This work was funded by the United States Department of Defense through the Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs (CDMRP) under contract W81XWH-17-1-0085, and the National Institute of Health R03 EB025903-1. AV was funded by the College of Engineering Dean&#8217;s Fellowship at Northeastern University.

University approvals were obtained for conducting the experiments with dead tissues. Bovine joints were obtained commercially from a slaughterhouse.
1. Cartilage explant extraction
<ol>
	<li>Using a scalpel (#10 blade), cut and remove fat, muscles, ligaments, tendons and all other connective tissue to expose the cartilage from the femoropatellar groove of bovine knee joints.</li>
	<li>Using 3 mm and 6 mm dermal punches, make perpendicular punches into the cartilage to extract cylindrical plu...

<ol>
	<li>Bajpayee, A. G., Grodzinsky, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cartilage-targeting+drug+delivery:+can+electrostatic+interactions+help.">Cartilage-targeting drug delivery: can electrostatic interactions help.</a> Nature Reviews Rheumatology. 13 (3), 183-193 (2017).</li><li>Maroudas, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transport+of+solutes+through+cartilage:+permeability+to+large+molecules.">Transport of solutes through cartilage: permeability to large molecules.</a> Journal of Anatomy. 122, 335-347 (1976).</li><li>Bajpayee, A. G., Wong, C. R., Bawendi, M. G., Frank, E. H., Grodzinsky, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Avidin+as+a+model+for+charge+driven+transport+into+cartilage+and+drug+delivery+for+treating+early+stage+post-traumatic+osteoarthritis.">Avidin as a model for charge driven transport into cartilage and drug delivery for treating early stage post-traumatic osteoarthritis.</a> Biomaterials. 35 (1), 538-549 (2014).</li><li>Vedadghavami, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cartilage+penetrating+cationic+peptide+carriers+for+applications+in+drug+delivery+to+avascular+negatively+charged+tissues.">Cartilage penetrating cationic peptide carriers for applications in drug delivery to avascular negatively charged tissues.</a> Acta Biomaterialia. 93, 258-269 (2019).</li><li>Mehta, S., Akhtar, S., Porter, R. M., &#214;nnerfjord, P., Bajpayee, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interleukin-1+receptor+antagonist+(IL-1Ra)+is+more+effective+in+suppressing+cytokine-induced+catabolism+in+cartilage-synovium+co-culture+than+in+cartilage+monoculture.">Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) is more effective in suppressing cytokine-induced catabolism in cartilage-synovium co-culture than in cartilage monoculture.</a> Arthritis Research &amp; Therapy. 21 (1), 238 (2019).</li><li>Vedadghavami, A., Zhang, C., Bajpayee, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Overcoming+negatively+charged+tissue+barriers:+Drug+delivery+using+cationic+peptides+and+proteins.">Overcoming negatively charged tissue barriers: Drug delivery using cationic peptides and proteins.</a> Nano Today. 34, 100898 (2020).</li><li>Young, C. C., Vedadghavami, A., Bajpayee, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bioelectricity+for+Drug+Delivery:+The+Promise+of+Cationic+Therapeutics.">Bioelectricity for Drug Delivery: The Promise of Cationic Therapeutics.</a> Bioelectricity. , (2020).</li><li>Felson, D. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Osteoarthritis+of+the+knee.">Osteoarthritis of the knee.</a> New England Journal of Medicine. 354 (8), 841-848 (2006).</li><li>Wieland, H. A., Michaelis, M., Kirschbaum, B. J., Rudolphi, K. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Osteoarthritis+-+An+untreatable+disease.">Osteoarthritis - An untreatable disease.</a> Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. 4 (4), 331-344 (2005).</li><li>Martel-Pelletier, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pathophysiology+of+osteoarthritis.">Pathophysiology of osteoarthritis.</a> Osteoarthritis and Cartilage. 7 (4), 371-373 (1999).</li><li>Sophia Fox, A. J., Bedi, A., Rodeo, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+basic+science+of+articular+cartilage:+Structure,+composition,+and+function.">The basic science of articular cartilage: Structure, composition, and function.</a> Sports Health. 1 (6), 461-468 (2009).</li><li>Chevalier, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intraarticular+injection+of+anakinra+in+osteoarthritis+of+the+knee:+A+multicenter,+randomized,+double-blind,+placebo-controlled+study.">Intraarticular injection of anakinra in osteoarthritis of the knee: A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.</a> Arthritis Care and Research. 61 (3), 344-352 (2009).</li><li>Cohen, S. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+randomized,+double-blind+study+of+AMG+108+(a+fully+human+monoclonal+antibody+to+IL-1R1)+in+patients+with+osteoarthritis+of+the+knee.">A randomized, double-blind study of AMG 108 (a fully human monoclonal antibody to IL-1R1) in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee.</a> Arthritis Research and Therapy. 13 (4), 125 (2011).</li><li>Evans, C. H., Kraus, V. B., Setton, L. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Progress+in+intra-articular+therapy.">Progress in intra-articular therapy.</a> Nature Reviews Rheumatology. 10 (1), 11-22 (2014).</li><li>He, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multi-arm+Avidin+nano-construct+for+intra-cartilage+delivery+of+small+molecule+drugs.">Multi-arm Avidin nano-construct for intra-cartilage delivery of small molecule drugs.