This work was funded by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke and the National Institute on Aging (US National Institutes of Health; R01NS100366 and RF1AG057575 to MN), the Fondation Leducq Transatlantic Networks of Excellence Program, and the EU Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant no. 666881; SVDs@target). We would also like to thank Dan Xue for expert assistance with graphic illustrations.

All experiments were approved by the University Committee on Animal Resources (UCAR, Protocol No. 2011-023) at the University of Rochester and performed according to the NIH Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
1. Preparing the cisterna magna cannula, head plate, and head holder
<ol>
	<li>Sterilize all surgical instruments and head plates before surgery. 
	NOTE: Fluorescent tracers are delivered directly into CSF via a cisterna magna cannulation. For detailed instructions on this procedure, please refer to Xavier et al9.</li>
	<li>Briefly, using a needle driver, break the tip of a 30G x 12.7 mm (&#189; inch) needle, &#190; of the way down, and place the blunt end of the needle into one end of polyethylene 10 (PE10) tubing (about 45 cm long). Make sure that only the bevel is protruding out of the border of the PE10 tubing.</li>
	<li>Break off &#188; of the beveled end of another 30G needle and place the blunt end of the remaining needle into the other end of the PE10 tubing, with the plastic Luer-lock still attached.</li>
	<li>Fill a 100 &#181;L glass syringe with sterile, artificial CSF (aCSF: 126 mM NaCl, 2.5 mM KCl, 1.25 mM NaH2PO4, 2 mM MgSO4, 2 mM CaCl2, 10 mM glucose, and 26 mM NaHCO3).</li>
	<li>Attach the syringe to the end of the line and fill it with aCSF until it reaches the tip of the beveled needle. It is important that the syringe is backfilled with aCSF and not air, as an air column is more prone to variable infusion volumes.</li>
	<li>For chronic experiments, leave the line filled with aCSF and skip Step 1.7.</li>
	<li>For acute experiments, place the syringe on an infusion pump and withdraw approximately 5 mm of air, which will prevent mixing. Afterwards, withdraw the total volume of tracer(s) that is desired for the experiment (20% extra is recommended due to dead space losses). 
	NOTE: The PE10 tubing should be long enough so that the air bubble does not enter the plastic cuff of the glass syringe when loading the tracer. For a typical experiment, the protocol uses 10 &#181;L of bovine serum albumin conjugated to Alexa Fluor 647 (BSA-647) diluted in aCSF at 0.5%.</li>
	<li>Confirm that the head plate fits into the head holder and that it is the right size for the mouse being used. Anatomical markers to ensure this are: the top border of the window aligns with the interocular line and the posterior border falls rostral to the occipital crest. 
	NOTE: Stainless-steel head plates can be sterilized and reused. Most cyanoacrylate mixtures can be removed with an acetone solution.</li>
</ol>
2. Surgical procedure
<ol>
	<li>Weigh and anesthetize the mouse (e.g. ketamine/xylazine; 100 mg/kg ketamine, 10 mg/kg xylazine; i.p.).</li>
	<li>Once the mouse no longer responds to a toe pinch, moisten the neck and head with sterile water and shave using clippers. Once the area is shaved, wipe the area with an alcohol swab again to remove any residual hair. 
	NOTE: Moistening the fur before clipping dramatically reduces the amount of hair in the imaging window after the incision.</li>
	<li>Place the mouse in a stereotactic frame on top of a temperature-controlled pad and apply petroleum ophthalmic ointment to the mouse&#8217;s eyes to ensure they do not dry out.</li>
	<li>Clean the exposed skin with a chlorhexidine swab. After 2 min, remove the chlorhexidine with an alcohol wipe. Finally, apply an iodine solution which can be left to dry.</li>
	<li>Inject subcutaneous analgesia (0.25% Bupivacaine HCl) to the top of the skull and the neck.</li>
	<li>Starting on the part of the neck that covers the occipital crest, make a midline cut in the overlying skin and continue rostrally towards the interorbital line. Incise laterally to the border where the temporal muscle inserts into the skull. Remove all of the skin of the fusiform incision to expose both the frontal and parietal bones. 
	CAUTION: The retroorbital sinus lies caudal to the eyes and large branches of the posterior facial vein lie rostral to the pinna. Be careful when making the incision to spare these structures. If this occurs, stop bleeding by maintaining hemostasis with a sterile cotton swab for several minutes and continue.</li>
	<li>Irrigate the skull with sterile saline and clean the surface using cotton swabs so that it is free of debris and hair since these will interfere with the image quality. Skull transparency is best preserved by leaving the periosteum and overlying fascia intact. 
	NOTE: If these structures are accidentally removed, the skull can become dry and opaque over time. Re-moisten with aCSF or use a mixture of paraffin oil and glycerol to reduce skull reflectance in acute experiments21.</li>
	<li>Proceed to inserting the cisterna magna cannula - for surgical details of this procedure, refer to Xavier et al9.</li>
	<li>After inserting the CM cannula, apply a mixture of dental cement with cyanoacrylate glue to the ventral side of the head plate around the border and place it on the skull so that the anterior border of the head plate aligns with the posterior tip of the nasal bone and the posterior border aligns with the anterior aspect of the interparietal bone, making sure that the sagittal suture (midline) is centered and straight relative to the window (Figure 1B).</li>
	<li>Fix the position of the head plate using a couple drops of glue accelerator. Fill any remaining gaps with the cement mixture and cure it with accelerator. 
	CAUTION: Make sure the cyanoacrylate does not come in contact with the mouse&#8217;s eyes or block the imaging window.</li>
	<li>Glue the CM cannula to the head plate to ensure that these do not become detached during transport or when the mouse wakes up.</li>
	<li>For acute experiments, skip to Step 2.16.</li>
	<li>For chronic experiments, apply a thin layer of clear-drying cyanoacrylate glue to the exposed skull, being careful not to create bubbles as these will interfere with the imaging. The glue provides protection for the skull and will not interfere with the imaging. Make sure that the glue covers the exposed skull all the way to the skin at the incision border.</li>
	<li>Use a hemostat clamp to hold the aCSF-filled PE10 tubing 2-3 cm from the CM and cut the line with a high-temperature cautery tip. Once it is separated, flatten the melted PE10 tubing to seal the cannula. 
	CAUTION: Make sure not to release the clamp until after the cannula has been sealed and confirm there are no leaks in the tubing to prevent a CSF fistula.</li>
	<li>Administer carprofen (5 mg/kg every 24 h for 3 days; i.p. or s.c.) and return the mouse to a temperature-controlled, single-housed cage and allow it to recover for at least 24 h prior to imaging. Do not leave the mouse unattended until it regains sufficient consciousness to maintain sternal recumbency. Intact cranial windows remain stable for several weeks. 
	NOTE: The chronic experiment can be paused here. 
	CAUTION: Some postoperative complications are: cephalohematoma/subgaleal hematomas, CSF fistula, and infection.</li>
	<li>For acute experiments, place the mouse into the head holder using the head plate so the skull is in a fixed position. Make sure to check anesthesia level and place a heating pad under the mouse. The mouse is now ready to be taken to the macroscope. 
	CAUTION: Carefully transport the mouse together with the infusion pump on a cart. If the CM cannulation becomes dislodged, it will cause a drop in intracranial pressure and any CSF leaks will alter the experimental results.</li>
</ol>
3. Preparing the mouse for imaging
NOTE: The protocol varies depending on whether the imaging experiment will be performed on an anesthetized (start at Step 3.1) or awake (start at Step 3.2) mouse.
<ol>
	<li>Anesthetized Mice
	<ol>
		<li>Place the head holder on the stage of the macroscope, making sure there are no kinks in the line from the syringe pump to the CM cannula and that it is not taut since this could affect the tracer infusion.</li>
