The authors would like to acknowledge The New York Brain Bank, Dr. Jean Paul Vonsattel and Dr. Etty Cort&#233;s, for their assistance in cutting and preserving the frozen human brain tissue samples for these experiments. The authors would like to acknowledge the individuals who generously donated their brain for the continuing research into Essential Tremor. Dr. Faust and Dr. Martuscello would like to acknowledge Columbia University Department of Pathology and Cell Biology for their continued support and core research space. The authors would like to acknowledge NIH R01 NS088257 Louis/Faust) for research funding for this project. LCM images were performed in the Confocal and Specialized Microscopy Shared Resource of the Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center at Columbia University, supported by NIH grant #P30 CA013696 (National Cancer Institute). The authors would like to acknowledge Theresa Swayne and Laura Munteanu for their continued assistance with specialized microscopy.

All human samples utilized in this protocol have been obtained with informed consent and have been approved by the Internal Review Board (IRB) at Columbia University and Yale University.
NOTE: The entirety of this protocol should follow strict RNA handling guidelines, whereby a gloved hand is always used, all surfaces are cleaned with an RNase decontaminator and all working materials are RNA/DNA/Nuclease free.
1. Test RNA Integrity of Tissue prior to Starting LCM
NOTE: Testing RNA quality can be done by many methods. Ensure that RNA from the entire section is tested to provide a representative RNA integrity number (RIN) for the sample.
<ol>
	<li>Carefully select tissue samples for inclusion that fit within the parameter of the experimental design. If cutting at the cryostat, move to Step 1.2. If not, process the tissue accordingly and move to Step 1.11.</li>
	<li>Get two containers of dry ice. The size will depend on the number of samples.
	<ol>
		<li>In the first container of dry ice, place an empty, labeled 2 mL tube with the tissue code. 
		NOTE: It takes 10 min for the tubes to freeze. Tubes must be frozen prior to placing the tissue into them; otherwise, the tissue will melt on the tube surface.</li>
		<li>In a second container of dry ice, place the tissue from a -80 &#176;C freezer that requires RNA check.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Clean the cryostat. See Step 4.7 for detailed cleaning procedure.</li>
	<li>Remove the tissue from dry ice and cut a small section of tissue with a RNase decontaminated razor blade. Tissue should be approximately 1 cm x 1 cm in size.</li>
	<li>Place an approximately 3 mm high mound of optimal cutting temperature (OCT) compound on a cryostat &#39;chuck&#39; and allow it to partially freeze. Then, place the tissue on top of the OCT &#8212; do not push into OCT, simply allow it to rest on top.</li>
	<li>Once OCT hardens, place the chuck with the mounted tissue in the cryostat cutting arm and position in front of the cryostat blade.</li>
	<li>Trim at 30 &#956;m sections until the tissue is even.</li>
	<li>Cut 300 &#956;m of the tissue and place in a frozen 2 mL tube. Place the tube back into dry ice.</li>
	<li>Remove the tissue from the &#39;chuck&#39; and place back into dry ice until ready to put away.</li>
	<li>Repeat Steps 1.4&#8211;1.9 for all tissues.</li>
	<li>Once all samples are complete, extract RNA using the RNA extraction kit provided (Table of Materials #15). A detailed protocol is provided with the RNA extraction kit. Follow all instructions including the optional step to dry the collection tube membrane and the optional step for DNase digestion (Table of Materials #16).</li>
	<li>Test the integrity of extracted RNA via a quality assessment bioanalyzer14.</li>
</ol>
2. Prepare prior to Starting Sectioning for LCM
<ol>
	<li>Clean the slides holders prior to each round of tissue sectioning for LCM. Perform the cleaning procedure the day before use to allow complete drying overnight. 
	NOTE: Slide holders are used for tissue section fixation in ethanol and clearing in xylene.
	<ol>
		<li>Slide holder cleaning procedure: Rinse with RNase decontaminator followed by diethyl pyrocarbonate treated (DEPC) water. Allow to dry overnight upside down on an RNA/DNA/Nuclease free surface, avoiding any dust or other airborne contamination. 
		CAUTION: DEPC is highly toxic and should be handled and disposed of using EH&#38;S standard hazardous chemicals protocol.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Clean the brushes for sectioning with RNase decontaminator and allow to dry overnight. Avoid any dust and other contaminants.</li>
	<li>Place the membrane slides under UV light for 30 min at room temperature. Do not expose the slides to UV more than 1&#8211;2 days prior to use. This enhances the binding of the tissue to the membrane slide. 
	NOTE: Step 2.3 can be combined with Step 4, which allows for slide UV treatment to occur on the same day as tissue sectioning (see Step 4.4).</li>
</ol>
3. Prepare Fixation Solutions with RNase Free Water and High-Quality Ethanol
NOTE: All solutions are prepared fresh for every experiment. Ensure that the slide holder cleaning procedure from Step 1.1 is completed. All solutions are prepared in slide holders.
<ol>
	<li>Place 30 mL of 100% ethanol in one slide holder.</li>
	<li>Dilute ethanol with RNase/DNase/Nuclease free water. Place 30 mL of 95% ethanol in one slide holder and put on ice.</li>
	<li>Dilute ethanol with RNase/DNase/Nuclease free water. Place 30 mL of 70% ethanol in one slide holder and put on ice.</li>
	<li>Place 30 mL of 100% xylene in two separate slide holders and label them as #1 and #2.</li>
</ol>
4. Prepare Cryostat for Tissue Sectioning
<ol>
	<li>Get a bucket of ice for ethanol solutions and a container with dry ice for the tissue. 
	CAUTION: Dry ice is extremely cold, so use protective gloves. Do not place ice and dry ice in the same container. Differing temperatures in the ice and dry ice will cause them to form together at an indeterminate temperature.</li>
	<li>Remove the tissue from the -80 &#176;C freezer and place on dry ice for transport to the cryostat.</li>
	<li>Cryostat settings:
	<ol>
		<li>Set the section thickness to 14 &#956;m.</li>
		<li>Set the trim thickness to 30 &#956;m to preserve tissue quantity.</li>
		<li>For cryostats with dual chamber and specimen holding temperatures, set the chamber temperature (CT) to -18&#160;&#176;C. For cryostats with one setting, set the temperature to -17&#160;&#176;C.</li>
		<li>For cryostats with dual chamber and specimen holding temperature, set the object temperature (OT) to -16&#160;&#176;C. 
		NOTE: The OT needs to be warmer than the CT to ensure even cutting. If the tissue is still shredding, the OT can be increased to -15 &#176;C and the CT can be increased to -18 &#176;C.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Place the tissue in the cryostat for at least 20 min to allow to come to optimal temperature. 
	NOTE: If the tissue is not at optimal temperature, it will shred upon cutting. Do not place the tissue in -20 &#176;C the night before to preserve RNA integrity and to prevent ice crystal formation. Allow the tissue as much time as necessary to equilibrate to optimal temperature to cut smoothly. Optional implementation of slide incubation under UV may occur here (see Step 1.3).</li>
	<li>Place the &#39;chuck&#39; in the cryostat for at least 20 min to allow to come down to the temperature of the cryostat.</li>
	<li>Place the clean brushes in the cryostat for at least 20 min to allow to come down to the temperature of the cryostat.</li>
	<li>Clean the cryostat
	<ol>
		<li>Clean the stage with a 1:1 mixture of RNase decontaminator and 70% ethanol diluted with RNA/DNA/Nuclease free water to prevent freezing on stage.</li>
		<li>Clean a new disposable cryostat blade with RNase decontaminator and place in the blade holder on the stage. Allow at least 20 min for the cryostat blade to come to the temperature of the cryostat.</li>
		<li>Clean the anti-roll plate with RNase decontaminator and attach to the stage. Allow at least 20 min for the anti-roll plate to come to the temperature of the cryostat. 