</a> Journal of Controlled Release. 318, 109-123 (2020).</li><li>Bajpayee, A. G., Scheu, M., Grodzinsky, A. J., Porter, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+rabbit+model+demonstrates+the+influence+of+cartilage+thickness+on+intra-articular+drug+delivery+and+retention+within+cartilage.">A rabbit model demonstrates the influence of cartilage thickness on intra-articular drug delivery and retention within cartilage.</a> Journal of Orthopaedic Research. 33 (5), 660-667 (2015).</li><li>Bajpayee, A. G., Quadir, M. A., Hammond, P. T., Grodzinsky, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Charge+based+intra-cartilage+delivery+of+single+dose+dexamethasone+using+Avidin+nano-carriers+suppresses+cytokine-induced+catabolism+long+term.">Charge based intra-cartilage delivery of single dose dexamethasone using Avidin nano-carriers suppresses cytokine-induced catabolism long term.</a> Osteoarthritis and Cartilage. 24 (1), 71-81 (2016).</li><li>Zhang, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Avidin-biotin+technology+to+synthesize+multi-arm+nano-construct+for+drug+delivery.">Avidin-biotin technology to synthesize multi-arm nano-construct for drug delivery.</a> MethodsX. , 100882 (2020).</li><li>Wagner, E. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Avidin+grafted+dextran+nanostructure+enables+a+month-long+intra-discal+retention.">Avidin grafted dextran nanostructure enables a month-long intra-discal retention.</a> Scientific Reports. 10.1, 1-14 (2020).</li><li>Troeberg, L., Nagase, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Proteases+involved+in+cartilage+matrix+degradation+in+osteoarthritis.">Proteases involved in cartilage matrix degradation in osteoarthritis.</a> Biochimica et Biophysica Acta - Proteins and Proteomics. 1824 (1), 133-145 (2012).</li><li>Kirk, T. B., Wilson, A. S., Stachowiak, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effects+of+dehydration+on+the+surface+morphology+of+articular+cartilage.">The effects of dehydration on the surface morphology of articular cartilage.</a> Journal of Orthopaedic Rheumatology. 6 (2-3), 75-80 (1993).</li><li>Ateshian, G. A., Maas, S., Weiss, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Solute+transport+across+a+contact+interface+in+deformable+porous+media.">Solute transport across a contact interface in deformable porous media.</a> Journal of Biomechanics. 45 (6), 1023-1027 (2012).</li><li>Arbabi, V., Pouran, B., Weinans, H., Zadpoor, A. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiphasic+modeling+of+charged+solute+transport+across+articular+cartilage:+Application+of+multi-zone+finite-bath+model.">Multiphasic modeling of charged solute transport across articular cartilage: Application of multi-zone finite-bath model.</a> Journal of Biomechanics. 49 (9), 1510-1517 (2016).</li><li>Arbabi, V., Pouran, B., Zadpoor, A. A., Weinans, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+experimental+and+finite+element+protocol+to+investigate+the+transport+of+neutral+and+charged+solutes+across+articular+cartilage.">An experimental and finite element protocol to investigate the transport of neutral and charged solutes across articular cartilage.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. 2017 (122), (2017).</li><li>Sampson, S. L., Sylvia, M., Fields, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+dynamic+loading+on+solute+transport+through+the+human+cartilage+endplate.">Effects of dynamic loading on solute transport through the human cartilage endplate.</a> Journal of Biomechanics. 83, 273-279 (2019).</li><li>Bajpayee, A. G., Scheu, M., Grodzinsky, A. J., Porter, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrostatic+interactions+enable+rapid+penetration,+enhanced+uptake+and+retention+of+intra-articular+injected+avidin+in+rat+knee+joints.">Electrostatic interactions enable rapid penetration, enhanced uptake and retention of intra-articular injected avidin in rat knee joints.</a> Journal of Orthopaedic Research : Official Publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society. 32 (8), 1044-1051 (2014).</li><li>Bajpayee, A. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sustained+intra-cartilage+delivery+of+low+dose+dexamethasone+using+a+cationic+carrier+for+treatment+of+post+traumatic+osteoarthritis.">Sustained intra-cartilage delivery of low dose dexamethasone using a cationic carrier for treatment of post traumatic osteoarthritis.</a> European Cells &amp; Materials. 34, 341-364 (2017).</li><li>Malda, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Of+Mice,+Men+and+Elephants:+The+Relation+between+Articular+Cartilage+Thickness+and+Body+Mass.">Of Mice, Men and Elephants: The Relation between Articular Cartilage Thickness and Body Mass.</a> PLoS One. 8 (2), 57683 (2013).</li><li>Frisbie, D. D., Cross, M. W., McIlwraith, C. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comparative+study+of+articular+cartilage+thickness+in+the+stifle+of+animal+species+used+in+human+pre-clinical+studies+compared+to+articular+cartilage+thickness+in+the+human+knee.">A comparative study of articular cartilage thickness in the stifle of animal species used in human pre-clinical studies compared to articular cartilage thickness in the human knee.</a> Veterinary and Comparative Orthopaedics and Traumatology. 19 (3), 142-146 (2006).</li></ol>