		<li>Observe respiratory rate and pink coloration of the mucous membranes, indicating good oxygenation. Inject saline subcutaneously to secure hydration level if necessary. Check to make sure the animal is sufficiently anesthetized and re-dose if needed.</li>
		<li>Turn on the macroscope camera and LED and start LIVE mode.</li>
		<li>Confirm the magnification of the imaging field so that the nasofrontal suture at the top of the field and the lambdoid suture at the bottom can clearly be visualized, with the sagittal suture parallel and centered to the middle of the image (Figure 1C). Once in place, secure the head holder to the macroscope stage with tape.</li>
		<li>Focus the macroscope on the exposed skull. Despite macroscopes having a relatively large depth of field, the curvature of the mouse&#8217;s skull only allows for a specific area to be in focus. Best results are obtained when the focal plane is located on the lateral sides of the parietal bones posterior to the coronal sutures. 
		NOTE: This is the location of the middle cerebral arteries (MCA), where most CSF inflow occurs (Figure 1D,E)10.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Awake Mice
	<ol>
		<li>Prior to the imaging session, let the animals recover for at least 24 h from the head plate surgery. Longer recovery periods (5-7 days) are also recommended. During this time, train the mouse to be head fixed on the stage in the restraint tube for 0.5-1 h per day for the duration of the recovery period. 
		NOTE: Habituation allows the mouse to be attached to the head holder without anesthesia and reduces stress and anxiety during the actual experiment. If this is not feasible and anesthesia does not interfere with the experiment, an induction dose of an inhaled anesthetic (e.g., isoflurane 2% at 1-2 L/min O2 flow rate) can be used to quickly attach the mouse to the head stage.</li>
		<li>Once the mouse is fixed to the head holder and in the restraint tube, follow Steps 3.1.1-3.1.5.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Infusion of fluorescent CSF tracers
<ol>
	<li>Acute CM Cannulation
	<ol>
		<li>Since the tracer was already loaded into the cannula before being placed in the cisterna magna in Step 1.6, set the infusion pump to the desired rate and volume. Infusion paradigms routinely used are 5-10 &#181;L at 1-2 &#181;L/min, but these parameters can be adjusted depending on the particular experiment, or the size and age of the animal.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Chronic CM Cannulation
	<ol>
		<li>Prior to beginning the imaging session, follow Steps 1.2-1.7 for acute experiments to prepare the infusion line to deliver the tracers.</li>
		<li>Once the line is prepared, using a hemostat clamp cut the sealed end of the chronic CM cannula. Take the needle from the line prepared in Step 4.2.1 and gently insert it into the cannula. Release the clamp and using the syringe pump, advance the CSF tracer at the desired infusion rate (e.g., 2 &#181;L/min) for the experiment until the tracer reaches the implanted needle in the CM. 
		CAUTION: If the needle pierces through the tubing when connecting the line, remove the needle, cut the pierced segment and repeat this step. Any tear in the PE10 tubing will cause a leak and affect the results of the experiment.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Setting up the Imaging Session
<ol>
	<li>Based on the fluorescent tracer being infused, determine the excitation wavelength and the exposure time for each channel. Choose the shortest exposure time necessary to visualize the tracer in order to maximize the temporal resolution of the time-lapse imaging. This exposure time will be used for all subsequent experiments aiming to compare CSF transport between different animals. 
	NOTE: One tip is to use the tracer in the CM line to adjust the exposure time. Although this is a useful first approach, this should be optimized over time.</li>
	<li>Choose the duration of the experiment and the intervals at which the images will be acquired. Experiments normally last between 30-60 min depending on what phase of glymphatic transport is of interest. Frame rates of 1 frame/min and faster are sufficient for most experiments.</li>
	<li>Set the file name and the saving directory.</li>
	<li>If the imaging will be collected in addition to simultaneous acquisition of other variables (e.g., electrocardiogram, arterial blood pressure, electrophysiology), the macroscope and pump can be programmed to be triggered with the data acquisition software. Check that the triggering function on the macroscope is correct before moving to the next step.</li>
</ol>
6. Transcranial optical imaging experiment
<ol>
	<li>Start the tracer infusion and the imaging at the same time.</li>
	<li>Routinely check the CM cannula and the PE10 tubing for any signs of a leak. If there is any tracer leaking at the CM, the results from this experiment must be excluded. 
	NOTE: If tracer starts to accumulate in the cerebellum and does not travel the glymphatic pathway of the MCA, it is likely that the CM cannula was injected into the cerebellum. This data should not be included.</li>
	<li>For acute experiments, after completion of the experiment, remove the mouse from the microscope and check that it is still adequately anesthetized. Quickly decapitate the mouse and harvest the brain tissue. Immersion-fix the brain in 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA) overnight at 4 &#176;C.
	<ol>
		<li>For chronic experiments, once the imaging is completed, remove the CM line from the cannula, flush with sterile aCSF and reseal the CM cannula with a high-temperature cautery tip. Remove the mouse from the head stand and return it to its cage. Repeat this process until further imaging is not required and then follow Step 6.3.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
7. Data analysis
NOTE: Matlab-based analyses, such as CSF front-tracking can extract large amounts of quantitative data from the tracer fronts in these imaging datasets10,22. However, these file types can also be easily imported and analyzed in open-source image analysis software like Fiji23.
<ol>
	<li>Import the image stacks into Fiji using the Bio-Formats import tool. This function will preserve the file metadata which includes the time and pixel resolution. Save the image stack as a .tiff file.</li>
	<li>Manually draw a region of interest (ROI) around the skull or the area of interest using the polygon selection tool. For example, in Figure 1G an ROI was drawn separately for the ipsilateral and for the contralateral hemisphere after a traumatic brain injury. Make sure to add the ROI into the ROI Manager (Analyze&#62;Tools&#62;ROI Manager) and save it. 
	NOTE: CSF transport can be quantified in two main ways: 1) mean fluorescence intensity over time or 2) influx area expressed as a percentage of the ROI or total area (mm2) after having applied a threshold. The latter method (Figure 1H) will be described in the next steps.</li>
	<li>Set the threshold on the frame with maximal fluorescence (Select Image&#62;Adjust&#62;Threshold&#8230;). Automated threshold methods such as Otsu are normally good at detecting CSF tracer. Apply the threshold.</li>
	<li>Before going forward, make sure that in Analyze&#62;Set Measurements, the options Area and Area Fraction are selected. Then in the ROI Manager, select More&#62;Multi Measure.</li>
	<li>Convert the %Area value into mm2 using the Area value of the ROI from the output. The %Area values reflect the percent of the dorsal cortical surface with CSF tracer.</li>