		NOTE: An anti-roll plate is not required for cutting but is highly recommended. If an anti-roll plate is not available, a cleaned brush works as an alternative. If the anti-roll plate is not at the correct temperature, the tissue will melt or stick upon cutting.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Sectioning Tissue
<ol>
	<li>Cut a small piece of the tissue (~1 cm x 1 cm) for sectioning. Return the remaining tissue to dry ice/-80 &#176;C freezer. 
	NOTE: Ensure that the tissue section is ~95% cerebellar cortex, where Purkinje cells are located.</li>
	<li>Place an approximately 3 mm high mound of OCT to cover the &#39;chuck&#39;. Start by building the layers on top in a slow, circular motion, until there is a small mound.</li>
	<li>Once OCT is partially frozen, but there is still some liquid in the center, place the tissue on top of OCT. Do not push the tissue deeply into OCT. Allow the tissue to sit on top of OCT until completely frozen. This will take 1&#8211;2 min.</li>
	<li>Place the &#39;chuck&#39; with frozen OCT and the tissue into the cryostat cutting arm. Adjust the tissue so it is flush with cutting blade.</li>
	<li>Allow the tissue to sit in the cutting arm for 15&#8211;20&#160;min to adjust to new temperature. 
	NOTE: Depending on the thickness of the tissue, time is needed for temperature acclimation. Allow the tissue to sit as long as required to cut cleanly. Adjust OT and CT to assist with tissue temperature acclimation.</li>
	<li>Slowly move the tissue closer to the blade. Once the tissue has reached the blade, start the trim process. Trim thickness should be set to 30 &#956;m.</li>
	<li>Trim 2&#8211;3x until the cortex layers are visible.</li>
	<li>Place and align the anti-roll plate just above the cryostat blade. 
	NOTE: A silver line will appear from the light in the cryostat at the interface of the blade and anti-roll plate. This indicates the anti-roll plate is directly over the edge of the blade.</li>
	<li>Begin to cut the sections at 14 &#956;m. Properly cut sections will be flat under the anti-roll plate. 
	NOTE: If the tissue is stuck, ensure that the anti-roll plate is cold enough. If necessary, placing a piece of dry ice on the outside (side not touching the stage) will rapidly chill the anti-roll plate.</li>
	<li>Cut 4&#8211;6 sections and align them horizontally across the cryostat stage.</li>
	<li>Angling the slide, pick up all pieces of the tissue at one time. 
	NOTE: Using the brushes, lift up the ends of the tissue to be more readily available for the slide upon pick up. Do not pick up one section at a time. Exposure to room temperature air will degrade RNA integrity. 
	CAUTION: Do not let the membrane touch the stage of the cryostat. If the membrane touches the stage, it will begin to detach from the glass slide and will cause errors when attempting LCM.</li>
	<li>Immediately move to Step 6. Do not delay fixation.</li>
</ol>
6. Fixing Tissue/Stain-less Visualization
<ol>
	<li>Immediately move to the ethanol fixation protocol</li>
	<li>Place the slide in the slide holder with 70% ethanol for 2 min &#8212; on ice.</li>
	<li>Place the slide in the slide holder with 95% ethanol for 45 s &#8212; on ice.</li>
	<li>Place the slide in the slide holder with 100% ethanol for 2 min &#8212; at RT.</li>
	<li>Dip the slide 3 times in the slide holder with xylene 1 &#8212; at RT.</li>
	<li>Place the slide in the slide holder with xylene 2 for 5 min &#8212; at RT.</li>
	<li>Allow to dry in a clean area for at least 30 min. Longer dry times are optimal, up to 60 min. 
	CAUTION: Stand up slides for drying in a fume hood. Xylene is volatile. Laying slides flat will cause xylene to pool in the tissue section, which will cause tissue to be too dark.</li>
</ol>
7. Optional &#8212; Slide Storage
<ol>
	<li>Place dried slides in individual 50 mL tubes (one slide per tube) and place in the -80 &#176;C freezer for up to 7 days. 
	NOTE: Slides must be dry prior to placing in the -80 &#176;C freezer. Do not use desiccant inside the tube as particulates will embed in the tissue and membrane. Ensure that the tube cap is tight; if not, condensation will occur on the slide when thawing for use. 
	CAUTION: RNA integrity decreases after 7 days, as does the quality of tissue visualization.</li>
</ol>
8. Thawing Stored Slides for Use
<ol>
	<li>Remove the tube with a single slide from the -80 &#176;C freezer 1 h prior to intended use.</li>
	<li>Do not immediately open the tube. Allow the tube to come to room temperature. Condensation will occur on the outside of the tube only.</li>
	<li>Once the tube has come to room temperature and all condensation is gone (approximately 30&#8211;40 min), remove the cap and expose the slide to the room temperature air.</li>
	<li>Allow the slide to acclimate to room temperature for 15&#8211;20 min. Leave the slide inside the tube with the cap removed. 
	NOTE: Slide is now ready for LCM.</li>
</ol>
9. Laser Capture Microdissection of Purkinje Cells:
NOTE: This section of the protocol will only discuss specifics related to capturing Purkinje cells for subsequent RNA sequencing. This section assumes that the user is familiar with the UV laser capture microscope and the affiliated software.
<ol>
	<li>Clean the microscope stage and the cap collection arm with RNase decontaminator.</li>
	<li>With gloved hands, place the slide on the microscope and 500 &#956;L opaque cap in the collection arm. 
	NOTE: Always ensure proper RNA technique by cleaning the work area with RNase decontaminator and use gloved hands while touching the slide or opaque cap. Gloves can be removed once the slide and cap are in place and laser capture has commenced.</li>
	<li>At low magnification, align the opaque cap over the cerebellar tissue, ensuring that the cap covers the entire area visualized in the eye piece. 
	NOTE: Only the eye piece of the microscope will show if the opaque cap is centered. The camera will not show if the cap is centered over the tissue. Depending on the laser capture scope design, the visualization through the opaque cap will either be in the eye piece only or visualized in both the eye piece and camera.</li>
	<li>Visualize the cerebellar layers with 5x - 10x objective lens and place the cursor over the section where molecular layer and granule cell layer intersect (the Purkinje cell layer).</li>
	<li>Move to 40X and visualize Purkinje cells. 
	NOTE: See Figure 1 and Figure 2 for example visualizations.</li>
	<li>Begin capturing Purkinje cells. 
	NOTE: To perform RNA-sequencing, at least 5 ng of RNA is required. Approximately 1600&#8211;2000 Purkinje cells result in enough RNA material for sequencing. RNA will be stable for up to 8 h at the microscope. Test UV energy and UV focus prior to collection to ensure levels are correct. Over time, the tissue will continue to dry out and the UV energy and UV focus may need to be changed.</li>
</ol>
10. RNA Collection post LCM
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the cell lysis buffer (prepare fresh each time)
	<ol>
		<li>Dilute 2-mercaptoethanol in lysis buffer at 1:100 (10 &#956;L:1 mL, respectively). Lysis (RLT) buffer is provided in Table of Materials (#14 and #15).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Add 50 &#956;L of cell lysis buffer to the opaque cap, with the cap facing up. Carefully close the tube over the cap.</li>
	<li>Leave the tube upside down for 1 min.</li>
	<li>Vortex the tube for 30 s and quickly spin the lysis buffer to the bottom of the tube.</li>
	<li>Reopen the tube and repeat Steps 10.2&#8211;10.4.</li>
	<li>Place the tube containing 100 &#956;L of lysis buffer and RNA from the -80 &#176;C freezer until all samples are finished and ready for RNA extraction (Table of Materials #14).</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The protocol presented here is specifically modified to be a stainless approach in visualizing morphologically distinct tissues for UV-LCM. This method is designed to maximize RNA integrity for subsequent direct RNA sequencing, while maintaining an enhanced level of tissue visualization. The ability to distinguish different cell types for capture, to create the purest population of cells possible, is essential for understanding different molecular profiles in human tissues15. Within the context of...