The methods and protocols described here are significant to the field of targeted drug delivery to negatively charged tissues. Due to the high density of negatively charged aggrecans present in these tissues, a barrier is created, thus preventing drugs from reaching their cellular target sites which lie deep within the matrix. To address this outstanding challenge, drugs can be modified to incorporate positively charged drug carriers which can enhance the transport rate, uptake and binding of drugs within tissue<sup clas...

Drug-delivery to negatively charged tissues in the body remains a challenge due to the inability of drugs to penetrate deep into the tissue to reach cell and matrix target sites1. Several of these tissues comprise of densely-packed, negatively-charged aggrecans which create a high negative fixed charge density (FCD)2 within the tissue and act as a barrier for the delivery of most macromolecules3,4. However, with the assistance of positively charged drug carriers, this negatively charged tissue barrier can actually be converted into a drug depot via electrostatic charge interactions for sustained drug delivery1,5,6,7(Figure 1).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61340/61340fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Charge based intra-cartilage delivery of CPCs.&#160;Intra-articular injection of CPCs into the knee joint space. Electrostatic interactions between positively charged CPCs and negatively charged aggrecan groups enable rapid and full depth penetration through cartilage. This figure has been modified from Vedadghavami et al4. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61340/61340fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Recently, short-length cationic peptide carriers (CPCs) were designed with the goal of creating small cationic domains capable of carrying larger sized therapeutics for delivery to the negatively charged cartilage4. For effective drug delivery to the cartilage for treating prevalent8,9 and degenerative diseases such as osteoarthritis (OA)10, it is critical that therapeutic concentrations of drugs penetrate deep within the tissue, where a majority of the cartilage cells (chondrocytes) lie11. Although there are several potential disease modifying drugs available, none have gained FDA approval because these are unable to effectively target the cartilage12,13. Therefore, evaluation of the transport properties of drug carriers is necessary for predicting the effectiveness of drugs in inducing a therapeutic response. Here, we have designed three separate experiments that can be utilized for assessing the equilibrium uptake, depth of penetration and non-equilibrium diffusion rate of CPCs4.
To ensure that there is a sufficient drug concentration within the cartilage that can provide an optimal therapeutic response, uptake experiments were designed to quantify equilibrium CPC concentration in cartilage4. In this design, following an equilibrium between the cartilage and its surrounding bath, the total amount of solute inside the cartilage (either bound to the matrix or free) can be determined using an uptake ratio. This ratio is calculated by normalizing the concentration of solutes inside the cartilage to that of the equilibrium bath. In principle, neutral solutes, whose diffusion through the cartilage is not assisted by charge interactions, would have an uptake ratio of less than 1. Conversely, cationic solutes, whose transport is enhanced via electrostatic interactions, show an uptake ratio greater than 1. However, as shown with CPCs, use of an optimal positive charge can result in much higher uptake ratios (greater than 300)4.
Although high drug concentration within the cartilage is important for achieving therapeutic benefit, it is also critical that drugs diffuse through the full thickness of the cartilage. Therefore, studies showing the depth of penetration are required to ensure that drugs reach deep within the cartilage so that the matrix and cellular target sites can be reached, thereby providing a more effective therapy. This experiment was designed to assess the one-way diffusion of solutes through cartilage, simulating diffusion of drugs into cartilage following intra-articular injection in vivo. Fluorescence imaging using confocal microscopy allows for the evaluation of depth of penetration into cartilage. Net particle charge plays a key role in moderating how deep drugs can diffuse through the matrix. An optimal net charge based on a tissue FCD is required to allow for weak-reversible binding interactions between cationic particles and the anionic tissue matrix. This implies that any interaction is weak enough so that particles can disassociate from the matrix but reversible in nature so that it can bind to another matrix binding site deeper within the tissue4. Conversely, excessive positive net charge of a particle can be detrimental towards diffusion, as too strong matrix binding prevents detachment of particles from the initial binding site in the superficial zone of cartilage. This would result in an insufficient biological response as a majority of the target sites lie deep within the tissue11.
To further quantify the strength of the binding interactions, analysis of drug diffusion rates through cartilage is advantageous. Non-equilibrium diffusion studies allow for the comparison of real-time diffusion rates between different solutes. As drugs diffuse through the superficial, middle and deep zones of cartilage, the presence of binding interactions can greatly alter diffusion rates. When binding interactions are present between drugs and the cartilage matrix, it is defined as the effective diffusivity (DEFF). In this case, once all binding sites have been occupied, the diffusion rate of drugs is governed by the steady-state diffusion (DSS). Comparison between the DEFF of different solute determines the relative binding strength of solutes with the matrix. For a given solute, if the DEFF and DSS are within the same order of magnitude, it implies that there is minimal binding present between the drug and matrix during diffusion. However, if DEFF is greater than DSS, substantial binding of particles to matrix exists.