	<li>Plot CSF tracer influx in mm2 as a function of time.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Tumani, H., Huss, A., Bachhuber, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cerebrospinal+fluid+and+barriers+-+anatomic+and+physiologic+considerations.">The cerebrospinal fluid and barriers - anatomic and physiologic considerations.</a> Handbook of Clinical Neurology. , 21-32 (2017).</li><li>Jessen, N. A., Munk, A. S., Lundgaard, I., Nedergaard, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Glymphatic+System:+A+Beginner's+Guide.">The Glymphatic System: A Beginner's Guide.</a> Neurochemical Research. 40 (12), 2583-2599 (2015).</li><li>Iliff, J. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impairment+of+glymphatic+pathway+function+promotes+tau+pathology+after+traumatic+brain+injury.">Impairment of glymphatic pathway function promotes tau pathology after traumatic brain injury.</a> The Journal of Neuroscience. 34 (49), 16180-16193 (2014).</li><li>Iliff, J. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+paravascular+pathway+facilitates+CSF+flow+through+the+brain+parenchyma+and+the+clearance+of+interstitial+solutes,+including+amyloid+beta.">A paravascular pathway facilitates CSF flow through the brain parenchyma and the clearance of interstitial solutes, including amyloid beta.</a> Science Translational Medicine. 4 (147), (2012).</li><li>Louveau, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+and+functional+features+of+central+nervous+system+lymphatic+vessels.">Structural and functional features of central nervous system lymphatic vessels.</a> Nature. 523 (7560), 337-341 (2015).</li><li>Peng, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Suppression+of+glymphatic+fluid+transport+in+a+mouse+model+of+Alzheimer's+disease.">Suppression of glymphatic fluid transport in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.</a> Neurobiology of Disease. 93, 215-225 (2016).</li><li>Da Mesquita, ., S, , et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+aspects+of+meningeal+lymphatics+in+ageing+and+Alzheimer's+disease.">Functional aspects of meningeal lymphatics in ageing and Alzheimer's disease.</a> Nature. 560 (7717), 185-191 (2018).</li><li>Gaberel, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impaired+glymphatic+perfusion+after+strokes+revealed+by+contrast-enhanced+MRI:+a+new+target+for+fibrinolysis.">Impaired glymphatic perfusion after strokes revealed by contrast-enhanced MRI: a new target for fibrinolysis.</a> Stroke. 45 (10), 3092-3096 (2014).</li><li>Xavier, A. L. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cannula+Implantation+into+the+Cisterna+Magna+of+Rodents.">Cannula Implantation into the Cisterna Magna of Rodents.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. 10 (135), (2018).</li><li>Plog, B. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcranial+optical+imaging+reveals+a+pathway+for+optimizing+the+delivery+of+immunotherapeutics+to+the+brain.">Transcranial optical imaging reveals a pathway for optimizing the delivery of immunotherapeutics to the brain.</a> JCI Insight. 3 (23), (2018).</li><li>Kress, B. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impairment+of+paravascular+clearance+pathways+in+the+aging+brain.">Impairment of paravascular clearance pathways in the aging brain.</a> Annals of Neurology. 76 (6), 845-861 (2014).</li><li>Mestre, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flow+of+cerebrospinal+fluid+is+driven+by+arterial+pulsations+and+is+reduced+in+hypertension.">Flow of cerebrospinal fluid is driven by arterial pulsations and is reduced in hypertension.</a> Nature Communications. 9 (1), 4878 (2018).</li><li>Xie, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sleep+drives+metabolite+clearance+from+the+adult+brain.">Sleep drives metabolite clearance from the adult brain.</a> Science. 342 (6156), 373-377 (2013).</li><li>Plog, B. A., Nedergaard, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Glymphatic+System.">The Glymphatic System.</a> in Central Nervous System Health and Disease: Past, Present, and Future. Annual Review of Pathology. 13, 379-394 (2018).</li><li>Iliff, J. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brain-wide+pathway+for+waste+clearance+captured+by+contrast-enhanced+MRI.">Brain-wide pathway for waste clearance captured by contrast-enhanced MRI.</a> Journal of Clinical Investigation. 123 (3), 1299-1309 (2013).</li><li>Davoodi-Bojd, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modeling+glymphatic+system+of+the+brain+using+MRI.">Modeling glymphatic system of the brain using MRI.</a> Neuroimage. 188, 616-627 (2019).</li><li>Lee, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Effect+of+Body+Posture+on+Brain+Glymphatic+Transport.">The Effect of Body Posture on Brain Glymphatic Transport.</a> The Journal of Neuroscience. 35 (31), 11034-11044 (2015).</li><li>Hablitz, L. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Increased+glymphatic+influx+is+correlated+with+high+EEG+delta+power+and+low+heart+rate+in+mice+under+anesthesia.">Increased glymphatic influx is correlated with high EEG delta power and low heart rate in mice under anesthesia.</a> Science Advances. 5 (2), (2019).</li><li>Rasmussen, M. K., Mestre, H., Nedergaard, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+glymphatic+pathway+in+neurological+disorders.">The glymphatic pathway in neurological disorders.</a> The Lancet Neurology. 17 (11), 1016-1024 (2018).</li><li>Mestre, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aquaporin-4-dependent+glymphatic+solute+transport+in+the+rodent+brain.">Aquaporin-4-dependent glymphatic solute transport in the rodent brain.</a> Elife. 7, (2018).</li><li>Monai, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calcium+imaging+reveals+glial+involvement+in+transcranial+direct+current+stimulation-induced+plasticity+in+mouse+brain.">Calcium imaging reveals glial involvement in transcranial direct current stimulation-induced plasticity in mouse brain.</a> Nature Communications. 7, 11100 (2016).</li><li>Munk, A. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PDGF-B+Is+Required+for+Development+of+the+Glymphatic+System.">PDGF-B Is Required for Development of the Glymphatic System.</a> Cell Reports. 26 (11), 2955-2969 (2019).</li><li>Schindelin, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fiji:+an+open-source+platform+for+biological-image+analysis.">Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis.</a> Nature Methods. 9 (7), 676-682 (2012).</li><li>Ren, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hit+&amp;+Run'+model+of+closed-skull+traumatic+brain+injury+(TBI)+reveals+complex+patterns+of+post-traumatic+AQP4+dysregulation.">Hit &amp; Run' model of closed-skull traumatic brain injury (TBI) reveals complex patterns of post-traumatic AQP4 dysregulation.</a> Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow &amp; Metabolism. 33 (6), 834-845 (2013).</li><li>Plog, B. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biomarkers+of+traumatic+injury+are+transported+from+brain+to+blood+via+the+glymphatic+system.">Biomarkers of traumatic injury are transported from brain to blood via the glymphatic system.</a> The Journal of Neuroscience. 35 (2), 518-526 (2015).</li><li>Ma, Q., Ineichen, B. V., Detmar, M., Proulx, S. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Outflow+of+cerebrospinal+fluid+is+predominantly+through+lymphatic+vessels+and+is+reduced+in+aged+mice.">Outflow of cerebrospinal fluid is predominantly through lymphatic vessels and is reduced in aged mice.</a> Nature Communications. 8 (1), 1434 (2017).</li><li>Roth, T. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcranial+amelioration+of+inflammation+and+cell+death+after+brain+injury.">Transcranial amelioration of inflammation and cell death after brain injury.</a> Nature. 505 (7482), 223-228 (2014).</li><li>Xu, H. T., Pan, F., Yang, G., Gan, W. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Choice+of+cranial+window+type+for+in+vivo+imaging+affects+dendritic+spine+turnover+in+the+cortex.">Choice of cranial window type for in vivo imaging affects dendritic spine turnover in the cortex.</a> Nature Neuroscience. 10 (5), 549-551 (2007).</li><li>Ma, Q., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+lymphatic+efflux+limits+cerebrospinal+fluid+flow+to+the+brain.">Rapid lymphatic efflux limits cerebrospinal fluid flow to the brain.</a> Acta Neuropathologica. 137 (1), 151-165 (2019).</li><li>Silasi, G., Xiao, D., Vanni, M. P., Chen, A. C., Murphy, T. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intact+skull+chronic+windows+for+mesoscopic+wide-field+imaging+in+awake+mice.">Intact skull chronic windows for mesoscopic wide-field imaging in awake mice.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 267, 141-149 (2016).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