Laser capture microdissection (LCM) is a valuable research tool that allows the separation of pathologically relevant cells for subsequent molecularly driven evaluation. The use of molecular analyses in these heterogeneous tissue specimens and the correlation with pathological and clinical data is a necessary step in evaluating the translational significance of biological research1. When analyzing gene expression data from RNA, the use of frozen tissue sections is highly recommended as it allows for excellent quality of RNA as well as maximized quantity2. It has been well established that high quality and quantity of RNA are essential for meaningful data from RNA sequencing3. However, when using RNA from fresh frozen post-mortem tissue for LCM, RNA degradation is a major challenge, as it occurs immediately upon death and its extent is mediated by various factors associated with the tissue collection method4,5. Furthermore, RNA degradation is exacerbated when staining techniques are needed to recognize histologic details and cell identification. Specialized staining techniques, such as hematoxylin &#38; eosin, Nissl stain, immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry are helpful in differentiating cells from surrounding stroma but have been shown to degrade RNA and alter transcript expression profiles6. Therefore, our laboratory has created a stainless protocol specifically designed to preserve RNA in post-mortem human cerebellum for the purposes of RNA sequencing after LCM isolation of Purkinje neurons.
In processing fresh frozen tissue for LCM, the fixation method can variably affect both RNA and tissue integrity. Formalin fixation is standard for morphological preservation, but causes cross-linking that may fragment RNA and interfere with RNA amplification7. Ethanol fixation is a better alternative for RNA isolation, as it is a coagulative fixative that does not induce cross-linking1. To enhance the visualization of tissue morphology, xylene is the best choice, as it removes lipids from the tissue. However, there are known limitations when utilizing xylene in LCM, as the tissues can dry out and become brittle causing tissue fragmentation upon laser capture7. Xylene is also a volatile toxin and must be handled properly in a fume hood. Nevertheless, xylene has been shown to enhance tissue visualization while also preserving RNA integrity8. Therefore, our protocol centers around the use of 70% ethanol fixation and ethanol dehydration, followed by xylene incubation for morphological clarity.
It is important to note the different types of laser-based microdissection systems, as they have been shown to differ in speed, precision, and RNA quality. The infrared (IR) laser capture microdissection and the ultraviolet (UV) laser microbeam microdissection systems were both novel LCM platforms that emerged almost concurrently8. The IR-LCM system employs a &#34;contact system&#34; using a transparent thermoplastic film placed directly on the tissue section, and cells of interest selectively adhere to the film by focused pulses from an IR laser. Alternatively, the UV-LCM system is a &#34;non-contact system&#34; whereby a focused laser beam cuts away the cells or regions of interest in the tissue; depending on the configuration in two currently available commercial platforms that use either an inverted or upright microscope design, tissue is acquired into a collection device by a laser-induced pressure wave that catapults it against gravity or tissue is collected by gravity, respectively. Significant advantages of the UV-LCM system include faster cell acquisition, contamination-free collection with the non-contact approach and more precise dissection due to a much smaller laser beam diameter9. This protocol was specifically designed for a UV-LCM system and has not been tested in an IR-LCM system. In either UV-LCM system design, when accumulating cells into the collection cap, the use of a coverslip that enhances cellular clarity during microscopy is not suitable, as the cells would be unable to enter into the collection cap. Therefore, to enhance tissue visualization, we tested the use of Opaque collection caps, which are designed to act as a coverslip for microscopic visualization in UV-LCM systems, against liquid filled collection caps. Liquid filled collection caps can be challenging, as the liquid is subject to evaporation and must be replaced frequently while working at the microscope. Time becomes an important factor for RNA stability, as the captured tissue dissolves immediately7.
Our laboratory studies the postmortem neuropathologic changes in the cerebellum of patients with essential tremor (ET) and related neurodegenerative disorders of the cerebellum. We have demonstrated morphologic changes centered on Purkinje cells that distinguish ET cases versus controls, including a reduced number of Purkinje cells, increased dendritic regression and a variety of axonal changes, leading us to postulate that Purkinje cell degeneration is a core biologic feature in ET pathogenesis10,11,12,13. Transcriptional profiling has been used in many neurologic diseases to explore the underlying molecular basis of degenerative cellular changes. However, transcriptional profiles from heterogeneous samples, such as brain tissue regions, can effectually mask the expression of low abundance transcripts and/or diminish the detection of molecular changes that occur only in a small population of affected cells, such as Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex. For instance, Purkinje cells are vastly outnumbered by the abundant granule cells in the cerebellar cortex by approximately 1:3000; thus, to effectively target their transcriptome requires specific isolation of these neurons. The cerebellar cortex is delineated by distinct layers that differ in cell density and cell size. This cellular architecture is ideal to visualize in a fresh-frozen tissue sample without dye-containing staining reagents. In theory, this protocol could also be applied to other tissue types that have similar distinctive tissue organization.
This protocol was designed to work specifically for Purkinje cell visualization in the human post-mortem cerebellum. Numerous protocols exist for the fixation, staining visualization and RNA preservation of many types of tissues for the purposes of both IR- and UV-LCM. When contemplating an experimental design for UV-LCM, individuals should tailor their protocol to best fit the needs and requirements of starting and ending materials. Here, we combine many aspects of different LCM protocols to provide an enhanced method for visualizing Purkinje cells in the post-mortem human cerebellum without the need of dye containing staining reagents to prepare high-quality RNA for transcriptome sequencing.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:969px;" width="969">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">MembraneSlide NF 1.0 PEN</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">415190-9081-000</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">Membrane slides for tissue. We do not recommend using glass slides.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">AdhesiveCap 500 Opaque</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">415190-9201-000</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">Opaque caps are used to enhance visualization on inverted scopes only</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">RNase Away</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Molecular BioProducts</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">7005-11</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">Other RNase decontamination products are also suitable. Use to clean all surfaces prior to work.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">200 Proof Ethanol</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Decon Laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">2701</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">If using alternative Ethanol, ensure high quality. Essential for tissue fixation.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Xylenes (Certified ACS)</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">X5P-1GAL</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">If using alternative xylene, ensure high quality. Essential for tissue visualization.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">UltraPure Distilled Water</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">10977-015</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">Other RNA/DNA/Nuclease free water also suitable. Utilized in ethanol dilution only.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Slide-Fix Slide Jars</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Evergreen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">240-5440-G8K</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">Any slide holder/jar is also suitable. Must be cleaned prior to use. Used for fixation following sectioning.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Anti-Roll Plate, Assy. 70mm 100um</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Leica Biosystems</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">14041933980</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">Anti-roll plate type is determined by type of cryostat and attachment location on stage. All cryostats have differing requirements.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Diethyl pyrocarbonate (DEPC)</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">D5758-50mL</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">DEPC from any vendor will do. Follow directions for water treatment.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Kimwipes</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">06-666A</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">Kimwipes can be ordered from any vendor and used at any size. Kimwipes are to be used to clean microscope and cryostat.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Tissue-Plus O.C.T. Compound</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">23-730-571</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">Any brand of OCT is acceptable. No tissue will be embedded in the OCT, it is strickly to attach tissue to &#39;chuck&#39;.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Edge-Rite Low-Profile Microtome Blades</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">4280L</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">Blade type is determined by type of cryostat. All cryostats have differing requirements.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Leica Microsystems 3P&#160;25 + 30MM CRYOSTAT CHUCKS</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">NC0558768</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">Chuck type is determined by type of cryostat. All cryostats have different requirements. Either size is suitable.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">RNeasy Micro Kit (50)</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">74004</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">Required for RNA extraction post LCM. RLT Lysis buffer essential to gather captured cells from opaque cap.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">RNeasy Mini Kit (50)</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">74104</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">Required for RNA extraction of section preps, which are performed prior to LCM to test RNA integrity of starting tissues.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">RNase-Free DNase Set</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">79254</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">Dnase will remove any DNA to allow for a pure RNA population. Ensure Dnase is made fresh.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">2-Mercaptoethanol</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M6250-100ML</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">Purchased volume at user discretion. Necessary for addition to RLT buffer for cell lysis. Prevents RNase activity.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Globe Scientific&#160;Lot Certified Graduated Microcentrifuge Tube (2 mL)</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">22-010-092</td>
			<td style="width:488px;">Any 2 mL tube that is RNase free, DNase free, human DNA free, and Pyrogen free will do.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a stainless protocol for high quality rna isolation from laser capture microdissected purkinje cells in the human post-mortem cerebellum