The designed experiments individually allow for the characterization of solute transport through the cartilage, however, a holistic analysis inclusive of all results is required for designing an optimally charged drug carrier. The weak and reversible nature of charge interactions controls particle diffusion rate and allows for high equilibrium uptake and rapid full depth penetration through cartilage. Through equilibrium uptake experiments, we should look for carriers that show high uptake as a result of charge interactions which can be verified using non-equilibrium diffusion rate studies. However, these binding interactions should be weak and reversible in nature to allow for full-thickness penetration of the solute through cartilage. An ideal drug carrier would possess an optimal charge which enables strong enough binding for uptake and high intra-cartilage drug concentrations, but not too strong as to impede full-thickness diffusion4. The presented experiments will assist in the design characteristics for charge-based tissue targeting drug carriers. These protocols were used for characterizing CPC transport through cartilage4, however, these can also be applied to a variety of drugs and drug carriers through cartilage and other negatively charged tissues.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>316 Stainless Steel SAE Washer</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>91950A044</td>
			<td>For number 5 screw size, 0.14&#34; ID, 0.312&#34; OD</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>96-Well Polystyrene Plate</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>12566620</td>
			<td>Black</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acrylic Thick Gauge Sheet</td>
			<td>Reynolds Polymer</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>For non-equilibrium diffusion and 1-D diffusion transport chamber</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antibiotic-Antimycotic</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15240062</td>
			<td>100x</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine Cartilage</td>
			<td>Research 87</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>2-3 weeks old, femoropatellar groove</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine Serum Albumin</td>
			<td>Fisher BioReagents</td>
			<td>BP671-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CPC+14</td>
			<td>LifeTein</td>
			<td>LT1524</td>
			<td>Custom designed peptide</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CPC+20</td>
			<td>LifeTein</td>
			<td>LT1525</td>
			<td>Custom designed peptide</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CPC+8</td>
			<td>LifeTein</td>
			<td>LT1523</td>
			<td>Custom designed peptide</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Delicate Task Wipers</td>
			<td>Kimberly-Clark Professional</td>
			<td>34155</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dermal Punch</td>
			<td>MedBlades</td>
			<td>MB5-1</td>
			<td>3, 4 and 6 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Economy Plain Glass Microscope Slides</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>12550A3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flat Bottom Cell Culture Plates</td>
			<td>Corning Costar</td>
			<td>3595</td>
			<td>Clear, 96 well</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flexible Wrapping Film</td>
			<td>Bemis Parafilm M Laboratory</td>
			<td>1337412</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gold Seal Cover Glass</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>6378701</td>
			<td># 1.5, 18x18 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hammer-Driven Hole Punch</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>3427A15</td>
			<td>1/2&#34; Diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hammer-Driven Hole Punch</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>3427A19</td>
			<td>3/4&#34; Diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laser</td>
			<td>Chroma Technology</td>
			<td>AT480/30m</td>
			<td>Spectrophotometer Laser Light</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Low-Strength Steel Hex Nut</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>90480A007</td>
			<td>6-32 Thread size</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LSM 700 Confocal Microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>LSM 700</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro Magnetic Stirring Bars</td>
			<td>Bel-Art Spinbar</td>
			<td>F37119-0007</td>
			<td>7x2 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Multipurpose Neoprene Rubber Sheet</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>1370N12</td>
			<td>1/32&#34; Thickness</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Non-Fat Dried Bovine Milk</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>M7409</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri Dish</td>
			<td>Chemglass Life Sciences</td>
			<td>CGN1802145</td>
			<td>150 mm diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate-Buffered Saline</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>21-040-CMR</td>
			<td>1x</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plate Shaker</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89032-088</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protease Inhibitors</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>A32953</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Razor Blades</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>12640</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>R-Cast Acrylic Thin Gauge Sheet</td>
			<td>Reynolds Polymer</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Black transport chamber inserts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RTV Silicone</td>
			<td>Loctite</td>
			<td>234323</td>
			<td>Epoxy, Non-corrosive, clear</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel</td>
			<td>TedPella</td>
			<td>549-3</td>
			<td>#10, #11 blades</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Signal Receiver</td>
			<td>Chroma Technology</td>
			<td>ET515lp</td>
			<td>Spectrophotometer Laser Signal Receiver</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Snap-Cap Microcentrifuge Tubes</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>22363204</td>
			<td>1.5 mL</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Spatula</td>
			<td>TedPella</td>
			<td>13508</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Synergy H1 Microplate Reader</td>
			<td>Biotek</td>
			<td>H1M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zinc-Plated Alloy Steel Socket Head Screw</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>90128A153</td>
			<td>6-32 Thread size, 1&#34; Long</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

