This work was supported by King Abdullah University of Science and Technology through core funding and Competitive Research Award (CRG3) to S. M. H.

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

In this study,&#160;different smFRET techniques were implemented&#160;to determine the kinetics of HJ resolution by GEN130. Similar smFRET approaches were used to follow the double-flap DNA conformational requirement and cleavage by the DNA replication and repair flap endonuclease 142,43,44. Here, critical steps in this protocol are discussed. The silanization reaction should be free from any trace of humidity. The pegylation solution should be applied rapidly to the silanized glass once PEG is dissolved to avoid hydrolysis. In the multi-channel flow cell, any trapped air in the adhesive sheet should be removed to avoid leakage between neighboring channels. The PCA solution should be freshly prepared since it oxidizes over time. The addition of 10 N NaOH should be dropwise, with vortexing in between. The fluorescence background in the coverslip should be minimal before flowing the fluorescently labeled HJ. The imaging in the flow cell should be performed in one direction to avoid imaging bleached areas. In ALEX experiments, the power of the red laser should be reduced to avoid rapid bleaching of the acceptor. In the time-lapse experiments, the cycle time has to be shorter than the fastest event.
smFRET is a sensitive technique that can provide valuable real-time insights in biomolecular reactions. However, this method has several technical challenges, among which is achieving measurable change in FRET during the biochemical reaction. This is necessary to obtain well-separated features in the histograms and distinguishable states in the time-traces. In many cases, smFRET requires careful design of the substrates, selection of the fluorophore pairs and their positions, and amplification of FRET changes in the DNA substrate because of the little structural changes in the substrate45. Another approach for performing FRET is to use labeled proteins46. The observation window in FRET is limited by the stability of the acceptor such as Cy5 or Alexa Fluor 647 which tends to bleach more rapidly than the donor (Cy3 in this case). Therefore, FRET requires a continuous search for stable fluorophores to extend the experiment duration and efforts to develop oxygen scavenging systems to prolong the fluorescence signal and maximize the signal-to-noise ratio47,48.
Among the tips for troubleshooting in smFRET is balancing the several parameters involved in imaging such as the laser power, exposure time, cycle time, and number of cycles to maximize the fluorescence emission, prolong the experiment duration, and achieve appropriate sampling intervals for the enzyme dynamics. Longer observation times and minimal effects from photobleaching are essential to obtain high fidelity dwell time distributions that represent the enzyme dynamics. ALEX generates better histograms since this method is subjected to lower contributions from photobleached particles compared to single-color FRET. However, the temporal resolution in ALEX is lower than that in single-color FRET.
Finally, smFRET&#8217;s emphasis on detecting conformational/structural changes in individual molecules in real-time bridges the gap between high resolution structural techniques (i.e., X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance, electron microscopy), which provides atomic resolution structural details under static conditions and bulk methods that yield the ensemble average of a measurable property. In many aspects, smFRET has proven to be a powerful technique for studying biological systems in real-time.

