We wish to dedicate this work to Dr.ssa Michela Mangieri. Before she died prematurely, she conceived and started the Abbiategrasso Brain Bank Project.
We are grateful to our brain donors, who are generously contributing to research donating the noblest organ of their body; without them this research would not be possible.
We are grateful to Valeria Marzagalli for her precious work in the ABB project.
The authors thank Prof. Johannes Attems, Dr. Paolo Fociani and Dr. Giorgio Giaccone for their precious guidance and wise counsel.
We would like to thank Dr.ssa Alice Cirrincione and Miss Giulia Bortone for their precious help throughout the project. 
Many thanks to Mrs. Tere Cassani for her support and to &#8220;Federazione Alzheimer Italia&#8221; for its collaboration. 
The authors are grateful to Dr. Matteo Moretti and Prof. Antonio Marco Maria Osculati, Department of Public Health, Experimental and Forensic Medicine, University of Pavia.

The authors have nothing to disclose.

According to WHO, approximately 50 million people are currently suffering from dementia, a figure that is projected to triple by 2050. Alzheimer&#8217;s Disease is the major cause of dementia, followed by cerebrovascular disease and other age-related neurodegenerative disorders. In 2017, WHO developed the Global Dementia Observatory to raise awareness of dementia and encourage a global action plan against it1. Each individual has their own brain aging trajectory, therefore the search for the cure can be challenging due to the complexity of the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Perhaps, each person possesses her or his own pathogenesis written in the brain tissue requiring a personalized approach. Thus, the study of brain tissue will be the key to understanding the mechanisms of neurodegeneration.
Looking back at the history of neuroscience, we realize that the most impressive and groundbreaking discoveries could never have occurred without the direct examination of the human brain. Throughout time, the source of brain tissue to be studied has changed from crude dissections, random &#8216;chance encounters&#8217; and, in some cases, illegal trading, to organized brain collections and strategic modern brain banks. The consideration of many ethical aspects is one of the main factors differentiating modern brain banks from the brain collections of the past. The first real modern Brain Banks (BBs) were instituted in the second half of the 20th century. Nicholas Corsellis and Wallace Tourtelotte can be considered pioneers of modern brain banking. In the UK, Corsellis assembled a collection holding over 1000 well-documented brains affected with various mental and neurological disorders2. Furthermore, Corsellis helped reveal the need to preserve fresh brain tissue in ice for the sake of biochemical testings3. Meanwhile in the USA, Wallace Tourtelotte introduced antemortem brain donation programs to facilitate solicitation of potential brain donors and ensure that the brains collected are accompanied by a complete medical and neurological history4,5. For a historical overview of brain collections and modern BBs, see Carlos et al.6.
So, why do we still need human brains? Brain diseases can only be given a definite diagnosis following neuropathological examination. Neuropathology challenges the clinical diagnosis, and is the key to a correct interpretation of the clinical symptoms and to the discovery of the histological bases of new syndromic variants. Indeed, the diagnosis can be redefined based on the pathological picture. Nonetheless, the autopsy rate has declined in the last decades due to recent development of innovative neuroimaging techniques. Through brain imaging, the morphological, functional and metabolic alterations in the brain, as well as the extent of protein misfolding, can be appraised in vivo. However, in vivo neuroimaging and other biomarker studies can only give an &#8220;estimate&#8221; of the pathological picture as they are unable to detect subtle cellular and molecular changes. Advances in molecular imaging and the discovery of new biomarkers, target molecules, and tracers7 (e.g., amyloid, TAU, microglial tracers) render the human brain even more indispensable to the interpretation of data obtained from clinical evaluations and biomarker testing. Furthermore, the omics technologies (genomics, epigenomics, transcriptomics, metabolomics, proteomics, lipidomics, etc.), performed on fresh and frozen brain tissue, opened up new possibilities for understanding disease mechanisms and discovering risk genes, novel diagnostic and prognostic markers, and potential drug targets8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23.
For these purposes, modern BBs archive well-characterized, high-quality brain tissues making them available for the scientific community3,24. The brains supplied by BBs should be accompanied by a complete clinical history. The activity of a BB includes the following: (1) Recognition and recruitment of diseased and healthy individuals to brain donation programs; the ideal condition would be to achieve a multi-disciplinary follow-up of donors throughout life to obtain a complete clinical, lifestyle and social history, and biomarker profiles; indeed, cognitive reserve and brain structure depend on lifestyle and socio-educational factors25,26, so these information enriches the total data at hand. (2) Acquisition of the brain (consisting of cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem) and related tissues (e.g., spinal cord, cranial nerves and ganglia, etc.) following the donor&#8217;s demise, all the while observing standardized legal and ethical regulations. (3) Appropriate processing (dissection, fixation, freezing) of the brain, as defined in a standardized operative protocol, to obtain high quality tissue and to allow for future use in multidisciplinary research. (4) Detailed neuropathological characterization providing a final definite diagnosis. (5) Storage and distribution of tissue material to research community27,28.
All BBs store both frozen and formalin-fixed-paraffin embedded tissues. Each BB has its own protocol. Except for particular studies, such as the bihemispheric cutting protocol of the Biomedical Research Institute (New Jersey)29 and the Deramecourt&#8217;s study of cerebrovascular pathology30, the biggest BBs in the world simply cut the cerebrum, cerebellum and brainstem along the midline (sagittal plane). One half is dissected fresh and then frozen for biochemical studies, while the other is fixed in formalin for histopathological assessment. So, biochemical and histopathological analyses are conducted separately on each hemisphere. The decision as to which side is fixed or frozen (laterality), depends on the singular bank31,32,33,34,35. As many neurological diseases are asymmetrical, our BB offers a unique protocol for slicing fresh brains: adjacent sections of the brainstem and each hemisphere are alternately fixed and frozen; a fixed slice on one hemisphere corresponds to a frozen one on the other hemisphere. Through this method, the use of brain tissue is optimized, and a complete histological characterization of all frozen material can be achieved with the possibility to obtain and compare histological and biochemical information from all areas of both hemispheres.