characterization of intra-cartilage transport properties of cationic peptide carriers

Several negatively charged tissues in the body, like cartilage, present a barrier to the targeted drug delivery due to their high density of negatively charged aggrecans and, therefore, require improved targeting methods to increase their therapeutic response. Because cartilage has a high negative fixed charge density, drugs can be modified with positively charged drug carriers to take advantage of electrostatic interactions, allowing for enhanced intra-cartilage drug transport. Studying the transport of drug carriers is, therefore, crucial towards predicting the efficacy of drugs in inducing a biological response. We show the design of three experiments which can quantify the equilibrium uptake, depth of penetration and non-equilibrium diffusion rate of cationic peptide carriers in cartilage explants. Equilibrium uptake experiments provide a measure of the solute concentration within the cartilage compared to its surrounding bath, which is useful for predicting the potential of a drug carrier in enhancing therapeutic concentration of drugs in cartilage. Depth of penetration studies using confocal microscopy allow for the visual representation of 1D solute diffusion from the superficial to deep zone of cartilage, which is important for assessing whether solutes reach their matrix and cellular target sites. Non-equilibrium diffusion rate studies using a custom-designed transport chamber enables the measurement of the strength of binding interactions with the tissue matrix by characterizing the diffusion rates of fluorescently labeled solutes across the tissue; this is beneficial for designing carriers of optimal binding strength with cartilage. Together, the results obtained from the three transport experiments provide a guideline for designing optimally charged drug carriers which take advantage of weak and reversible charge interactions for drug delivery applications. These experimental methods can also be applied to evaluate the transport of drugs and drug-drug carrier conjugates. Further, these methods can be adapted for the use in targeting other negatively charged tissues such as meniscus, cornea and the vitreous humor.

Following equilibrium absorption of CPCs by cartilage, the bath fluorescence decreases when the solute has been uptaken by the tissue. However, if the fluorescence value of the final bath remains similar to the initial, it indicates that there is no/minimal solute uptake. Another confirmation of solute uptake is if the tissue has visibly changed color to the color of the fluorescent dye. The quantitative uptake of solutes in cartilage was determined using the uptake ratio (RU) after the fluorescence values wer...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Characterization of Intra-Cartilage Transport Properties of Cationic Peptide Carriers at JoVE.com

Characterization of Intra-Cartilage Transport Properties of Cationic Peptide Carriers

This protocol determines equilibrium uptake, depth of penetration and non-equilibrium diffusion rate for cationic peptide carriers in cartilage. Characterization of transport properties is critical for ensuring an effective biological response. These methods can be applied for designing an optimally charged drug carriers for targeting negatively charged tissues.

Several negatively charged tissues in the body, like cartilage, present a barrier to the targeted drug delivery due to their high density of negatively ...