We have described a detailed protocol for performing transcranial CSF imaging in live mice using commercially-available fluorescent macroscopes and tracers. This technique is simple and minimally-invasive, yet quantitative. In vivo imaging correlates well with sensitive methods such as liquid scintillation counting of radio-labeled tracers including 3H-dextran and 14C-inulin after CM delivery, and with ex vivo coronal section quantification10,18</...

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bathes the brain and spinal cord and is involved in maintaining homeostasis, supplying nutrients, and regulating intracranial pressure1. CSF in the subarachnoid space enters the brain through a network of perivascular spaces (PVS) surrounding cortical pial arteries and then flows down along penetrating arterioles2. Once in the parenchyma, CSF exchanges with interstitial fluid (ISF), carrying harmful metabolites such as amyloid-&#946; (A&#946;) and tau protein aggregates out of the brain through low resistance white matter tracts and perivenous spaces2,3. This pathway is dependent on astroglial aquaporin-4 (AQP4) channels and has therefore been termed the glial-lymphatic (glymphatic) system4. Waste products of the neuropil are ultimately cleared from the CSF-ISF through lymphatic vessels near cranial nerves and in the meninges out towards the cervical lymph nodes5. The failure of this system has been implicated in several neurologic diseases such as Alzheimer&#8217;s disease6,7, traumatic brain injury3, and ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke8.&#160;
CSF transport can be visualized by infusing tracers into the cisterna magna (CM)9,10 and glymphatic studies in the past have mainly utilized two-photon microscopy4,11,12,13, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)14,15,16,17, and ex vivo imaging3,6,11,18 to evaluate tracer kinetics. Two-photon microscopy is a suitable method for detailed imaging of CSF tracers in PVSs and the parenchyma due to its high spatial resolution, however, it has a narrow field of view and requires an invasive cranial window or thinning of the skull. Ex vivo imaging, in combination with immunohistochemistry, enables multilevel analyses ranging from single cells up to the whole brain19. However, the process of perfusion-fixation that is required to observe the post-mortem tissue produces profound changes in CSF flow direction and collapses the PVS, significantly altering the distribution and the location of the tracers12. Finally, while MRI can track CSF flow throughout the entire murine and human brain, it lacks spatial and temporal resolution of perivascular flow.
A new technique, transcranial macroscopic imaging, solves some of these limitations by enabling wide-field imaging of perivascular CSF transport in the entire dorsal cortex of living mice. This type of imaging is done with an epifluorescent macroscope using a multiband filter cube, tunable LED light source, and high-efficiency CMOS camera10. These set-ups are able to resolve PVSs up to 1-2 mm below the skull surface and can detect fluorophores up to 5-6 mm below the cortical surface while leaving the skull entirely intact10. Multiband filters and LEDs that can quickly tune the excitation wavelength enable the use of multiple fluorophores allowing CSF to be labeled with tracers of different molecular weights and chemical properties in the same experiment.
This procedure requires a simple, minimally invasive surgery to expose the skull and place a light-weight head plate to stabilize the head during the imaging session. Tracers can be delivered into the CM without drilling into the skull or penetrating the cortical tissue with pipettes or cannulas9,20. Both CM cannulas and head plates remain stable for several days to weeks and facilitate more complex experimental designs compared to the classical end-point visualization. This protocol describes how transcranial macroscopic imaging is used to study glymphatic system function following acute or chronic injection of fluorescent CSF tracer into the CM of anesthetized/sleeping or awake mice.