The frame of our brain bank project is the town of Abbiategrasso. Abbiategrasso is a small town about 22 km southwest of the city of Milan, in Northern Italy. It has a population of about 32,600 people. It is home to the Golgi-Cenci (GC) Foundation. GC Foundation is part of a large Rehabilitation Geriatric Hospital (ASP Golgi-Redaelli), and is an institute focusing on research about aging and care of the elderly. Particularly, it focuses on studying mental aging, the social and behavioral factors influencing it, and the biology and pathology underlying age-dependent neurocognitive disorders (NCDs). In 2009, the GC Foundation launched a new longitudinal study with 1321 participants (out of 1644 eligible subjects: initial response rate of 80.3%) born between 1935 and 1939 (aged between 70&#8211;75 years), of Caucasian ethnicity, living in the same small geographic area. The study was called InveCe.Ab (Invecchiamento Cerebrale Abbiategrasso; in English: Brain Aging Abbiategrasso, ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT01345110) and is currently ongoing. InveCe.Ab is planned to obtain a cohort with maximum homogeneity and least variability in order to assess the incidence, prevalence and natural history of dementia, along with its possible risk or protective factors, including behavioral, psychosocial, clinical and biological variables36. The cohort&#8217;s characteristics are shown in Figure 1 and Table 1. The epidemiological data are consistent with the dementia trend in European population37,38 and InveCe.Ab participants have homogeneous genetic and environmental characteristics, representing a good model to study the trajectory from normal aging to neurocognitive disorders. Indeed, homogeneous populations require fewer subjects to reach adequate statistical power. The InveCe.Ab methodology has already been reported elsewhere36 but it is important to underline its multi-dimensional approach through periodic checks (every 2&#8211;3 years) using the same set of evaluations including: blood sampling (metabolic panel, homocysteine and vitamins, DNA extraction to profile Apolipoprotein E (APOE) and other genetic polymorphisms related to cognition and aging), anthropometric measurements (weight, height and waist), Talking While Walking Test (dual task test), an interview to appraise lifestyle (Mediterranean diet adherence, levels of physical activity and cognitive engagement) and social factors (social involvement, loneliness), a neuropsychological evaluation and a clinical general examination. To compare such longitudinal data with postmortem neuropathological data would be crucial for research. Therefore, our team and particularly Dr. Michela Mangieri conceived the neuropathological approach mentioned above. Since 2014 and during the second follow-up, the InveCe.Ab participants were asked to donate their brains, and thus bringing about the birth of the Abbiategrasso Brain Bank (ABB). The core donors of ABB are the InveCe.Ab participants but ABB is now open to other volunteer donors. They are patients from ASP Golgi-Redaelli, home to several patients afflicted with different neurological diseases or adult volunteers who learn about the ABB Project and belong to the same geographic area (Abbiategrasso and surroundings). All donors undergo the same evaluation protocol.
The authors propose a method to track individual trajectories of normal aging and the possible progression to NCDs, and to accurately manage, process and characterize brains acquired from such donors followed longitudinally. Moreover, our aim is to meet and engage individuals in periodic neurological assessments, seminars and educational activities regarding the well-being of the brain and to raise their awareness of brain donation for research purposes.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>50ml polypropilene conical tube 30x115mm</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>405253</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-GFAP</td>
			<td>Dako</td>
			<td>Z0334</td>
			<td>policlonal primary antibody (anti-rabbit); dilution = 1:1000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-NeuN (A60)</td>
			<td>Chemicon</td>
			<td>MAB377</td>
			<td>monoclonal primary antibody (anti-mouse); dilution = 1:1000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-phospho TAU (AT8)</td>
			<td>ThermoScientific</td>
			<td>MN1020</td>
			<td>monoclonal primary antibody (anti-mouse); dilution = 1:200</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-phospho TDP-43 (pS409/410-2)</td>
			<td>CosmoBio</td>
			<td>TIP-PTD-P02</td>
			<td>policlonal primary antibody (anti-rabbit) ; dilution = 1:4000; pretreatment : Three step in microwave for 2 min-1 min-2 min with citrate buffer 0.01M pH 6</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-&#945;-SYN (KM51)</td>
			<td>Novocastra</td>
			<td>NCL-L-ASYN</td>
			<td>monoclonal primary antibody (anti-mouse); dilution = 1:500; pretreatment: 1) Three step in microwave for 2 min-1 min-2 min with citrate buffer 0.01M pH 6 ; 2) 70% formic acid in H2O for 10 min</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-&#946;amyloid (4G8)</td>
			<td>BioLegend</td>
			<td>800703</td>
			<td>monoclonal primary antibody (anti-mouse); dilution = 1:1000; pretreatment : 70% formic acid in H2O for 10 min</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cutting board</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>352070</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM High Glucose</td>
			<td>Carlo Erba</td>
			<td>FA30WL0101500</td>
			<td>medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrical saw with 5d blade</td>
			<td>CEA</td>
			<td>06.06.14/06.00.16</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrode pH measure surface 12mm</td>
			<td>CEA</td>
			<td>70064.250 HHH</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrode pH needle</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>11796338</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EnVision+System-HRP</td>
			<td>Dako</td>
			<td>K4001</td>
			<td>secondary antibody (anti-mouse); dilution 1:2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EnVision+System-HRP</td>
			<td>Dako</td>
			<td>K4003</td>
			<td>secondary antibody (anti-rabbit); dilution 1:2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethylether</td>
			<td>SMI</td>
			<td>8401530</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Feather safety trimming knife blade 14cm</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>11749798</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>Carlo Erba</td>
			<td>FA30WS1810500</td>
			<td>medium supplement; dilution = 20%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Forceps 15cm surgical or anatomical</td>
			<td>Uvex</td>
			<td>500XG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gloves</td>
			<td>CEA</td>
			<td>01.28.14</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glue</td>
			<td>Arcobaleno</td>
			<td>2624000800002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Head supporter</td>
			<td>Lacor</td>
			<td>60456</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-Glutamine (100X)</td>
			<td>Carlo Erba</td>
			<td>FA30WX0550100</td>
			<td>medium supplement; dilution = 1%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Measuring tape</td>
			<td>CEABIS</td>
			<td>CEATA34</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Non adsorbable monofilament black polyamide</td>
			<td>UHU Bostik</td>
			<td>8000053131470</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Non-Essential Amino Acids Solution (100X)</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>11140050</td>
			<td>medium supplement; dilution = 1%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pen/Strept Solution (100X)</td>
			<td>Carlo Erba</td>
			<td>FA30WL0022100</td>
			<td>medium supplement; dilution = 1%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spinal needle quincke tipe point 20GA 3.50IN 0.9x90mm</td>
			<td>CEA</td>
			<td>03.06.16</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile scalpel with n&#176;21 blade</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical basin</td>
			<td>Olcelli Farmaceutica</td>
			<td>A930857255</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical mallet and surgical cisel</td>
			<td>CEA</td>
			<td>79.68.88</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical scissor</td>
			<td>CEA</td>
			<td>27.08.45/79.68.64</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Feather</td>
			<td>M130RC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
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abbiategrasso brain bank protocol for collecting, processing and characterizing aging brains