Characterizing the transport properties of therapeutics and their carriers is critical for ensuring effective biological responses. These methods aid in designing optimally charged drug carriers for targeting negatively charged tissues. The main advantage of these techniques is their ability to better predict in vivo therapeutic efficacies through a series of in vitro experiments that characterize solute transport through tissue.Cartilage diseases, such as osteoarthritis, remain untreated due to the inability of drugs to penetrate the dense avascular cartilage matrix, requiring drug carriers to prologue therapeutic efficacy. Begin by using a delicate task wipe to gently remove excess PBS from the surfaces of three millimeter diameter, one millimeter thick cartilage explants. Use a balance to quickly record the wet weight of each explant and immediately place the explants into a PBS bath to prevent dehydration.Next, add 300 microliters of freshly prepared, 30 micromolar fluorescently labeled cationic peptide carrier solution per well to the inner wells of a 96-well plate and use a spatula to add one explant to each well of solution. Fill each of the surrounding wells with 300 microliters of PBS and cover the plate with a lid. Seal the edges of the plate with flexible film to minimize evaporation and place the plate on a shaker in a 37 degree Celsius incubator for 24 hours at 50 revolutions per minute, with a 15 millimeter orbit.At the end of the incubation, transfer the equilibrium bath from each well into individual polypropylene tubes and make serial dilutions from the stock 30 micromolar cationic peptide carrier solution to generate a standard curve. Then, transfer 200 microliters of each solution and standard into individual wells of a black 96-well plate and obtain fluorescence readings of each sample and standard based on the excitation and emission wavelengths of the fluorescent label. To determine the depth of cationic peptide carrier penetration within a cartilage explant, use a scalpel to cut six millimeter diameter, one millimeter thick cartilage explants in half and hydrate the resulting half-disc pieces with proteus inhibitor supplemented PBS.Apply epoxy to the center of a well of a custom-designed one-dimensional transport chamber and secure one half-disk explant within the well with the superficial side of the explant facing the upstream side of the chamber. Remove any excess glue from the well to prevent contact with the diffusion surface area of the cartilage and add 80 microliters of protease inhibitor supplemented PBS to both sides of the explant. Pipette the liquid up and down on one side of the explant to check for leakage to the other side.If no leakage is present, replace the protease inhibitor supplemented PBS from the upstream side with 80 microliters of 30 micromolar fluorescence labeled cationic peptide carrier solution and carefully place the transport chamber into a cell culture dish. Cover the base of the dish with PBS to avoid cationic peptide carrier solution evaporation. Taking care that there is no direct contact between the solutions from the upstream and downstream chambers.Place the covered dish on a shaker to limit particle sedimentation for four or 24 hours at room temperature and 50 revolutions per minute, with a 15 millimeter orbit. At the end of the incubation, remove the explants from the chamber and cut approximately 100 micron thick slices from the center of each explant. Place each slice of explant between a glass slide and a cover slip and hydrate the slices with fresh protease inhibitor supplemented PBS.Fix the slide onto the stage of a confocal microscope and obtain a Z-stack of fluorescent images through the full thickness of the slice at 10X magnification. Open the image file and image J, click Image, and select Stacks and Z Project from the dropdown menu. Then, input the slice numbers from one to the final slice and under Projection Type, select average intensity and click Okay.To assess the non-equilibrium cationic peptide carrier cartilage diffusion rate, assemble each half of the transport chamber, to include one large rubber gasket, one polymethylmethacrylate insert, and one small rubber gasket. Measure the thickness of a cartilage explant, then place the explant in the wells of the plastic insert with the superficial surface facing the upstream chamber and sandwich the two halves together to complete the assembly. Use a wrench to tightly screw the halves together before filling the upstream chamber with two milliliters of protease inhibitor supplemented PBS.Check the downstream chamber for leakage from the upstream chamber. If no leakage is detected, fill the downstream chamber with two milliliters of protease inhibitor supplemented PBS. Add a single mini stir bar to both the up and downstream chambers and place the chamber on a stir plate with the chamber aligned such that the laser from the spectrophotometer is focused towards the center of the downstream chamber.With the signal receiver portion of the spectrophotometer behind the downstream chamber, collect stable, realtime downstream fluorescence emission readings for at least five minutes. After obtaining a stable reading, add a pre-calculated volume of fluorescently labeled cationic peptide carrier stock solution to the upstream chamber to a final bath concentration of three micromolar, and monitor the downstream fluorescent signal while allowing the solute transport to reach a steady increase in slope. Once a steady state has been reached, transfer 20 microliters of solution from the upstream chamber to the downstream chamber for a spike test and collect the real-time downstream fluorescence readings.Too high a positive charge will limit solute penetration to the superficial zone as the carrier binds too strongly to the negatively charged aggrecan groups of the cartilage matrix. Conversely, carriers that are able to take advantage of weak and reversible charge interactions penetrate through the deep zone of tissue. An optimally charged drug carrier, however, would not only penetrate the deep zones of tissue, but would also demonstrate a high intra-tissue uptake, which can be determined using the fluorescence measurements of the equilibrium bath and tissue wet weight, as shown.Non-equilibrium diffusion transport experiments result in a data generated curve with a gradually increasing slope. The initial part of the curve represents solute diffusion through the cartilage as solute matrix binding interactions occur. Once solutes reach the downstream chamber, the slope of the curve increases as the fluorescence readings increase over time.This second part of the curve then reaches a steady slope, representing steady state diffusion. The X-intercept of a tangential line drawn at the steady state portion of the curve indicates the time it takes to reach steady state diffusion or tau lag. Following solution transfer from the upstream to the downstream chamber, a spike in fluorescence is observed, at which point the stabilized fluorescence intensity can be used to correlate the fluorescence to the concentration.The representative effective diffusivity and steady state diffusion values can then be calculated, as indicated. Note that the steady state diffusivity is two orders of magnitude higher than the effective diffusivity as a result of all of the charge-based binding sites being occupied. Thus, at this point, diffusion is based on size and not charge, resulting in similar steady state diffusion values among CPCs of same size.Maintain explant hydration and minimize solution evaporation throughout the experiment to prevent changes in the cartilage morphology and the solution concentration, respectively, and to ensure accurate and reproducible data acquisition. Following the design of an optimally charged drug carrier, various conjugation techniques can be utilized to modify drugs for enhanced tissue targeting and to facilitate evaluation of their biological efficacy.