<table><tbody><tr><td>0.25% Bupivacaine HCl</td><td></td><td></td><td>University of Rochester Vivarium</td></tr><tr><td>100 &amp;micro;L Gastight Syringe Model 1710 TLL, PTFE Luer Lock</td><td>Hamilton Company</td><td>81020</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>A-M Systems Dental Cement Powder</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>NC9991371</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Carprofen</td><td></td><td></td><td>University of Rochester Vivarium</td></tr><tr><td>Chlorhexidine</td><td>Prevantics</td><td>B10800</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CMOS Camera</td><td>Hammamatsu</td><td>ORCA Flash 4.0</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Head Plate</td><td>University of Rochester</td><td>No catalog #</td><td>Custom made at the machine shop at the University of Rochester</td></tr><tr><td>High-Temperature Cautery</td><td>Bovie Medical Corporation</td><td>AA01</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Insta-set Accelerator</td><td>Bob Smith Industries</td><td>BSI-151</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Isoflurane - Fluriso</td><td>Vet One</td><td>502017</td><td>University of Rochester Vivarium</td></tr><tr><td>Ketamine</td><td></td><td></td><td>Strong Memorial Hospital Pharmacy</td></tr><tr><td>Krazy Glue</td><td>Elmer&#039;s Products, Inc</td><td>No catalog #, see link in comments</td><td>https://www.amazon.com/Krazy-Glue-KG48348MR-Advance-Multicolor/dp/B000BKO6DG</td></tr><tr><td>Micropore Surgical tape</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>19-027-761</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Paraformaldehyde</td><td>Sigma-aldrich</td><td>P6148</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PE10 - Polyethylene .011&quot; x .024&quot; per ft., 100 ft. continuous</td><td>Braintree Scientific</td><td>PE10 100 FT</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pump 11 Elite Infusion Only Dual Syringe</td><td>Harvard Apparatus</td><td>70-4501</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PURALUBE VET OINTMENT</td><td>Dechra</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Puritan PurSwab Cotton Tipped Cleaning Sticks</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>22-029-553</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Research Macro Zoom Microscope</td><td>Olympus</td><td>MVX10</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Simple Head Holder Plate (for mice)</td><td>Narishige International USA Inc</td><td>MAG-1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Single-use Needles, BD Medical</td><td>VWR</td><td>BD305106</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sterile Alcohol Prep Pads</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>22-363-750</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tunable LED</td><td>PRIOR Lumen 1600-LED</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Xylazine</td><td></td><td></td><td>University of Rochester Vivarium</td></tr></tbody></table>

in vivo imaging of cerebrospinal fluid transport through the intact mouse skull using fluorescence macroscopy

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow in rodents has largely been studied using ex vivo quantification of tracers. Techniques such as two-photon microscopy and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have enabled in vivo quantification of CSF flow but they are limited by reduced imaging volumes and low spatial resolution, respectively. Recent work has found that CSF enters the brain parenchyma through a network of perivascular spaces surrounding the pial and penetrating arteries of the rodent cortex. This perivascular entry of CSF is a primary driver of the glymphatic system, a pathway implicated in the clearance of toxic metabolic solutes (e.g., amyloid-&#946;). Here, we illustrate a new macroscopic imaging technique that allows real-time, mesoscopic imaging of fluorescent CSF tracers through the intact skull of live mice. This minimally-invasive method facilitates a multitude of experimental designs and enables single or repeated testing of CSF dynamics. Macroscopes have high spatial and temporal resolution and their large gantry and working distance allow for imaging while performing tasks on behavioral devices. This imaging approach has been validated using two-photon imaging and fluorescence measurements obtained from this technique strongly correlate with ex vivo fluorescence and quantification of radio-labeled tracers. In this protocol, we describe how transcranial macroscopic imaging can be used to evaluate glymphatic transport in live mice, offering an accessible alternative to more costly imaging modalities.

CSF influx is imaged on an epifluorescent macroscope (Figure 1A), which allows for mesoscopic imaging of CSF tracer transport in the murine cortex. The whole-skull head plate permits the visualization of the rostral nasal bones, both frontal and parietal bones in the center, and the rostral portion of the interparietal bone caudally (Figure 1B). During imaging, the nasofrontal, sagittal, coronal, and lambdoid sutures can be readily identified (<strong class="xfi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vivo Imaging of Cerebrospinal Fluid Transport through the Intact Mouse Skull using Fluorescence Macroscopy at JoVE.com

In Vivo Imaging of Cerebrospinal Fluid Transport through the Intact Mouse Skull using Fluorescence Macroscopy

Transcranial optical imaging allows wide-field imaging of cerebrospinal fluid transport in the cortex of live mice through an intact skull.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow in rodents has largely been studied using ex vivo quantification of tracers. Techniques such as two-photon microscopy and ...

in-vivo-imaging-cerebrospinal-fluid-transport-through-intact-mouse

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

13.7K Views.  University of Rochester Medical Center. Transcranial optical imaging allows wide-field imaging of cerebrospinal fluid transport in the cortex of live mice through an intact skull.