In a constantly aging population, the prevalence of neurodegenerative disorders is expected to rise. Understanding disease mechanisms is the key to find preventive and curative measures. The most effective way to achieve this is through direct examination of diseased and healthy brain tissue. The authors present a protocol to obtain, process, characterize and store good quality brain tissue donated by individuals registered in an antemortem brain donation program. The donation program includes a face-to-face empathic approach to people, a collection of complementary clinical, biological, social and lifestyle information and serial multi-dimensional assessments over time to track individual trajectories of normal aging and cognitive decline. Since many neurological diseases are asymmetrical, our brain bank offers a unique protocol for slicing fresh specimens. Brain sections of both hemispheres are alternately frozen (at -80 &#176;C) or fixed in formalin; a fixed slice on one hemisphere corresponds to a frozen one on the other hemisphere. With this approach, a complete histological characterization of all frozen material can be obtained, and omics studies can be performed on histologically well-defined tissues from both hemispheres thus offering a more complete assessment of neurodegenerative disease mechanisms. Correct and definite diagnosis of these diseases can only be achieved by combining the clinical syndrome with the neuropathological evaluation, which often adds important etiological clues necessary to interpret the pathogenesis. This method can be time consuming, expensive and limited as it only covers a limited geographical area. Regardless of its limitations, the high degree of characterization it provides can be rewarding. Our ultimate goal is to establish the first Italian Brain Bank, all the while emphasizing the importance of neuropathologically verified epidemiological studies.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Abbiategrasso Brain Bank Protocol for Collecting, Processing and Characterizing Aging Brains at JoVE.com