characterization-intra-cartilage-transport-properties-cationic

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

7.4K Views.  Northeastern University. Characterizing the transport properties of therapeutics and their carriers is critical for ensuring effective biological responses. These methods aid in designing optimally charged drug carriers for targeting negatively charged tissues. The main advantage of these techniques is their ability to better predict in vivo therapeutic efficacies through a series of in vitro experiments that characterize solute transport through tissue.Cartilage diseases, such as osteoarthritis, remain untrea...

Video: Characterization of Intra-Cartilage Transport Properties of Cationic Peptide Carriers

This protocol determines equilibrium uptake, depth of penetration and non-equilibrium diffusion rate for cationic peptide carriers in cartilage. Characterization of transport properties is critical for ensuring an effective biological response. These methods can be applied for designing an optimally charged drug carriers for targeting negatively charged...

preparation and characterization of cationic nanoemulsion&#45;encapsulated retinoic acid

Preparation and Characterization of Cationic Nanoemulsion&#45;Encapsulated Retinoic Acid

phase diagram characterization using magnetic beads as liquid carriers

Phase Diagram Characterization Using Magnetic Beads as Liquid Carriers

Here, we present a protocol to investigate multi-component phase diagrams using externally controlled magnetic beads as liquid carriers in a lab-in-tube approach. This approach can aid in applications that seek to gather further information on phase change in complex liquid...

split-and-pool synthesis and characterization of peptide tertiary amide library

Split-and-pool Synthesis and Characterization of Peptide Tertiary Amide Library

Peptide tertiary amides (PTAs) are a superfamily of peptidomimetics that include but are not limited to peptides, peptoids and N-methylated peptides. Here we describe a synthetic method which combines&#160;both split-and-pool and sub-monomer strategies to synthesize a one-bead one-compound library of...

cationic nanoemulsion-encapsulated retinoic acid as an adjuvant to promote ova&#45;specific systemic and mucosal responses

Author Spotlight: Development and Evaluation of a Cationic Nanoemulsion&amp;#45;Encapsulated Retinoic Acid System for Mucosal Vaccination

In this protocol, we developed a cationic nanoemulsion-encapsulated retinoic acid (RA) to be used as an adjuvant to promote antigen-specific systemic and mucosal responses. By adding the FDA-approved RA to the nanoemulsion, antigen-specific sIgA was promoted in the vagina and small intestine after intramuscular injection of the...

Evaluating Immunogenicity of Nanoemulsion&amp;#45;Encapsulated Retinoic Acid in Mice

https://cloudfront.jove.com/CDNSource/teasers/66270_b.jpg

peptide-derived method to transport genes and proteins across cellular and organellar barriers in plants

Peptide-derived Method to Transport Genes and Proteins Across Cellular and Organellar Barriers in Plants

Existing methods for the modification of plants have limited applicability. The novel peptide-derived technology proposed here promises both simplicity and efficiency in the introduction of exogenous protein or genes into the desired intracellular compartments of intact...

an experimental and finite element protocol to investigate the transport of neutral and charged solutes across articular cartilage

An Experimental and Finite Element Protocol to Investigate the Transport of Neutral and Charged Solutes across Articular Cartilage

We propose a protocol to investigate the transport of charged and uncharged molecules across articular cartilage with the aid of recently developed experimental and numerical methods.

a non-invasive method for generating the cyclic loading-induced intra-articular cartilage lesion model of the rat knee