Single-molecule methods based on fluorescence detection provide high signal-to-noise ratios1. FRET is a spectroscopic technique that can measure distances in the range of 1&#8211;10 nm, rendering this technique as a molecular ruler for measuring distances in the nanometer range2,3. The absorption spectrum of the acceptor has a partial spectral overlap with the donor&#8217;s emission spectrum at the shorter wavelength end. FRET is mediated by the radiation-less energy transfer between a donor and acceptor pair, whereas the efficiency of energy transfer is dependent on the distance and orientation of the acceptor4.
Several approaches have been implemented to minimize the background and improve the detection efficiency of the fluorescence signal5,6. One approach is confocal microscopy, in which a pinhole restricts the excitation spot to a size below the diffraction limit7. Another approach is total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF), which is a wide-field illumination technique in which the light is directed off-axis above a critical angle8. The light is then totally internally reflected at the interface between the glass and aqueous solution, generating an evanescent wave that only illuminates the fluorophores attached to the glass surface and prevents background from the fluorophores in the rest of the solution.
In confocal microscopy, the molecules can be either freely diffusing or surface immobilized. The attained temporal resolution can be within microseconds to several milliseconds9. The confocal detection for a single molecule is performed by single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) and point-by-point scanning of the region of interest10. In TIRF, a time-series of a few hundreds of molecules immobilized on the surface is recorded by a position-sensitive two-dimensional charge coupled detector (CCD). The CCD amplifies the fluorescence signal either by intensified phosphor screen and microchannel plate or on-chip multiplication of photoelectrons (EMCCD). The temporal resolution is dependent on the readout speed and quantum efficiency of the CCD and usually on the order of few tens of milliseconds6.
HJ is a central intermediate in DNA repair and recombination11,12,13,14. HJ has two continuous and two crossing strands that connect between the continuous strands without intersecting each other. HJ exists in solution as X-stacked conformers, which undergo continuous isomerization by the continuous strands becoming crossing and the crossing strands becoming continuous in the other conformer15. Isomer preference of the HJ is dependent on the core sequence and ionic environment and has been extensively studied by FRET16,17,18,19.
GEN120 is a monomeric protein in solution21 and requires dimerization to cleave the HJ, thus allowing proper separation of the recombined strands22,23. The stacking conformer preference of the HJ influences the outcome of genetic recombination by setting the orientation of the resolution by the HJ resolvases24. Understanding how GEN1 binds the HJ, coordinates the two incisions, and ensures its full resolution have all been under intensive study21,22,23,25,26,27,28,29,30.
In this study, an objective based TIRF set-up is used as described previously31. Two-color alternating excitation (ALEX) is applied to determine the conformational changes upon the interaction of GEN1 with fluorophore labeled HJ. ALEX produces 2D histograms based on two ratiometric parameters FRET efficiency E, which is donor-acceptor distance-dependent, and the stoichiometry parameter S, which measures the donor-acceptor stoichiometry32. ALEX enables the sorting of fluorescent species based on the stoichiometries of the fluorophores including donor-only, acceptor-only, and mixed subpopulations. ALEX can extend the use of FRET to the full range and can detect differences in fluorophore brightness and oligomerization as well as monitor macromolecule-ligand interactions33.
It is found that GEN1 consistently succeeds in resolving the HJ within the lifetime of the GEN1-HJ complex. The time-dependent conformational changes are derived from the time-traces of individual molecules, while the histograms represent the distribution of the underlying populations. Using time-lapse single-color FRET, fast on-rates and slow off-rates for the GEN1 dimer are demonstrated, which increase the affinity of the assembled GEN1 dimer at the first incision product.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>(&#177;)-6-Hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchromane-2-carboxylic acid (Trolox)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>238813</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.1 M sodium bicarbonate buffer</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>144-55-8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 % Novex Tris-Borate-EDTA gel</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>EC6275BOX</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100 X TIRF objective</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>NAPO 1.49</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3,4-dihroxybenzoic acid (PCA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P5630</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>741442</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>6% Novex Tris-Borate-EDTA gel</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>EC6265BOX</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adhesive sheet</td>
			<td>Grace bio-labs</td>
			<td>SA-S-1L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Benchtop refrigerated centrifuge</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>Z605212</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotin-PEG</td>
			<td>Laysan Bio</td>
			<td>Biotin-PEG-SVA 5000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>B9001S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium Chloride Dihydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>31307</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>cation exchange column</td>
			<td>GE healthcare</td>
			<td>MonoS (4.6/100)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell distruptor</td>
			<td>Constant Cell Disruption System</td>
			<td>TS5/40/CE/GA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coomassie Brilliant Blue</td>
			<td>MP Biomedicals</td>
			<td>808274</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cy3 emission filter</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>HQ600/40M-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cy5/Alexa Fluor 647 emission filter</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>HQ700/40M-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dichroic for DV2 filter cube</td>
			<td>Photometrics</td>
			<td>630dcxr-18x26</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dithiothreitol (DTT)</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>R0861</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Drill</td>
			<td>Dremel</td>
			<td>200-1/21</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electronic cutter</td>
			<td>Copam</td>
			<td>CP-2500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EMCCD camera</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>C9100-13</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Epoxy glue</td>
			<td>Devcon</td>
			<td>14250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FPLC Aktapurifier UPC 10</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>28406268</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GelQuant.NET software</td>
			<td>biochemlabsolutions.com</td>
			<td>Version 1.8.2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GEN1 entry vector</td>
			<td>Harvard plasmid repository</td>
			<td>HSCD00399935</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerol</td>
			<td>Sigma Life Science</td>
			<td>G5516</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>green laser (emission 532 nm)</td>
			<td>Coherent</td>
			<td>Compass 315M-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heparin column</td>
			<td>GE healthcare</td>
			<td>HiTrap Heparin column</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>BDH</td>
			<td>BDH4162</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image splitter</td>
			<td>Photometrics</td>
			<td>Dualview (DV2)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Imidazole</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>I2399</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>IX81</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl-&#223;-D-thiogalactoside (IPTG)</td>
			<td>Goldbio.</td>
			<td>12481C100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laser scanner</td>
			<td>GE healthcare</td>
			<td>Typhoon Trio</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB Broth</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP1426-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Long pass 532nm filter</td>
			<td>Semrock</td>
			<td>LPD02-532RU-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma Life Science</td>
			<td>M8266</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mPEG</td>
			<td>Laysan Bio</td>
			<td>mPEG-SVA 5000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neutravidin</td>
			<td>Pierce</td>
			<td>31000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ni-NTA column</td>
			<td>GE healthcare</td>
			<td>HisTrap FF</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NuPAGE 10% Bis-Tris gels</td>
			<td>Novex Life technologies</td>
			<td>NP0301BOX</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NuPAGE 10% Bis-Tris Protein Gels</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NP0302PK2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Origin software</td>
			<td>OriginLab Corporation</td>
			<td>Version 8.5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF)</td>
			<td>Alexis Biochemicals</td>
			<td>270-184-G025</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate-buffered saline</td>
			<td>GIBCO</td>
			<td>14190</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyethylene Tubing (I.D. 0.76 mm O.D. 1.22mm)</td>
			<td>Fisher (Becton Dickinson)</td>
			<td>427416</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protocatechuate 3,4-dioxygenase (3,4-PCD)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P8279-25UN</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Quad-band dichroic</td>
			<td>Chroma Inc</td>
			<td>Z405/488/532/640rpc</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>red laser (emission 640 nm)</td>
			<td>Coherent</td>
			<td>Cube 640 100C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>Fisher Chemical</td>
			<td>S271</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sorvall RC-6 plus centrifuge</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>46910</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>Nanodrop 2000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe pump</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>70-3007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Teflon tweezers</td>
			<td>Rubis</td>
			<td>K35A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris Base</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>H5135</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultracentrifuge</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>Optima L-90K</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrafiltration membrane</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>UFC90300</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