Abbiategrasso Brain Bank Protocol for Collecting, Processing and Characterizing Aging Brains

This protocol describes a method to track individual brain-aging trajectories through a brain donation program and proper characterization of brains. Brain donors are involved in a long-term longitudinal study including serial multi-dimensional assessments. The protocol contains a detailed description of brain processing and an accurate diagnostic methodology.

In a constantly aging population, the prevalence of neurodegenerative disorders is expected to rise. Understanding disease mechanisms is the key to find ...

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17.0K Views.  Golgi-Cenci Foundation. This protocol describes a method to track individual brain-aging trajectories through a brain donation program and proper characterization of brains. Brain donors are involved in a long-term longitudinal study including serial multi-dimensional assessments. The protocol contains a detailed description of brain processing and an accurate diagnostic methodology.

Video: Abbiategrasso Brain Bank Protocol for Collecting, Processing and Characterizing Aging Brains

Preparation of Oligomeric &beta;-amyloid1-42 and Induction of Synaptic Plasticity Impairment on Hippocampal Slices

Impairment of synaptic connections is likely to underlie the subtle amnesic changes occurring at the early stages of Alzheimer s Disease (AD). &beta;-amyloid (A&beta;), a peptide produced in high amounts in AD, is known to reduce Long-Term Potentiation (LTP), a cellular correlate of learning and memory. Indeed, LTP impairment caused by A&beta; is a useful experimental paradigm for studying synaptic dysfunctions in AD models and for screening drugs capable of mitigating or reverting such synaptic impairments. Studies have shown that A&beta; produces the LTP disruption preferentially via its oligomeric form. Here we provide a detailed protocol for impairing LTP by perfusion of oligomerized synthetic A&beta;1-42 peptide onto acute hippocampal slices. In this video, we outline a step-by-step procedure for the preparation of oligomeric A&beta;1-42. Then, we follow an individual experiment in which LTP is reduced in hippocampal slices exposed to oligomerized A&beta;1-42 compared to slices in a control experiment where no A&beta;1-42 exposure had occurred.