Video: In Vivo Imaging of Cerebrospinal Fluid Transport through the Intact Mouse Skull using Fluorescence Macroscopy

Intravital Microscopy of the Mouse Brain Microcirculation using a Closed Cranial Window

This experimental model was designed to assess the mouse pial microcirculation during acute and chronic, physiological and pathophysiological hemodynamic, inflammatory and metabolic conditions, using in vivo fluorescence microscopy. A closed cranial window is placed over the left parieto-occipital cortex of the mice. Local microcirculation is recorded in real time through the window using epi and fluorescence illumination, and measurements of vessels diameters and red blood cell (RBC) velocities are performed. RBC velocity is measured using real-time cross-correlation and/or fluorescent-labeled erythrocytes. Leukocyte and platelet adherence to pial vessels and assessment of perfusion and vascular leakage are made with the help of fluorescence-labeled markers such as Albumin-FITC and anti-CD45-TxR antibodies. Microcirculation can be repeatedly video-recorded over several days. We used for the first time the close window brain intravital microscopy to study the pial microcirculation to follow dynamic changes during the course of Plasmodium berghei ANKA infection in mice and show that expression of CM is associated with microcirculatory dysfunctions characterized by vasoconstriction, profound decrease in blood flow and eventually vascular collapse.

Intravital microscopy to follow temporal and spatial hemodynamic and inflammatory events in the pial microcirculation.

This experimental model was designed to assess the mouse pial microcirculation during acute and chronic, physiological and pathophysiological hemodynamic, ...

In vivo Imaging of the Mouse Spinal Cord Using Two-photon Microscopy

In vivo imaging using two-photon microscopy 1 in mice that have been genetically engineered to express fluorescent proteins in specific cell types 2-3 has significantly broadened our knowledge of physiological and pathological processes in numerous tissues in vivo 4-7. In studies of the central nervous system (CNS), there has been a broad application of in vivo imaging in the brain, which has produced a plethora of novel and often unexpected findings about the behavior of cells such as neurons, astrocytes, microglia, under physiological or pathological conditions 8-17. However, mostly technical complications have limited the implementation of in vivo imaging in studies of the living mouse spinal cord. In particular, the anatomical proximity of the spinal cord to the lungs and heart generates significant movement artifact that makes imaging the living spinal cord a challenging task.
We developed a novel method that overcomes the inherent limitations of spinal cord imaging by stabilizing the spinal column, reducing respiratory-induced movements and thereby facilitating the use of two-photon microscopy to image the mouse spinal cord in vivo. This is achieved by combining a customized spinal stabilization device with a method of deep anesthesia, resulting in a significant reduction of respiratory-induced movements. This video protocol shows how to expose a small area of the living spinal cord that can be maintained under stable physiological conditions over extended periods of time by keeping tissue injury and bleeding to a minimum. Representative raw images acquired in vivo detail in high resolution the close relationship between microglia and the vasculature. A timelapse sequence shows the dynamic behavior of microglial processes in the living mouse spinal cord. Moreover, a continuous scan of the same z-frame demonstrates the outstanding stability that this method can achieve to generate stacks of images and/or timelapse movies that do not require image alignment post-acquisition. Finally, we show how this method can be used to revisit and reimage the same area of the spinal cord at later timepoints, allowing for longitudinal studies of ongoing physiological or pathological processes in vivo.

In vivo Imaging of the Mouse Spinal Cord Using Two-photon Microscopy

A minimally invasive protocol to stabilize the mouse spinal column and perform repetitive in vivo spinal cord imaging using two-photon microscopy is described. This method combines a spinal stabilization device and an anesthetic regimen to minimize respiratory-induced movements and produce raw imaging data that require no alignment or other post-processing.

In vivo imaging using two-photon microscopy 1 in mice that have been genetically engineered to express fluorescent proteins in specific cell types 2-3 has ...

Fluorescence-quenching of a Liposomal-encapsulated Near-infrared Fluorophore as a Tool for In Vivo Optical Imaging

Optical imaging offers a wide range of diagnostic modalities and has attracted a lot of interest as a tool for biomedical imaging. Despite the enormous number of imaging techniques currently available and the progress in instrumentation, there is still a need for highly sensitive probes that are suitable for in vivo imaging. One typical problem of available preclinical fluorescent probes is their rapid clearance in vivo, which reduces their imaging sensitivity. To circumvent rapid clearance, increase number of dye molecules at the target site, and thereby reduce background autofluorescence, encapsulation of the near-infrared fluorescent dye, DY-676-COOH in liposomes and verification of its potential for in vivo imaging of inflammation was done. DY-676 is known for its ability to self-quench at high concentrations. We first determined the concentration suitable for self-quenching, and then encapsulated this quenching concentration into the aqueous interior of PEGylated liposomes. To substantiate the quenching and activation potential of the liposomes we use a harsh freezing method which leads to damage of liposomal membranes without affecting the encapsulated dye. The liposomes characterized by a high level of fluorescence quenching were termed Lip-Q. We show by experiments with different cell lines that uptake of Lip-Q is predominantly by phagocytosis which in turn enabled the characterization of its potential as a tool for in vivo imaging of inflammation in mice models. Furthermore, we use a zymosan-induced edema model in mice to substantiate the potential of Lip-Q in optical imaging of inflammation in vivo. Considering possible uptake due to inflammation-induced enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, an always-on liposome formulation with low, non-quenched concentration of DY-676-COOH (termed Lip-dQ) and the free DY-676-COOH were compared with Lip-Q in animal trials.