single-molecule f&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer methods for real-time investigation of the holliday junction resolution by gen1

Bulk methods measure the ensemble behavior of molecules, in which individual reaction rates of the underlying steps are averaged throughout the population. Single-molecule F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (smFRET) provides a recording of the conformational changes taking place by individual molecules in real-time. Therefore, smFRET is powerful in measuring structural changes in the enzyme or substrate during binding and catalysis. This work presents a protocol for single-molecule imaging of the interaction of a four-way Holliday junction (HJ) and gap endonuclease I (GEN1), a cytosolic homologous recombination enzyme. Also presented are single-color and two-color alternating excitation (ALEX) smFRET experimental protocols to follow the resolution of the HJ by GEN1 in real-time. The kinetics of GEN1 dimerization are determined at the HJ, which has been suggested to play a key role in the resolution of the HJ and has remained elusive until now. The techniques described here can be widely applied to obtain valuable mechanistic insights of many enzyme-DNA systems.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Single-Molecule FÃƒÂ¶rster Resonance Energy Transfer Methods for Real-Time Investigation of the Holliday Junction Resolution by GEN1 at JoVE.com

Single-Molecule F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer Methods for Real-Time Investigation of the Holliday Junction Resolution by GEN1

Presented here is a protocol for performing single-molecule F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer to study HJ resolution. Two-color alternating excitation is used for determining the dissociation constants. Single-color time lapse smFRET is then applied in real-time cleavage assays to obtain the dwell time distribution prior to HJ resolution.