Preparation of Oligomeric &amp;#946;-amyloid1-42 and Induction of Synaptic Plasticity Impairment on Hippocampal Slices

One feature of Alzheimer's Disease is the elevation of A&beta;1-42 peptide. Here we provide a protocol for preparing synthetic A&beta;1-42 oligomers, which impairs hippocampal Long-Term Potentiation, a cellular correlate of memory. This procedure is useful for investigating mechanisms of A&beta;-induced pathology and drug screening.

Impairment of synaptic connections is likely to underlie the subtle amnesic changes occurring at the early stages of Alzheimer s Disease (AD). ...

A Dual Tracer PET-MRI Protocol for the Quantitative Measure of Regional Brain Energy Substrates Uptake in the Rat

We present a method for comparing the uptake of the brain&#39;s two key energy substrates: glucose and ketones (acetoacetate [AcAc] in this case) in the rat. The developed method is a small-animal positron emission tomography (PET) protocol, in which&#160;11C-AcAc and 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) are injected sequentially in each animal. This dual tracer PET acquisition is possible because of the short half-life of 11C (20.4 min). The rats also undergo a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) acquisition seven days before the PET protocol. Prior to image analysis, PET and MRI images are coregistered to allow the measurement of regional cerebral uptake (cortex, hippocampus, striatum, and cerebellum). A quantitative measure of 11C-AcAc and 18F-FDG brain uptake (cerebral metabolic rate; &#956;mol/100 g/min) is determined by kinetic modeling using the image-derived input function (IDIF) method. Our new dual tracer PET protocol is robust and flexible; the two tracers used can be replaced by different radiotracers to evaluate other processes in the brain. Moreover, our protocol is applicable to the study of brain fuel supply in multiple conditions such as normal aging and neurodegenerative pathologies such as Alzheimer&#39;s and Parkinson&#39;s diseases.

Small-animal positron emission tomography enables the assessment of the brain&#39;s two main energy substrates:&#160;glucose and ketones. In the present method, 11C-acetoacetate and 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose are injected sequentially in each animal, and their uptake is measured quantitatively in specific brain regions determined from the magnetic resonance images.

We present a method for comparing the uptake of the brain&#39;s two key energy substrates: glucose and ketones (acetoacetate [AcAc] in this case) in the ...

High-resolution In Vivo Manual Segmentation Protocol for Human Hippocampal Subfields Using 3T Magnetic Resonance Imaging

The human hippocampus has been broadly studied in the context of memory and normal brain function and its role in different neuropsychiatric disorders has been heavily studied. While many imaging studies treat the hippocampus as a single unitary neuroanatomical structure, it is, in fact, composed of several subfields that have a complex three-dimensional geometry. As such, it is known that these subfields perform specialized functions and are differentially affected through the course of different disease states. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging can be used as a powerful tool to interrogate the morphology of the hippocampus and its subfields. Many groups use advanced imaging software and hardware (&#62;3T) to image the subfields; however this type of technology may not be readily available in most research and clinical imaging centers. To address this need, this manuscript provides a detailed step-by-step protocol for segmenting the full anterior-posterior length of the hippocampus and its subfields: cornu ammonis (CA) 1, CA2/CA3, CA4/dentate gyrus (DG), strata radiatum/lacunosum/moleculare (SR/SL/SM), and subiculum. This protocol has been applied to five subjects (3F, 2M; age 29-57, avg. 37). Protocol reliability is assessed by resegmenting either the right or left hippocampus of each subject and computing the overlap using the Dice&#39;s kappa metric. Mean Dice&#39;s kappa (range) across the five subjects are: whole hippocampus, 0.91 (0.90-0.92); CA1, 0.78 (0.77-0.79); CA2/CA3, 0.64 (0.56-0.73); CA4/dentate gyrus, 0.83 (0.81-0.85); strata radiatum/lacunosum/moleculare, 0.71 (0.68-0.73); and subiculum 0.75 (0.72-0.78). The segmentation protocol presented here provides other laboratories with a reliable method to study the hippocampus and hippocampal subfields in vivo using commonly available MR tools.