Fluorescence-quenching of a Liposomal-encapsulated Near-infrared Fluorophore as a Tool for In Vivo Optical Imaging

The use of fluorophores for in vivo imaging can be greatly limited by opsonization, rapid clearance, low detection sensitivity and cytotoxic effects on the host. Encapsulation of fluorophores in liposomes by film hydration and extrusion leads to fluorescence quenching and protection which enables in vivo imaging with high detection sensitivity.

Optical imaging offers a wide range of diagnostic modalities and has attracted a lot of interest as a tool for biomedical imaging. Despite the enormous ...

Bioengineering

In Vivo Optical Imaging of Brain Tumors and Arthritis Using Fluorescent SapC-DOPS Nanovesicles

We describe a multi-angle rotational optical imaging (MAROI) system for in vivo monitoring of physiopathological processes labeled with a fluorescent marker. Mouse models (brain tumor and arthritis) were used to evaluate the usefulness of this method. Saposin C (SapC)-dioleoylphosphatidylserine (DOPS) nanovesicles tagged with CellVue Maroon (CVM) fluorophore were administered intravenously. Animals were then placed in the rotational holder (MARS) of the in vivo imaging system. Images were acquired in 10&#176; steps over 380&#176;. A rectangular&#160;region of interest (ROI) was placed across the full image width at the model disease site. Within the ROI, and for every image, mean fluorescence intensity was computed after background subtraction. In the mouse models studied, the labeled nanovesicles were taken up in both the orthotopic and transgenic brain tumors, and in the arthritic sites (toes and ankles). Curve analysis of the multi angle image ROIs determined the angle with the highest signal. Thus, the optimal angle for imaging each disease site was characterized. The MAROI method applied to imaging of fluorescent compounds is a noninvasive, economical, and precise tool for in vivo quantitative analysis of the disease states in the described mouse models.

In Vivo Optical Imaging of Brain Tumors and Arthritis Using Fluorescent SapC-DOPS Nanovesicles

We describe a multi-angle rotational optical imaging (MAROI) system for in vivo quantitation of a fluorescent marker delivered by saposin C (SapC)-dioleoylphosphatidylserine (DOPS) nanovesicles. Employing mouse models of cancer and arthritis, we demonstrate how the MAROI signal curve analysis can be used for the precise mapping and biological characterization of disease processes.

We describe a multi-angle rotational optical imaging (MAROI) system for in vivo monitoring of physiopathological processes labeled with a fluorescent ...

Medicine

An In Vivo Blood-brain Barrier Permeability Assay in Mice Using Fluorescently Labeled Tracers

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a specialized barrier that protects the brain microenvironment from toxins and pathogens in the circulation and maintains brain homeostasis. The principal sites of the barrier are endothelial cells of the brain capillaries whose barrier function results from tight intercellular junctions and efflux transporters expressed on the plasma membrane. This function is regulated by pericytes and astrocytes that together form the neurovascular unit (NVU). Several neurological diseases such as stroke, Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD), brain tumors are associated with an impaired BBB function. Assessment of the BBB permeability is therefore crucial in evaluating the severity of the neurological disease and the success of the treatment strategies employed.
We present here a simple yet robust permeability assay that have been successfully applied to several mouse models both, genetic and experimental. The method is highly quantitative and objective in comparison to the tracer fluorescence analysis by microscopy that is commonly applied. In this method, mice are injected intraperitoneally with a mix of aqueous inert fluorescent tracers followed by anesthetizing the mice. Cardiac perfusion of the animals is performed prior to harvesting brain, kidneys or other organs. Organs are homogenized and centrifuged followed by fluorescence measurement from the supernatant. Blood drawn from the cardiac puncture just before perfusion serves for normalization purpose to the vascular compartment. The tissue fluorescence is normalized to the wet weight and serum fluorescence to obtain a quantitative tracer permeability index. For additional confirmation, the contralateral hemi-brain preserved for immunohistochemistry can be utilized for tracer fluorescence visualization purposes.

An In Vivo Blood-brain Barrier Permeability Assay in Mice Using Fluorescently Labeled Tracers

Here we present a mouse brain vascular permeability assay using intraperitoneal injection of fluorescent tracers followed by perfusion that is applicable to animal models of blood-brain barrier dysfunction. One hemi-brain is used for assessing permeability quantitatively and the other for tracer visualization/immunostaining. The procedure takes 5 - 6 h for 10 mice.

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a specialized barrier that protects the brain microenvironment from toxins and pathogens in the circulation and maintains ...

Fluorescence-mediated Tomography for the Detection and Quantification of Macrophage-related Murine Intestinal Inflammation

Murine models of disease are indispensable to scientific research. However, many diagnostic tools such as endoscopy or tomographic imaging are not routinely employed in animal models. Conventional experimental readouts often rely on post mortem and ex vivo analyses, which prevent intra-individual follow-up examinations and increase the number of study animals needed. Fluorescence-mediated tomography enables the non-invasive, repetitive, quantitative, three-dimensional assessment of fluorescent probes. It is highly sensitive and permits the use of molecular makers, which allows for the specific detection and characterization of distinct molecular targets. In particular, targeted probes represent an innovative tool for analyzing gene activation and protein expression in inflammation, autoimmune disease, infection, vascular disease, cell migration, tumorigenesis, etc. In this article, we provide step-by-step instructions on this sophisticated imaging technology for the in vivo detection and characterization of inflammation (i.e., F4/80-positive macrophage infiltration) in a widely used murine model of intestinal inflammation. This technique might also be used in other research areas, such as immune cell or stem cell tracking.

Target-specific probes represent an innovative tool for analyzing molecular mechanisms, such as protein expression in various types of disease (e.g., inflammation, infection, and tumorigenesis). In this study, we describe a quantitative three-dimensional tomographic assessment of intestinal macrophage infiltration in a murine model of colitis using F4/80-specific fluorescence-mediated tomography.

Murine models of disease are indispensable to scientific research. However, many diagnostic tools such as endoscopy or tomographic imaging are not ...