Single-Molecule F&ouml;rster Resonance Energy Transfer Methods for Real-Time Investigation of the Holliday Junction Resolution by GEN1

Bulk methods measure the ensemble behavior of molecules, in which individual reaction rates of the underlying steps are averaged throughout the ...

single-molecule-frster-resonance-energy-transfer-methods-for-real

Research

JoVE Journal

Genetics

9.3K Views.  King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST). Presented here is a protocol for performing single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer to study HJ resolution. Two-color alternating excitation is used for determining the dissociation constants. Single-color time lapse smFRET is then applied in real-time cleavage assays to obtain the dwell time distribution prior to HJ resolution.

Video: Single-Molecule Förster Resonance Energy Transfer Methods for Real-Time Investigation of the Holliday Junction Resolution by GEN1

Conjugative Mating Assays for Sequence-specific Analysis of Transfer Proteins Involved in Bacterial Conjugation

The transfer of genetic material by bacterial conjugation is a process that takes place via complexes formed by specific transfer proteins. In Escherichia coli, these transfer proteins make up a DNA transfer machinery known as the mating pair formation, or DNA transfer complex, which facilitates conjugative plasmid transfer. The objective of this paper is to provide a method that can be used to determine the role of a specific transfer protein that is involved in conjugation using a series of deletions and/or point mutations in combination with mating assays. The target gene is knocked out on the conjugative plasmid and is then provided in trans through the use of a small recovery plasmid harboring the target gene. Mutations affecting the target gene on the recovery plasmid can reveal information about functional aspects of the target protein that result in the alteration of mating efficiency of donor cells harboring the mutated gene. Alterations in mating efficiency provide insight into the role and importance of the particular transfer protein, or a region therein, in facilitating conjugative DNA transfer. Coupling this mating assay with detailed three-dimensional structural studies will provide a comprehensive understanding of the function of the conjugative transfer protein as well as provide a means for identifying and characterizing regions of protein-protein interaction.

Here, we present a protocol to knockout a gene of interest involved in plasmid conjugation and subsequently analyze the impact of its absence using mating assays. The function of the gene is further explored to a specific region of its sequence using deletion or point mutations.

The transfer of genetic material by bacterial conjugation is a process that takes place via complexes formed by specific transfer proteins. In Escherichia ...

Detection of microRNA Expression in Peritoneal Membrane of Rats Using Quantitative Real-time PCR

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that regulate messenger RNA expression post-transcriptionally. The miRNA expression profile has been investigated in various organs and tissues in rat. However, standard methods for the purification of miRNAs and detection of their expression in rat peritoneal membrane have not been well established. We have developed an effective and reliable method to purify and quantify miRNAs using quantitative real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) in rat peritoneal membrane. This protocol consists of four steps: 1) purification of peritoneal membrane sample; 2) purification of total RNA including miRNA from peritoneal membrane sample; 3) reverse transcription of miRNA to produce cDNA; and 4) qRT-PCR to detect miRNA expression. Using this protocol, we successfully determined that the expression of six miRNAs (miRNA-142-3p, miRNA-21-5p, miRNA-221-3p, miRNA-223-3p, miRNA-327, and miRNA-34a-5p) increased significantly in the peritoneal membrane of a rat peritoneal fibrosis model compared with those in control groups. This protocol can be used to study the profile of miRNA expression in the peritoneal membrane of rats in many pathological conditions.

Here we present a protocol for the detection of microRNA expression in rat peritoneal membrane using quantitative real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. This method is suitable for studying the microRNA expression profile in rat peritoneal membrane in several pathological conditions.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that regulate messenger RNA expression post-transcriptionally. The miRNA expression profile has been ...

Single Molecule Analysis of Laser Localized Psoralen Adducts

The DNA Damage Response (DDR) has been extensively characterized in studies of double strand breaks (DSBs) induced by laser micro beam irradiation in live cells. The DDR to helix distorting covalent DNA modifications, including interstrand DNA crosslinks (ICLs), is not as well defined. We have studied the DDR stimulated by ICLs, localized by laser photoactivation of immunotagged psoralens, in the nuclei of live cells. In order to address fundamental questions about adduct distribution and replication fork encounters, we combined laser localization with two other technologies. DNA fibers are often used to display the progress of replication forks by immunofluorescence of nucleoside analogues incorporated during short pulses. Immunoquantum dots have been widely employed for single molecule imaging. In the new approach, DNA fibers from cells carrying laser localized ICLs are spread onto microscope slides. The tagged ICLs are displayed with immunoquantum dots and the inter-lesion distances determined. Replication fork collisions with ICLs can be visualized and different encounter patterns identified and quantitated.