High-resolution In Vivo Manual Segmentation Protocol for Human Hippocampal Subfields Using 3T Magnetic Resonance Imaging

The goal of this manuscript is to study the hippocampus and hippocampal subfields using MRI. The manuscript describes a protocol for segmenting the hippocampus and five hippocampal substructures: cornu ammonis (CA) 1, CA2/CA3, CA4/dentate gyrus, strata radiatum/lacunosum/moleculare, and subiculum.

The human hippocampus has been broadly studied in the context of memory and normal brain function and its role in different neuropsychiatric disorders has ...

Isolation, Culture and Long-Term Maintenance of Primary Mesencephalic Dopaminergic Neurons From Embryonic Rodent Brains

Degeneration of mesencephalic dopaminergic (mesDA) neurons is the pathological hallmark of Parkinson&#8217;s diseae. Study of the biological processes involved in physiological functions and vulnerability and death of these neurons is imparative to understanding the underlying causes and unraveling the cure for this common neurodegenerative disorder. Primary cultures of mesDA neurons provide a tool for investigation of the molecular, biochemical and electrophysiological properties, in order to understand the development, long-term survival and degeneration of these neurons during the course of disease. Here we present a detailed method for the isolation, culturing and maintenance of midbrain dopaminergic neurons from E12.5 mouse (or E14.5 rat) embryos. Optimized cell culture conditions in this protocol result in presence of axonal and dendritic projections, synaptic connections and other neuronal morphological properties, which make the cultures suitable for study of the physiological, cell biological and molecular characteristics of this neuronal population.

The causes of degeneration of midbrain dopaminergic neurons during Parkinson&#8217;s disease are not fully understood. Cellular culture systems provide an essential tool for study of the neurophysiological properties of these neurons. Here we present an optimized protocol, which can be utilized for in vitro modeling of neurodegeneration.

Degeneration of mesencephalic dopaminergic (mesDA) neurons is the pathological hallmark of Parkinson&#8217;s diseae. Study of the biological processes ...

Foraging Path-length Protocol for Drosophila melanogaster Larvae

The Drosophila melanogaster larval path-length phenotype is an established measure used to study the genetic and environmental contributions to behavioral variation. The larval path-length assay was developed to measure individual differences in foraging behavior that were later linked to the foraging gene. Larval path-length is an easily scored trait that facilitates the collection of large sample sizes, at minimal cost, for genetic screens. Here we provide a detailed description of the current protocol for the larval path-length assay first used by Sokolowski. The protocol details how to reproducibly handle test animals, perform the behavioral assay and analyze the data. An example of how the assay can be used to measure behavioral plasticity in response to environmental change, by manipulating feeding environment prior to performing the assay, is also provided. Finally, appropriate test design as well as environmental factors that can modify larval path-length such as food quality, developmental age and day effects are discussed.

Foraging Path-length Protocol for Drosophila melanogaster Larvae

We provide a detailed protocol for a Drosophila melanogaster foraging path-length assay. We discuss the preparation and handling of test animals, how to perform the assay and analyze the data.

The Drosophila melanogaster larval path-length phenotype is an established measure used to study the genetic and environmental contributions to behavioral ...

A Simple One-step Dissection Protocol for Whole-mount Preparation of Adult Drosophila Brains

There is an increasing interest in using Drosophila to model human brain degenerative diseases, map neuronal circuitries in adult brains, and study the molecular and cellular basis of higher brain functions. A whole-mount preparation of adult brains with well-preserved morphology is critical for such whole brain-based studies, but can be technically challenging and time-consuming. This protocol describes an easy-to-learn, one-step dissection approach of an adult fly head in less than 10 s, while keeping the intact brain attached to the rest of the body to facilitate subsequent processing steps. The procedure helps remove most of the eye and tracheal tissues normally associated with the brain that can interfere with the later imaging step, and also places less demand on the quality of the dissecting forceps. Additionally, we describe a simple method that allows convenient flipping of the mounted brain samples on a coverslip, which is important for imaging both sides of the brains with similar signal intensity and quality. As an example of the protocol, we present an analysis of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in adult brains of WT (w1118) flies. The high efficacy of the dissection method makes it particularly useful for large-scale adult brain-based studies in Drosophila.