Intravital Microscopy for Imaging Subcellular Structures in Live Mice Expressing Fluorescent Proteins

Here we describe a procedure to image subcellular structures in live rodents that is based on the use of confocal intravital microscopy. As a model organ, we use the salivary glands of live mice since they provide several advantages. First, they can be easily exposed to enable access to the optics, and stabilized to facilitate the reduction of the motion artifacts due to heartbeat and respiration. This significantly facilitates imaging and tracking small subcellular structures. Second, most of the cell populations of the salivary glands are accessible from the surface of the organ. This permits the use of confocal microscopy that has a higher spatial resolution than other techniques that have been used for in vivo imaging, such as two-photon microscopy. Finally, salivary glands can be easily manipulated pharmacologically and genetically, thus providing a robust system to investigate biological processes at a molecular level.
In this study we focus on a protocol designed to follow the kinetics of the exocytosis of secretory granules in acinar cells and the dynamics of the apical plasma membrane where the secretory granules fuse upon stimulation of the beta-adrenergic receptors. Specifically, we used a transgenic mouse that co-expresses cytosolic GFP and a membrane-targeted peptide fused with the fluorescent protein tandem-Tomato. However, the procedures that we used to stabilize and image the salivary glands can be extended to other mouse models and coupled to other approaches to label in vivo cellular components, enabling the visualization of various subcellular structures, such as endosomes, lysosomes, mitochondria, and the actin cytoskeleton.

Intravital microscopy is a powerful tool that enables imaging various biological processes in live animals. In this article, we present a detailed method for imaging the dynamics of subcellular structures, such as the secretory granules, in the salivary glands of live mice.

Here we describe a procedure to image subcellular structures in live rodents that is based on the use of confocal intravital microscopy. As a model organ, ...

Biology

Simultaneous Imaging of Microglial Dynamics and Neuronal Activity in Awake Mice

Since brain functions are under the continuous influence of the signals derived from peripheral tissues, it is critical to elucidate how glial cells in the brain sense various biological conditions in the periphery and transmit the signals to neurons. Microglia, immune cells in the brain, are involved in synaptic development and plasticity. Therefore, the contribution of microglia to neural circuit construction in response to the internal state of the body should be tested critically by intravital imaging of the relationship between microglial dynamics and neuronal activity.
Here, we describe a technique for the simultaneous imaging of microglial dynamics and neuronal activity in awake mice. Adeno-associated virus encoding R-CaMP, a gene-encoded calcium indicator of red fluorescence protein, was injected into layer 2/3 of the primary visual cortex in CX3CR1-EGFP transgenic mice expressing EGFP in microglia. After viral injection, a cranial window was installed onto the brain surface of the injected region. In vivo two-photon imaging in awake mice 4 weeks after the surgery demonstrated that neural activity and microglial dynamics could be recorded simultaneously at the sub-second temporal resolution. This technique can uncover the coordination between microglial dynamics and neuronal activity, with the former responding to peripheral immunological states and the latter encoding the internal brain states.

Here, we describe a protocol combining adeno-associated virus injection with cranial window implantation for simultaneous imaging of microglial dynamics and neuronal activity in awake mice.

Since brain functions are under the continuous influence of the signals derived from peripheral tissues, it is critical to elucidate how glial cells in ...

Intravital Imaging of Fluorescent Protein Expression in Mice with a Closed-Skull Traumatic Brain Injury and Cranial Window Using a Two-Photon Microscope

The goal of this protocol is to demonstrate how to longitudinally visualize the expression and localization of a protein of interest within specific cell types of an animal's brain, upon exposure to exogenous stimuli. Here, the administration of a closed-skull traumatic brain injury (TBI) and simultaneous implantation of a cranial window for subsequent longitudinal intravital imaging in mice is shown. Mice are intracranially injected with an adeno-associated virus (AAV) expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) under a neuronal specific promoter. After 2 to 4 weeks, the mice are subjected to a repetitive TBI using a weight drop device over the AAV injection location. Within the same surgical session, the mice are implanted with a metal headpost and then a glass cranial window over the TBI impacting site. The expression and cellular localization of EGFP is examined using a two-photon microscope in the same brain region exposed to trauma over the course of months.

This study demonstrates delivery of a repetitive traumatic brain injury to mice and simultaneous implantation of a cranial window for subsequent intravital imaging of a neuron-expressed EGFP using two-photon microscopy.

The goal of this protocol is to demonstrate how to longitudinally visualize the expression and localization of a protein of interest within specific cell ...

Fluorescence Imaging of Neuro-Immune Dynamics Using a Skull Implant

<a href='https://app.jove.com/v/61454/precise-brain-mapping-to-perform-repetitive-vivo-imaging-neuro-immune'>Source:&#160; Bisht, K., et al. Precise brain mapping to perform repetitive in vivo imaging of neuro-immune dynamics in mice. J. Vis. Exp. (2020)</a>This video demonstrates fluorescence imaging of neuro-immune dynamics in a transgenic mouse with a skull implant. Vascular and neuronal stability is imaged alongside dynamic microglial changes, reflecting immune responses to neuronal activity.

Source:&#160; Bisht, K., et al. Precise brain mapping to perform repetitive in vivo imaging of neuro-immune dynamics in mice. J. Vis. Exp. (2020)This ...

In Vivo Imaging of Cerebrospinal Fluid Transport through the Intact Mouse Skull using Fluorescence Macroscopy

Summary

Explore More Videos

Chapters in this video

Intravital Microscopy of the Mouse Brain Microcirculation using a Closed Cranial Window

In vivo Imaging of the Mouse Spinal Cord Using Two-photon Microscopy

Fluorescence-quenching of a Liposomal-encapsulated Near-infrared Fluorophore as a Tool for In Vivo Optical Imaging

In Vivo Optical Imaging of Brain Tumors and Arthritis Using Fluorescent SapC-DOPS Nanovesicles

An In Vivo Blood-brain Barrier Permeability Assay in Mice Using Fluorescently Labeled Tracers

Fluorescence-mediated Tomography for the Detection and Quantification of Macrophage-related Murine Intestinal Inflammation

Intravital Microscopy for Imaging Subcellular Structures in Live Mice Expressing Fluorescent Proteins

Simultaneous Imaging of Microglial Dynamics and Neuronal Activity in Awake Mice

Intravital Imaging of Fluorescent Protein Expression in Mice with a Closed-Skull Traumatic Brain Injury and Cranial Window Using a Two-Photon Microscope

Fluorescence Imaging of Neuro-Immune Dynamics Using a Skull Implant