Lasers are frequently used in studies of the cellular response to DNA damage. However, they generate lesions whose spacing, frequency, and collisions with replication forks are rarely characterized. Here, we describe an approach that enables the determination of these parameters with laser localized interstrand crosslinks.

The DNA Damage Response (DDR) has been extensively characterized in studies of double strand breaks (DSBs) induced by laser micro beam irradiation in live ...

High Resolution Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization in Drosophila Embryos and Tissues Using Tyramide Signal Amplification

In our efforts to determine the patterns of expression and subcellular localization of Drosophila RNAs on a genome-wide basis, and in a variety of tissues, we have developed numerous modifications and improvements to our original fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) protocol. To facilitate throughput and cost effectiveness, all steps, from probe generation to signal detection, are performed using exon 96-well microtiter plates. Digoxygenin (DIG)-labelled antisense RNA probes are produced using either cDNA clones or genomic DNA as templates. After tissue fixation and permeabilization, probes are hybridized to transcripts of interest and then detected using a succession of anti-DIG antibody conjugated to biotin, streptavidin conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and fluorescently conjugated tyramide, which in the presence of HRP, produces a highly reactive intermediate that binds to electron dense regions of immediately adjacent proteins. These amplification and localization steps produce a robust and highly localized signal that facilitates both cellular and subcellular transcript localization. The protocols provided have been optimized to produce highly specific signals in a variety of tissues and developmental stages. References are also provided for additional variations that allow the simultaneous detection of multiple transcripts, or transcripts and proteins, at the same time.

High Resolution Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization in Drosophila Embryos and Tissues Using Tyramide Signal Amplification

The described RNA in situ hybridization protocol allows the detection of RNA in whole Drosophila embryos or dissected tissues. Using 96-well microtiter plates and tyramide signal amplification, transcripts can be detected at high resolution, sensitivity, and throughput, and at a relatively low cost.

In our efforts to determine the patterns of expression and subcellular localization of Drosophila RNAs on a genome-wide basis, and in a variety of ...

Real-time Analysis of Transcription Factor Binding, Transcription, Translation, and Turnover to Display Global Events During Cellular Activation

Upon activation, cells rapidly change their functional programs and, thereby, their gene expression profile. Massive changes in gene expression occur, for example, during cellular differentiation, morphogenesis, and functional stimulation (such as activation of immune cells), or after exposure to drugs and other factors from the local environment. Depending on the stimulus and cell type, these changes occur rapidly and at any possible level of gene regulation. Displaying all molecular processes of a responding cell to a certain type of stimulus/drug is one of the hardest tasks in molecular biology. Here, we describe a protocol that enables the simultaneous analysis of multiple layers of gene regulation. We compare, in particular, transcription factor binding (Chromatin-immunoprecipitation-sequencing (ChIP-seq)), de novo transcription (4-thiouridine-sequencing (4sU-seq)), mRNA processing, and turnover as well as translation (ribosome profiling). By combining these methods, it is possible to display a detailed and genome-wide course of action.
Sequencing newly transcribed RNA is especially recommended when analyzing rapidly adapting or changing systems, since this depicts the transcriptional activity of all genes during the time of 4sU exposure (irrespective of whether they are up- or downregulated). The combinatorial use of total RNA-seq and ribosome profiling additionally allows the calculation of RNA turnover and translation rates. Bioinformatic analysis of high-throughput sequencing results allows for many means for analysis and interpretation of the data. The generated data also enables tracking co-transcriptional and alternative splicing, just to mention a few possible outcomes.
The combined approach described here can be applied for different model organisms or cell types, including primary cells. Furthermore, we provide detailed protocols for each method used, including quality controls, and discuss potential problems and pitfalls.

This protocol describes the combinatorial use of ChIP-seq, 4sU-seq, total RNA-seq, and ribosome profiling for cell lines and primary cells. It enables tracking changes in transcription-factor binding, de novo transcription, RNA processing, turnover and translation over time, and displaying the overall course of events in activated and/or rapidly changing cells.

