embryos. Injection of lineage tracers allows verification of the specific targeting of the injection. After embryos have developed to stage 38 - 40, whole-mount immunostaining is used to visualize pronephric development, and the contribution by targeted cells to the pronephros can be assessed. The same technique can be adapted to target other tissue types in addition to the pronephros.

Technique to Target Microinjection to the Developing Xenopus Kidney

Here, we present a protocol to use fate maps and lineage tracers to target injections into individual blastomeres that give rise to the kidney of Xenopus laevis embryos.

The embryonic kidney of Xenopus&#160;laevis (frog), the pronephros, consists of a single nephron, and can be used as a model for kidney disease. Xenopus ...

Analysis of Coronary Vessels in Cleared Embryonic Hearts

Whole mount visualization of the embryonic coronary plexus from which the capillary and arterial networks will form is rendered problematic using standard microscopy techniques, due to the scattering of imaging light by the thick heart tissue, as these vessels are localized deep within the walls of the developing heart. As optical clearing of tissues using organic solvents such as BABB (1 part benzyl alcohol to 2 parts benzyl benzoate) has been shown to greatly improve the optical penetration depth that can be achieved, we combined clearance of whole, PECAM1-immunostained hearts, with laser-scanning confocal microscopy, in order to obtain high-resolution images of vessels throughout the entire heart. BABB clearance of embryonic hearts takes place rapidly and also acts to preserve the fluorescent signal for several weeks; in addition, samples can be imaged multiple times without loss of signal. This straightforward method is also applicable to imaging other types of blood vessels in whole embryos.

We present a protocol for the analysis of coronary vessels in whole embryonic murine hearts up to E15.5, using standard immunological staining methods followed by optical clearance and confocal microscopy. This technique enables visualization of blood vessels throughout the entire heart without the need for time-consuming analysis of serial sections.

Whole mount visualization of the embryonic coronary plexus from which the capillary and arterial networks will form is rendered problematic using standard ...

Light-mediated Reversible Modulation of the Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase Pathway during Cell Differentiation and Xenopus Embryonic Development

Kinase activity is crucial for a plethora of cellular functions, including cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, and apoptosis. During early embryonic development, kinase activity is highly dynamic and widespread across the embryo. Pharmacological and genetic approaches are commonly used to probe kinase activities. Unfortunately, it is challenging to achieve superior spatial and temporal resolution using these strategies. Furthermore, it is not feasible to control the kinase activity in a reversible fashion in live cells and multicellular organisms. Such a limitation remains a bottleneck for achieving a quantitative understanding of kinase activity during development and differentiation. This work presents an optogenetic strategy that takes advantage of a bicistronic system containing photoactivatable proteins Arabidopsis thaliana cryptochrome 2 (CRY2) and the N-terminal domain of cryptochrome-interacting basic-helix-loop-helix (CIBN). Reversible activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway is achieved through light-mediated protein translocation in live cells. This approach can be applied to mammalian cell cultures and live vertebrate embryos. This bicistronic system can be generalized to control the activity of other kinases with similar activation mechanisms and can be applied to other model systems.

Light-mediated Reversible Modulation of the Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase Pathway during Cell Differentiation and Xenopus Embryonic Development

This protocol describes an optogenetic strategy to modulate mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activity during cell differentiation and Xenopus embryonic development. This method allows for the reversible activation of the MAPK signaling pathway in mammalian cell culture and in multicellular live organisms, like Xenopus embryos, with high spatial and temporal resolution.

Kinase activity is crucial for a plethora of cellular functions, including cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, and apoptosis. During early ...

Quantitative Whole-mount Immunofluorescence Analysis of Cardiac Progenitor Populations in Mouse Embryos

The use of ever-advancing imaging techniques has contributed broadly to our increased understanding of embryonic development. Pre-implantation development and organogenesis are two areas of research that have benefitted greatly from these advances, due to the high quality of data that can be obtained directly from imaging pre-implantation embryos or ex vivo organs. While pre-implantation embryos have yielded data with especially high spatial resolution, later stages have been less amenable to three-dimensional reconstruction. Obtaining high-quality 3D or volumetric data for known embryonic structures in combination with fate mapping or genetic lineage tracing will allow for a more comprehensive analysis of the morphogenetic events taking place during embryogenesis.
This protocol describes a whole-mount immunofluorescence approach that allows for the labeling, visualization, and quantification of progenitor cell populations within the developing cardiac crescent, a key structure formed during heart development. The approach is designed in such a way that both cell- and tissue-level information can be obtained. Using confocal microscopy and image processing, this protocol allows for three-dimensional spatial reconstruction of the cardiac crescent, thereby providing the ability to analyze the localization and organization of specific progenitor populations during this critical phase of heart development. Importantly, the use of reference antibodies allows for successive masking of the cardiac crescent and subsequent quantitative measurements of areas within the crescent. This protocol will not only enable a detailed examination of early heart development, but with adaptations should be applicable to most organ systems in the gastrula to early somite stage mouse embryo.

Here, we describe a protocol for whole mount immunofluorescence and image-based quantitative volumetric analysis of early stage mouse embryos. We present this technique as a powerful approach to qualitatively and quantitatively assess cardiac structures during development, and propose that it may be widely adaptable to other organ systems.

The use of ever-advancing imaging techniques has contributed broadly to our increased understanding of embryonic development. Pre-implantation development ...

Kinetic Analysis of Vasculogenesis Quantifies Dynamics of Vasculogenesis and Angiogenesis In Vitro

Vasculogenesis is a complex process by which endothelial stem and progenitor cells undergo de novo vessel formation. Quantitative assessment of vasculogenesis has become a central readout of endothelial progenitor cell functionality, and therefore, several attempts have been made to improve both in vitro and in vivo vasculogenesis models. However, standard methods are limited in scope, with static measurements failing to capture many aspects of this highly dynamic process. Therefore, the goal of developing this novel protocol was to assess the kinetics of in vitro vasculogenesis in order to quantitate rates of network formation and stabilization, as well as provide insight into potential mechanisms underlying vascular dysfunction. Application of this protocol is demonstrated using fetal endothelial colony forming cells (ECFCs) exposed to maternal diabetes mellitus. Fetal ECFCs were derived from umbilical cord blood following birth, cultured, and plated in slides containing basement membrane matrix, where they underwent vasculogenesis. Images of the entire slide wells were acquired using time-lapse phase contrast microscopy over 15 hours. Images were analyzed for derivation of quantitative data using an analysis software called Kinetic Analysis of Vasculogenesis (KAV). KAV uses image segmentation followed by skeletonization to analyze network components from stacks of multi-time point phase contrast images to derive ten parameters (9 measured, 1 calculated) of network structure including: closed networks, network areas, nodes, branches, total branch length, average branch length, triple-branched nodes, quad-branched nodes, network structures, and the branch to node ratio. Application of this protocol identified altered rates of vasculogenesis in ECFCs obtained from pregnancies complicated by diabetes mellitus. However, this technique has broad implications beyond the scope reported here. Implementation of this approach will enhance mechanistic assessment and improve functional readouts of vasculogenesis and other biologically important branching processes in numerous cell types or disease states.

Kinetic Analysis of Vasculogenesis Quantifies Dynamics of Vasculogenesis and Angiogenesis In Vitro

Here, we present a protocol for time-lapse imaging and analysis of vasculogenesis in vitro using phase contrast microscopy coupled with the open source software, Kinetic Analysis of Vasculogenesis. This protocol can be applied to quantitatively assess the vasculogenic potential of numerous cell types or experimental conditions that model vascular disease.