Laser capture microdissection (LCM) is an advantageous tool that allows for the collection of cytologically and/or phenotypically relevant cells or regions from heterogenous tissues. Captured product can be used in a variety of molecular methods for protein, DNA or RNA isolation. However, preservation of RNA from postmortem human brain tissue is especially challenging. Standard visualization techniques for LCM require histologic or immunohistochemical staining procedures that can further degrade RNA. Therefore, we designed a stainless protocol for visualization in LCM with the intended purpose of preserving RNA integrity in post-mortem human brain tissue. The Purkinje cell of the cerebellum is a good candidate for stainless visualization, due to its size and characteristic location. The cerebellar cortex has distinct layers that differ in cell density, making them a good archetype to identify under high magnification microscopy. Purkinje cells are large neurons situated between the granule cell layer, which is a densely cellular network of small neurons, and the molecular layer, which is sparse in cell bodies. Because of this architecture, the use of stainless visualization is feasible. Other organ or cell systems that mimic this phenotype would also be suitable. The stainless protocol is designed to fix fresh-frozen tissue with ethanol and remove lipids with xylene for improved morphological visualization under high magnification light microscopy. This protocol does not account for other fixation methods and is specifically designed for fresh-frozen tissue samples captured using an ultraviolet (UV)-LCM system. Here, we present a full protocol for sectioning and fixing fresh frozen post-mortem human cerebellar tissue and purification of RNA from Purkinje cells isolated by UV-LCM, while preserving RNA quality for subsequent RNA-sequencing. In our hands, this protocol produces exceptional levels of cellular visualization without the need for staining reagents and yields RNA with high RNA integrity numbers (&#8805;8) as needed for transcriptional profiling experiments.