Upon activation, cells rapidly change their functional programs and, thereby, their gene expression profile. Massive changes in gene expression occur, for ...

Single Molecule Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (smFISH) Analysis in Budding Yeast Vegetative Growth and Meiosis

Single molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH) is a powerful technique to study gene expression in single cells due to its ability to detect and count individual RNA molecules. Complementary to deep sequencing-based methods, smFISH provides information about the cell-to-cell variation in transcript abundance and the subcellular localization of a given RNA. Recently, we have used smFISH to study the expression of the gene&#160;NDC80&#160;during meiosis in budding yeast, in which two transcript isoforms exist and the short transcript isoform has its entire sequence shared with the long isoform. To confidently identify each transcript isoform, we optimized known smFISH protocols and obtained high consistency and quality of smFISH data for the samples acquired during budding yeast meiosis. Here, we describe this optimized protocol, the criteria that we use to determine whether high quality of smFISH data is obtained, and some tips for implementing this protocol in&#160;other yeast strains and growth conditions.

Single Molecule Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization smFISH Analysis in Budding Yeast Vegetative Growth and Meiosis

This single molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization protocol is optimized to quantify the number of RNA molecules in budding yeast during vegetative growth and meiosis.

Single molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH) is a powerful technique to study gene expression in single cells due to its ability to detect ...

Identifying Mutations by High Resolution Melting in a TILLING Population of Rice

Target Induced Local Lesions In Genomes (TILLING) is a strategy of reverse genetics for the high-throughput screening of induced mutations. However, the TILLING system has less applicability for insertion/deletion (Indel) detection and traditional TILLING needs more complex steps, like CEL I nuclease digestion and gel electrophoresis. To improve the throughput and selection efficiency, and to make the screening of both Indels and single base substitions (SBSs) possible, a new high-resolution melting (HRM)-based TILLING system is developed. Here, we present a detailed HRM-TILLING protocol and show its application in mutation screening. This method can analyze the mutations of PCR amplicons by measuring the denaturation of double-stranded DNA at high temperatures. HRM analysis is directly performed post-PCR without additional processing. Moreover, a simple, safe and fast (SSF) DNA extraction method is integrated with HRM-TILLING to identify both Indels and SBSs. Its simplicity, robustness and high throughput make it potentially useful for mutation scanning in rice and other crops.

In this article, we present the protocol that is described as high-resolution melting analysis (HRM)-based Target Induced Local Lesions In Genomes (TILLING). This method utilizes fluorescence changes during the melting of the DNA duplex and is suitable for high-throughput screening of both insertion/deletion (Indel) and single base substition (SBS).

Target Induced Local Lesions In Genomes (TILLING) is a strategy of reverse genetics for the high-throughput screening of induced mutations. However, the ...

Transforming, Genome Editing and Phenotyping the Nitrogen-fixing Tropical Cannabaceae Tree Parasponia andersonii

Parasponia andersonii is a fast-growing tropical tree that belongs to the Cannabis family (Cannabaceae). Together with 4 additional species, it forms the only known non-legume lineage able to establish a nitrogen-fixing nodule symbiosis with rhizobium. Comparative studies between legumes and P. andersonii could provide valuable insight into the genetic networks underlying root nodule formation. To facilitate comparative studies, we recently sequenced the P. andersonii genome and established Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated stable transformation and CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing. Here, we provide a detailed description of the transformation and genome editing procedures developed for P. andersonii. In addition, we describe procedures for the seed germination and characterization of symbiotic phenotypes. Using this protocol, stable transgenic mutant lines can be generated in a period of 2-3 months. Vegetative in vitro propagation of T0 transgenic lines allows phenotyping experiments to be initiated at 4 months after A. tumefaciens co-cultivation. Therefore, this protocol takes only marginally longer than the transient Agrobacterium rhizogenes-based root transformation method available for P. andersonii, though offers several clear advantages. Together, the procedures described here permit P. andersonii to be used as a research model for studies aimed at understanding symbiotic associations as well as potentially other aspects of the biology of this tropical tree.