A Simple One-step Dissection Protocol for Whole-mount Preparation of Adult Drosophila Brains

The adult Drosophila brain is a valuable system for studying neuronal circuitry, higher brain functions, and complex disorders. An efficient method to dissect whole brain tissue from the small fly head will facilitate brain-based studies. Here we describe a simple, one-step dissection protocol of adult brains with well-preserved morphology.

There is an increasing interest in using Drosophila to model human brain degenerative diseases, map neuronal circuitries in adult brains, and study the ...

Stereotaxic Surgery for Genetic Manipulation in Striatal Cells of Neonatal Mouse Brains

Many genes are expressed in embryonic brains, and some of them are continuously expressed in the brain after birth. For such persistently expressed genes, they may function to regulate the developmental process and/or physiological function in neonatal brains. To investigate neurobiological functions of specific genes in the brain, it is essential to inactivate genes in the brain. Here, we describe a simple stereotaxic method to inactivate gene expression in the striatum of transgenic mice at neonatal time windows. AAV-eGFP-Cre viruses were microinjected into the striatum of Ai14 reporter gene mice at postnatal day (P) 2 by stereotaxic brain surgery. The tdTomato reporter gene expression was detected in P14 striatum, suggesting a successful Cre-loxP mediated DNA recombination in AAV-transduced striatal cells. We further validated this technique by microinjecting AAV-eGFP-Cre viruses into P2Foxp2fl/fl mice. Double labeling of GFP and Foxp2 showed that GFP-positive cells lacked Foxp2 immunoreactivity in P9 striatum, suggesting the loss of Foxp2 protein in AAV-eGFP-Cre transduced striatal cells. Taken together, these results demonstrate an effective genetic deletion by stereotaxically microinjected AAV-eGFP-Cre viruses in specific neuronal populations in the neonatal brains of floxed transgenic mice. In conclusion, our stereotaxic technique provides an easy and simple platform for genetic manipulation in neonatal mouse brains. The technique can not only be used to delete genes in specific regions of neonatal brains, but it also can be used to inject pharmacological drugs, neuronal tracers, genetically modified optogenetics and chemogenetics proteins, neuronal activity indicators and other reagents into the striatum of neonatal mouse brains.

We describe a protocol of stereotaxic surgery with a homemade head-fixed device for microinjecting reagents into the striatum of neonatal mouse brains. This technique allows genetic manipulation in neuronal cells of specific regions of neonatal mouse brains.

Many genes are expressed in embryonic brains, and some of them are continuously expressed in the brain after birth. For such persistently expressed genes, ...

Isolation and RNA Extraction of Neurons, Macrophages and Microglia from Larval Zebrafish Brains

To gain a detailed understanding of the role of different CNS cells during development or the establishment and progression of brain pathologies, it is important to isolate these cells without changing their gene expression profile. The zebrafish model provides a large number of transgenic fish lines in which specific cell types are labelled; for example neurons in the NBT:DsRed line or macrophages/microglia in the mpeg1:eGFP line. Furthermore, antibodies have been developed to stain specific cells, such as microglia with the 4C4 antibody.
Here, we describe the isolation of neurons, macrophages and microglia from larval zebrafish brains. Central to this protocol is the avoidance of an enzymatic tissue digestion at 37 &#176;C, which could modify cellular profiles. Instead a mechanical system of tissue homogenization at 4 &#176;C is used. This protocol entails homogenization of brains into cell suspension, their immuno-staining and the isolation of neurons, macrophages and microglia by FACS. Afterwards, we extracted RNA from those cells and evaluated their quality/quantity. We managed to obtain RNA of high quality (RNA Integrity Number (RIN) &#62; 7) to perform qPCR on macrophages/microglia and neurons, and transcriptomic analysis on microglia. This approach enables a better characterization of these cells, as well as a clearer understanding about their role in development and pathologies.