This protocol details the steps for preparing fresh frozen post-mortem human brain tissue for UV-LCM. Thorough specifications and annotations are given for cryostat cutting, as it can be difficult to cut fresh frozen brain tissue with a high degree of precision. The most important point to consider is that fresh frozen tissue is extremely cold and requires a significant amount of time to acclimate to the warmer temperature of a cryostat. This step cannot be rushed, and it cannot be overst...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Stainless Protocol for High Quality RNA Isolation from Laser Capture Microdissected Purkinje Cells in the Human Post-Mortem Cerebellum at JoVE.com

A Stainless Protocol for High Quality RNA Isolation from Laser Capture Microdissected Purkinje Cells in the Human Post-Mortem Cerebellum

This protocol uses a stain-free approach to visualize and isolate Purkinje cells in fresh-frozen tissue from human post-mortem cerebellum via laser capture microdissection. The purpose of this protocol is to generate sufficient amounts of high-quality RNA for RNA-sequencing.

Laser capture microdissection (LCM) is an advantageous tool that allows for the collection of cytologically and/or phenotypically relevant cells or ...

a-stainless-protocol-for-high-quality-rna-isolation-from-laser

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

7.4K Views.  Columbia University. This protocol uses a stain-free approach to visualize and isolate Purkinje cells in fresh-frozen tissue from human post-mortem cerebellum via laser capture microdissection. The purpose of this protocol is to generate sufficient amounts of high-quality RNA for RNA-sequencing.

Video: A Stainless Protocol for High Quality RNA Isolation from Laser Capture Microdissected Purkinje Cells in the Human Post-Mortem Cerebellum

Laser Capture Microdissection of Drosophila Peripheral Neurons

The dendritic arborization (da) neurons of the Drosophila peripheral nervous system (PNS) provide an excellent model system in which to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying class-specific dendrite morphogenesis1,2. To facilitate molecular analyses of class-specific da neuron development, it is vital to obtain these cells in a pure population. Although a range of different cell, and tissue-specific RNA isolation techniques exist for Drosophila cells, including magnetic bead based cell purification3,4, Fluorescent Activated Cell Sorting (FACS)5-8, and RNA binding protein based strategies9, none of these methods can be readily utilized for isolating single or multiple class-specific Drosophila da neurons with a high degree of spatial precision. Laser Capture Microdissection (LCM) has emerged as an extremely powerful tool that can be used to isolate specific cell types from tissue sections with a high degree of spatial resolution and accuracy. RNA obtained from isolated cells can then be used for analyses including qRT-PCR and microarray expression profiling within a given cell type10-16. To date, LCM has not been widely applied in the analysis of Drosophila tissues and cells17,18, including da neurons at the third instar larval stage of development. 
Here we present our optimized protocol for isolation of Drosophila da neurons using the infrared (IR) class of LCM. This method allows for the capture of single, class-specific or multiple da neurons with high specificity and spatial resolution. Age-matched third instar larvae expressing a UAS-mCD8::GFP19 transgene under the control of either the class IV da neuron specific ppk-GAL420 driver or the pan-da neuron specific 21-7-GAL421 driver were used for these experiments. RNA obtained from the isolated da neurons is of very high quality and can be directly used for downstream applications, including qRT-PCR or microarray analyses. Furthermore, this LCM protocol can be readily adapted to capture other Drosophila cell types a various stages of development dependent upon the cell type specific, GAL4-driven expression pattern of GFP.