Transforming, Genome Editing and Phenotyping the Nitrogen-fixing Tropical Cannabaceae Tree Parasponia andersonii

Parasponia andersonii is a fast-growing tropical tree that belongs to the Cannabis family (Cannabaceae) and can form nitrogen-fixing root nodules in association with the rhizobium. Here, we describe a detailed protocol for reverse genetic analyses in P. andersonii based on Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated stable transformation and CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing.

Parasponia andersonii is a fast-growing tropical tree that belongs to the Cannabis family (Cannabaceae). Together with 4 additional species, it forms the ...

Investigation of the Transcriptional Role of a RUNX1 Intronic Silencer by CRISPR/Cas9 Ribonucleoprotein in Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cells

The bulk of the human genome (~98%) is comprised of non-coding sequences. Cis-regulatory elements (CREs) are non-coding DNA sequences that contain binding sites for transcriptional regulators to modulate gene expression. Alterations of CREs have been implicated in various diseases including cancer. While promoters and enhancers have been the primary CREs for studying gene regulation, very little is known about the role of silencer, which is another type of CRE that mediates gene repression. Originally identified as an adaptive immunity system in prokaryotes, CRISPR/Cas9 has been exploited to be a powerful tool for eukaryotic genome editing. Here, we present the use of this technique to delete an intronic silencer in the human RUNX1 gene and investigate the impacts on gene expression in OCI-AML3 leukemic cells. Our approach relies on electroporation-mediated delivery of two preassembled Cas9/guide RNA (gRNA) ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes to create two double-strand breaks (DSBs) that flank the silencer. Deletions can be readily screened by fragment analysis. Expression analyses of different mRNAs transcribed from alternative promoters help evaluate promoter-dependent effects. This strategy can be used to study other CREs and is particularly suitable for hematopoietic cells, which are often difficult to transfect with plasmid-based methods. The use of a plasmid- and virus-free strategy allows simple and fast assessments of gene regulatory functions.

Investigation of the Transcriptional Role of a RUNX1 Intronic Silencer by CRISPR/Cas9 Ribonucleoprotein in Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cells

Direct delivery of preassembled Cas9/guide RNA ribonucleoprotein complexes is a fast and efficient means for genome editing in hematopoietic cells. Here, we utilize this approach to delete a RUNX1 intronic silencer and examine the transcriptional responses in OCI-AML3 leukemic cells.

The bulk of the human genome (~98%) is comprised of non-coding sequences. Cis-regulatory elements (CREs) are non-coding DNA sequences that contain binding ...

Characterization of In Vitro Differentiation of Human Primary Keratinocytes by RNA-Seq Analysis

Human primary keratinocytes are often used as in vitro models for studies on epidermal differentiation and related diseases. Methods have been reported for in vitro differentiation of keratinocytes cultured in two-dimensional (2D) submerged manners using various induction conditions. Described here is a procedure for 2D in vitro keratinocyte differentiation method by contact inhibition and subsequent molecular characterization by RNA-seq. In brief, keratinocytes are grown in defined keratinocyte medium supplemented with growth factors until they are fully confluent. Differentiation is induced by close contacts between the keratinocytes and further stimulated by excluding growth factors in the medium. Using RNA-seq analyses, it is shown that both 1) differentiated keratinocytes exhibit distinct molecular signatures during differentiation and 2) the dynamic gene expression pattern largely resembles cells during epidermal stratification. As for comparison to normal keratinocyte differentiation, keratinocytes carrying mutations of the transcription factor p63 exhibit altered morphology and molecular signatures, consistent with their differentiation defects. In conclusion, this protocol details the steps for 2D in vitro keratinocyte differentiation and its molecular characterization, with an emphasis on bioinformatic analysis of RNA-seq data. Because RNA extraction and RNA-seq procedures have been well-documented, it is not the focus of this protocol. The experimental procedure of in vitro keratinocyte differentiation and bioinformatic analysis pipeline can be used to study molecular events during epidermal differentiation in healthy and diseased keratinocytes.

Presented here is a stepwise procedure for in vitro differentiation of human primary keratinocytes by contact inhibition followed by characterization at the molecular level by RNA-seq analysis.

Human primary keratinocytes are often used as in vitro models for studies on epidermal differentiation and related diseases. Methods have been reported ...