We present a protocol to isolate neurons, macrophages and microglia from larval zebrafish brains under physiological and pathological conditions. Upon isolation, RNA is extracted from these cells to analyze their gene expression profile. This protocol allows for the collection of high-quality RNA for performing downstream analysis like qPCR and transcriptomics.

To gain a detailed understanding of the role of different CNS cells during development or the establishment and progression of brain pathologies, it is ...

Visualization of Amyloid &#946; Deposits in the Human Brain with Matrix-assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Imaging Mass Spectrometry

The neuropathology of Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) is characterized by the accumulation and aggregation of amyloid &#946; (A&#946;) peptides into extracellular plaques of the brain. The A&#946; peptides, composed of 40 amino acids, are generated from amyloid precursor proteins (APP) by &#946;- and &#947;-secretases. A&#946; is deposited not only in cerebral parenchyma but also in leptomeningeal and cerebral vessel walls, known as cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). While a variety of A&#946; peptides were identified, the detailed production and distribution of individual A&#946; peptides in pathological tissues of AD and CAA have not been fully addressed. Here, we develop a protocol of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-based imaging mass spectrometry (MALDI-IMS) on human autopsy brain tissues to obtain comprehensive protein mapping. For this purpose, human cortical specimens were obtained from the Brain Bank at the Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology. Frozen cryosections are cut and transferred to indium-tin-oxide (ITO)-coated glass slides. Spectra are acquired using the MALDI system with a spatial resolution up to 20 &#181;m. Sinapinic acid (SA) is uniformly deposited on the slide using either an automatic or a manual sprayer. With the current technical advantages of MALDI-IMS, a typical data set of various A&#946; species within the same sections of human autopsied brains can be obtained without specific probes. Furthermore, high-resolution (20 &#181;m) imaging of an AD brain and severe CAA sample clearly shows that A&#946;1-36 to A&#946;1-41 were deposited into leptomeningeal vessels, while A&#946;1-42 and A&#946;1-43 were deposited in cerebral parenchyma as senile plaque (SP). It is feasible to adopt MALDI-IMS as a standard approach in combination with clinical, genetic, and pathological observations in understanding the pathology of AD, CAA, and other neurological diseases based on the current strategy.

Visualization of Amyloid &amp;#946; Deposits in the Human Brain with Matrix-assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Imaging Mass Spectrometry

Molecular imaging with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-based imaging mass spectrometry (MALDI-IMS) allows the simultaneous mapping of multiple analytes in biological samples. Here, we present a protocol for the detection and visualization of amyloid &#946; protein on brain tissues of Alzheimer&#39;s disease and cerebral amyloid angiopathy samples using MALDI-IMS.

The neuropathology of Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) is characterized by the accumulation and aggregation of amyloid &#946; (A&#946;) peptides into ...

A Micro-CT-based Method for Characterizing Lesions and Locating Electrodes in Small Animal Brains

Lesion and electrode location verification are traditionally done via histological examination of stained brain slices, a time-consuming procedure that requires manual estimation. Here, we describe a simple, straightforward method for quantifying lesions and locating electrodes in the brain that is less laborious and yields more detailed results. Whole brains are stained with osmium tetroxide, embedded in resin, and imaged with a micro-CT scanner. The scans result in 3D digital volumes of the brains with resolutions and virtual section thicknesses dependent on the sample size (12&#8211;15 and 5&#8211;6 &#181;m&#160;per voxel for rat and zebra finch brains, respectively). Surface and deep lesions can be characterized, and single tetrodes, tetrode arrays, electrolytic lesions, and silicon probes can also be localized. Free and proprietary software allows experimenters to examine the sample volume from any plane and segment the volume manually or automatically. Because this method generates whole brain volume, lesions and electrodes can be quantified to a much higher degree than in current methods, which will help standardize comparisons within and across studies.

This article describes a straightforward method to prepare small animal brains for micro-CT imaging, in which lesions can be quantified and electrodes located with high precision in the context of the whole brain.

Lesion and electrode location verification are traditionally done via histological examination of stained brain slices, a time-consuming procedure that ...