Laser Capture Microdissection of Drosophila Peripheral Neurons

In this video-article we present a method for isolating single or multiple Drosophila da neurons from third instar larvae using the infrared capture (IR) class of Laser Capture Microdissection (LCM). RNA obtained from the isolated neurons can be readily used for downstream applications including qRT-PCR or microarray analyses.

The dendritic arborization (da) neurons of the Drosophila peripheral nervous system (PNS) provide an excellent model system in which to investigate the ...

Non-Laser Capture Microscopy Approach for the Microdissection of Discrete Mouse Brain Regions for Total RNA Isolation and Downstream Next-Generation Sequencing and Gene Expression Profiling

As technological platforms, approaches such as next-generation sequencing, microarray, and qRT-PCR have great promise for expanding our understanding of the breadth of molecular regulation. Newer approaches such as high-resolution RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq)1 provides new and expansive information about tissue- or state-specific expression such as relative transcript levels, alternative splicing, and micro RNAs2-4. Prospects for employing the RNA-Seq method in comparative whole transcriptome profiling5 within discrete tissues or between phenotypically distinct groups of individuals affords new avenues for elucidating molecular mechanisms involved in both normal and abnormal physiological states. Recently, whole transcriptome profiling has been performed on human brain tissue, identifying gene expression differences associated with disease progression6. However, the use of next-generation sequencing has yet to be more widely integrated into mammalian studies.
Gene expression studies in mouse models have reported distinct profiles within various brain nuclei using laser capture microscopy (LCM) for sample excision7,8. While LCM affords sample collection with single-cell and discrete brain region precision, the relatively low total RNA yields from the LCM approach can be prohibitive to RNA-Seq and other profiling approaches in mouse brain tissues and may require sub-optimal sample amplification steps. Here, a protocol is presented for microdissection and total RNA extraction from discrete mouse brain regions. Set-diameter tissue corers are used to isolate 13 tissues from 750-&mu;m serial coronal sections of an individual mouse brain. Tissue micropunch samples are immediately frozen and archived. Total RNA is obtained from the samples using magnetic bead-enabled total RNA isolation technology. Resulting RNA samples have adequate yield and quality for use in downstream expression profiling. This microdissection strategy provides a viable option to existing sample collection strategies for obtaining total RNA from discrete brain regions, opening possibilities for new gene expression discoveries.

Non-Laser Capture Microscopy Approach for the Microdissection of Discrete Mouse Brain Regions for Total RNA Isolation and Downstream Next-Generation Sequencing and Gene Expression Profiling  |

RNA expression profiling of discrete mouse brain regions requires a precise and repeatable tissue collection strategy. A protocol that uses both coronal brain sectioning and tissue corer-assisted microdissection is described here. The yield and quality of total RNA obtained from the resulting samples confirms the utility of the outlined method.

As technological platforms, approaches such as next-generation sequencing, microarray, and qRT-PCR have great promise for expanding our understanding of ...

High-resolution Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Methods for Human Midbrain

Functional MRI (fMRI) is a widely used tool for non-invasively measuring correlates of human brain activity. However, its use has mostly been focused upon measuring activity on the surface of cerebral cortex rather than in subcortical regions such as midbrain and brainstem. Subcortical fMRI must overcome two challenges: spatial resolution and physiological noise. Here we describe an optimized set of techniques developed to perform high-resolution fMRI in human SC, a structure on the dorsal surface of the midbrain; the methods can also be used to image other brainstem and subcortical structures.
High-resolution (1.2 mm voxels) fMRI of the SC requires a non-conventional approach. The desired spatial sampling is obtained using a multi-shot (interleaved) spiral acquisition1. Since, T2* of SC tissue is longer than in cortex, a correspondingly longer echo time (TE ~ 40 msec) is used to maximize functional contrast. To cover the full extent of the SC, 8-10 slices are obtained. For each session a structural anatomy with the same slice prescription as the fMRI is also obtained, which is used to align the functional data to a high-resolution reference volume.
In a separate session, for each subject, we create a high-resolution (0.7 mm sampling) reference volume using a T1-weighted sequence that gives good tissue contrast. In the reference volume, the midbrain region is segmented using the ITK-SNAP software application2. This segmentation is used to create a 3D surface representation of the midbrain that is both smooth and accurate3. The surface vertices and normals are used to create a map of depth from the midbrain surface within the tissue4.
Functional data is transformed into the coordinate system of the segmented reference volume. Depth associations of the voxels enable the averaging of fMRI time series data within specified depth ranges to improve signal quality. Data is rendered on the 3D surface for visualization.
In our lab we use this technique for measuring topographic maps of visual stimulation and covert and overt visual attention within the SC1. As an example, we demonstrate the topographic representation of polar angle to visual stimulation in SC.

This article describes techniques to perform high-resolution functional magnetic resonance imaging with 1.2 mm sampling in human midbrain and subcortical structures using a 3T scanner. Use of these techniques to resolve topographic maps of visual stimulation in the human superior colliculus (SC) is given as an example.

Functional MRI (fMRI) is a widely used tool for non-invasively measuring correlates of human brain activity. However, its use has mostly been focused upon ...

Isolation and Culture of Neural Crest Cells from Embryonic Murine Neural Tube

The embryonic neural crest (NC) is a multipotent progenitor population that originates at the dorsal aspect of the neural tube, undergoes an epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) and migrates throughout the embryo, giving rise to diverse cell types 1-3. NC also has the unique ability to influence the differentiation and maturation of target organs4-6. When explanted in vitro, NC progenitors undergo self-renewal, migrate and differentiate into a variety of tissue types including neurons, glia, smooth muscle cells, cartilage and bone. 
NC multipotency was first described from explants of the avian neural tube7-9. In vitro isolation of NC cells facilitates the study of NC dynamics including proliferation, migration, and multipotency. Further work in the avian and rat systems demonstrated that explanted NC cells retain their NC potential when transplanted back into the embryo10-13. Because these inherent cellular properties are preserved in explanted NC progenitors, the neural tube explant assay provides an attractive option for studying the NC in vitro. 
To attain a better understanding of the mammalian NC, many methods have been employed to isolate NC populations. NC-derived progenitors can be cultured from post-migratory locations in both the embryo and adult to study the dynamics of post-migratory NC progenitors11,14-20, however isolation of NC progenitors as they emigrate from the neural tube provides optimal preservation of NC cell potential and migratory properties13,21,22. Some protocols employ fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) to isolate a NC population enriched for particular progenitors11,13,14,17. However, when starting with early stage embryos, cell numbers adequate for analyses are difficult to obtain with FACS, complicating the isolation of early NC populations from individual embryos. Here, we describe an approach that does not rely on FACS and results in an approximately 96% pure NC population based on a Wnt1-Cre activated lineage reporter23. 
The method presented here is adapted from protocols optimized for the culture of rat NC11,13. The advantages of this protocol compared to previous methods are that 1) the cells are not grown on a feeder layer, 2) FACS is not required to obtain a relatively pure NC population, 3) premigratory NC cells are isolated and 4) results are easily quantified. Furthermore, this protocol can be used for isolation of NC from any mutant mouse model, facilitating the study of NC characteristics with different genetic manipulations. The limitation of this approach is that the NC is removed from the context of the embryo, which is known to influence the survival, migration and differentiation of the NC2,24-28.

Isolation of embryonic neural crest from the neural tube facilitates the use of in vitro methods for studying migration, self-renewal, and multipotency of neural crest.

The embryonic neural crest (NC) is a multipotent progenitor population that originates at the dorsal aspect of the neural tube, undergoes an epithelial to ...

Laser Capture Microdissection of Neurons from Differentiated Human Neuroprogenitor Cells in Culture

Neuroprogenitor cells (NPCs) isolated from the human fetal brain were expanded under proliferative conditions in the presence of epidermal growth factor (EGF) and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) to provide an abundant supply of cells. NPCs were differentiated in the presence of a new combination of nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), dibutyryl cAMP (DBC) and retinoic acid on dishes coated with poly-L-lysine and mouse laminin to obtain neuron-rich cultures. NPCs were also differentiated in the absence of neurotrophins, DBC and retinoic acid and in the presence of ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) to yield astrocyte-rich cultures. Differentiated NPCs were characterized by immunofluorescence staining for a panel of neuronal markers including NeuN, synapsin, acetylcholinesterase, synaptophysin and GAP43. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and STAT3, astrocyte markers, were detected in 10-15% of differentiated NPCs. To facilitate cell-type specific molecular characterization, laser capture microdissection was performed to isolate neurons cultured on polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) membrane slides. The methods described in this study provide valuable tools to advance our understanding of the molecular mechanism of neurodegeneration.

Human neuroprogenitor cells (NPCs) were expanded under proliferating conditions. NPCs were differentiated into neuron-rich cultures in the presence of a combination of neurotrophins. Neuronal markers were detected by immunofluorescence staining. To isolate a pure population of neurons, NPCs were differentiated on PEN membrane slides and laser capture microdissection was performed.

Neuroprogenitor cells (NPCs) isolated from the human fetal brain were expanded under proliferative conditions in the presence of epidermal growth factor ...

Production of RNA for Transcriptomic Analysis from Mouse Spinal Cord Motor Neuron Cell Bodies by Laser Capture Microdissection

Preparation of high-quality RNA from cells of interest is critical to precise and meaningful analysis of transcriptional differences among cell types or between the same cell type in health and disease or following pharmacologic treatments.&#160;In the spinal cord, such preparation from motor neurons, the target of interest in many neurologic and neurodegenerative diseases, is complicated by the fact that motor neurons represent &#60;10% of the total cell population.&#160;Laser capture microdissection (LMD) has been developed to address this problem.&#160;Here, we describe a protocol to quickly recover, freeze, and section mouse spinal cord to avoid RNA damage by endogenous and exogenous RNases, followed by staining with Azure B in 70% ethanol to identify the motor neurons while keeping endogenous RNase inhibited.&#160;LMD is then used to capture the stained neurons directly into guanidine thiocyanate lysis buffer, maintaining RNA integrity.&#160;Standard techniques are used to recover the total RNA and measure its integrity.&#160;This material can then be used for downstream analysis of the transcripts by RNA-seq and qRT-PCR.

High-quality total RNA has been prepared from cell bodies of mouse spinal cord motor neurons by laser capture microdissection after staining spinal cord sections with Azure B in 70% ethanol.&#160;Sufficient RNA (~40-60 ng) is recovered from 3,000-4,000 motor neurons to allow downstream RNA analysis by RNA-seq and qRT-PCR.

Preparation of high-quality RNA from cells of interest is critical to precise and meaningful analysis of transcriptional differences among cell types or ...

Feeder-free Derivation of Neural Crest Progenitor Cells from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have great potential for studying human embryonic development, for modeling human diseases in the dish and as a source of transplantable cells for regenerative applications after disease or accidents. Neural crest (NC) cells are the precursors for a large variety of adult somatic cells, such as cells from the peripheral nervous system and glia, melanocytes and mesenchymal cells. They are a valuable source of cells to study aspects of human embryonic development, including cell fate specification and migration. Further differentiation of NC progenitor cells into terminally differentiated cell types offers the possibility to model human diseases in vitro, investigate disease mechanisms and generate cells for regenerative medicine. This article presents the adaptation of a currently available in vitro differentiation protocol for the derivation of NC cells from hPSCs. This new protocol requires 18 days of differentiation, is feeder-free, easily scalable and highly reproducible among human embryonic stem cell (hESC) lines as well as human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) lines. Both old and new protocols yield NC cells of equal identity.

Neural crest (NC) cells derived from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSC) have great potential for modeling human development and disease and for cell replacement therapies. Here, a feeder-free adaptation of the currently widely used in vitro differentiation protocol for the derivation of NC cells from hPSCs is presented.

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have great potential for studying human embryonic development, for modeling human diseases in the dish and as a ...

Isolation of Distinct Cell Populations from the Developing Cerebellum by Microdissection

Microdissection is a novel technique that can isolate specific regions of a tissue and eliminate contamination from cellular sources in adjacent areas. This method was first utilized in the study of Nestin-expressing progenitors (NEPs), a newly identified population of cells in the cerebellar external germinal layer (EGL). Using microdissection in combination with fluorescent-activated cell sorting (FACS), a pure population of NEPs was collected separately from conventional granule neuron precursors in the EGL and from other contaminating Nestin-expressing cells in the cerebellum. Without microdissection, functional analyses of NEPs would not have been possible with the current methods available, such as Percoll gradient centrifugation and laser capture microdissection. This technique can also be applied for use with various tissues that contain either recognizable regions or fluorescently-labeled cells. Most importantly, a major advantage of this microdissection technique is that isolated cells are living and can be cultured for further experimentation, which is currently not possible with other described methods.

Nestin-expressing&#160;progenitors are a newly identified population of neuronal progenitors in the developing cerebellum. Using the microdissection technique presented here in combination with fluorescent-activated cell sorting, this cell population can be purified with no contamination from other cerebellar regions and can be cultured for further studies.

Microdissection is a novel technique that can isolate specific regions of a tissue and eliminate contamination from cellular sources in adjacent areas. ...

Laser Capture Microdissection - A Demonstration of the Isolation of Individual Dopamine Neurons and the Entire Ventral Tegmental Area

Laser capture microdissection (LCM) is used to isolate a concentrated population of individual cells or precise anatomical regions of tissue from tissue sections on a microscope slide. When combined with immunohistochemistry, LCM can be used to isolate individual cells types based on a specific protein marker. Here, the LCM technique is described for collecting a specific population of dopamine neurons directly labeled with&#160;tyrosine hydroxylase immunohistochemistry and for isolation of the dopamine neuron containing region of the ventral tegmental area using indirect tyrosine hydroxylase immunohistochemistry on a section adjacent to those used for LCM. An infrared (IR) capture laser is used to both dissect individual neurons as well as the ventral tegmental area off glass slides and onto an LCM cap for analysis. Complete dehydration of the tissue with 100% ethanol and xylene is critical. The combination of the IR capture laser and the ultraviolet (UV) cutting laser is used to isolate individual dopamine neurons or the ventral tegmental area when using PEN membrane slides. A PEN membrane slide has significant advantages over a glass slide as it offers better consistency in capturing and collecting cells, is faster collecting large pieces of tissue, is less reliant on dehydration and results in complete removal of the tissue from the slide. Although removal of large areas of tissue from a glass slide is feasible, it is considerably more time consuming and frequently leaves some residual tissue behind. Data shown here demonstrate that RNA of sufficient quantity and quality can be obtained using these procedures for quantitative PCR measurements. Although RNA and DNA are the most commonly isolated molecules from tissue and cells collected with LCM, isolation and measurement of microRNA, protein and epigenetic changes in DNA can also benefit from the enhanced anatomical and cellular resolution obtained using LCM.

The isolation of individual dopamine neurons or the ventral tegmental area with direct or indirect immunohistochemistry is demonstrated using laser capture microdissection. Parameters for isolation of tissue from a glass slide using an infrared laser and from membrane slides using the combination of an infrared and ultraviolet laser are discussed.

Laser capture microdissection (LCM) is used to isolate a concentrated population of individual cells or precise anatomical regions of tissue from tissue ...

A Simple One-step Dissection Protocol for Whole-mount Preparation of Adult Drosophila Brains

There is an increasing interest in using Drosophila to model human brain degenerative diseases, map neuronal circuitries in adult brains, and study the molecular and cellular basis of higher brain functions. A whole-mount preparation of adult brains with well-preserved morphology is critical for such whole brain-based studies, but can be technically challenging and time-consuming. This protocol describes an easy-to-learn, one-step dissection approach of an adult fly head in less than 10 s, while keeping the intact brain attached to the rest of the body to facilitate subsequent processing steps. The procedure helps remove most of the eye and tracheal tissues normally associated with the brain that can interfere with the later imaging step, and also places less demand on the quality of the dissecting forceps. Additionally, we describe a simple method that allows convenient flipping of the mounted brain samples on a coverslip, which is important for imaging both sides of the brains with similar signal intensity and quality. As an example of the protocol, we present an analysis of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in adult brains of WT (w1118) flies. The high efficacy of the dissection method makes it particularly useful for large-scale adult brain-based studies in Drosophila.

A Simple One-step Dissection Protocol for Whole-mount Preparation of Adult Drosophila Brains

The adult Drosophila brain is a valuable system for studying neuronal circuitry, higher brain functions, and complex disorders. An efficient method to dissect whole brain tissue from the small fly head will facilitate brain-based studies. Here we describe a simple, one-step dissection protocol of adult brains with well-preserved morphology.

There is an increasing interest in using Drosophila to model human brain degenerative diseases, map neuronal circuitries in adult brains, and study the ...