A Non-Invasive Method for Generating the Cyclic Loading-Induced Intra-Articular Cartilage Lesion Model of the Rat Knee

Here, we present the cyclic loading-induced intra-articular cartilage lesion model of the rat knee, generated by 60 cyclic compressions over 20 N, resulting in damage to the femoral condylar cartilage in...

isolation and characterization of neutrophils with anti-tumor properties

Isolation and Characterization of Neutrophils with Anti-Tumor Properties

Neutrophils play an important role not only in host defense against invading microorganisms, but are also involved in the immune surveillance of tumor cells. Here, we describe techniques related to the isolation of neutrophils with anti-tumor properties and methods for monitoring anti-tumor neutrophil function in vitro and in vivo.

characterization of thermal transport in one-dimensional solid materials

Characterization of Thermal Transport in One-dimensional Solid Materials

The TET (transient electro-thermal) technique is an effective approach developed to measure the thermal diffusivity of solid...

synthesis and characterization of fe-doped aluminosilicate nanotubes with enhanced electron conductive properties

Synthesis and Characterization of Fe-doped Aluminosilicate Nanotubes with Enhanced Electron Conductive Properties

Here, we present a protocol to synthesize and characterize Fe-doped aluminosilicate nanotubes. The materials are obtained by either sol-gel synthesis upon addition of FeCl3&#8226;6H2O to the mixture containing the Si and Al precursors or by post-synthesis ionic exchange of preformed aluminosilicate...

fabrication and characterization of layer-by-layer janus base nano-matrix to promote cartilage regeneration

Fabrication and Characterization of Layer-By-Layer Janus Base Nano-Matrix to Promote Cartilage Regeneration

This protocol describes the assembly of a layer-by-layer Janus base nano-matrix (JBNm) scaffold by adding Janus base nanotubes (JBNts), matrilin-3, and Transforming Growth Factor Beta-1 (TGF-&#946;1) sequentially. The JBNm was fabricated and characterized; additionally, it displayed excellent bioactivity, encouraging cell functions such as adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation.

biochemical and structural characterization of the carbohydrate transport substrate-binding-protein sp0092

Biochemical and Structural Characterization of the Carbohydrate Transport Substrate-binding-protein SP0092

A streamlined protocol for performing an extensive biochemical and structural characterization of a carbohydrate substrate binding protein from Streptococcus pneumoniae is...

transport properties of ibuprofen encapsulated in cyclodextrin nanosponge hydrogels: a proton hr-mas nmr spectroscopy study

Transport Properties of Ibuprofen Encapsulated in Cyclodextrin Nanosponge Hydrogels: A Proton HR-MAS NMR Spectroscopy Study

The motion regimes of ibuprofen encapsulated in &#946;-cyclodextrin nanosponges polymer network are investigated using pulsed-field-gradient spin-echo (PGSE) NMR technique. Synthesis, purification, drug loading, implementation of the NMR pulse sequence and data analysis to work out the mean square displacement of the drug at several observation times are described in...

in vitro characterization of the electrophysiological properties of colonic afferent fibers in rats

In Vitro Characterization of the Electrophysiological Properties of Colonic Afferent Fibers in Rats

Abnormal sensory function underlies visceral pain and other symptoms of functional and inflammatory bowel diseases. A protocol for the electrophysiological recording of the colonic afferent nerves in an ex vivo rat colorectum preparation is presented...

In Vitro Characterization of the Electrophysiological Properties of Colonic Afferent Fibers in Rats

delivery of therapeutic sirna to the cns using cationic and anionic liposomes

Delivery of Therapeutic siRNA to the CNS Using Cationic and Anionic Liposomes

The goal of this protocol is to use cationic/anionic liposomes with a neuro-targeting peptide as a CNS delivery system to enable siRNA to cross the BBB.  The optimization of a delivery system for treatments, like siRNA, would allow for more treatment options for prion and other neurodegenerative diseases.

an inverse analysis approach to the characterization of chemical transport in paints

An Inverse Analysis Approach to the Characterization of Chemical Transport in Paints

In this paper, a procedure for quantifying the mass transport parameters of chemicals in various materials is presented.  This process involves employing an inverse-analysis based diffusion model to vapor emission profiles recorded by real-time, mass spectrometry in high...

fabrication and characterization of colorectal cancer organoids from sw1222 cell line in ultrashort self&#45;assembling peptide matrix

Author Spotlight: Optimization of Ultrashort Peptide Matrices for Colorectal Cancer Organoids

This protocol aims to evaluate biofunctional self-assembling peptides for cell adhesion, organoid morphology, and gene expression by immunostaining. We will use a colorectal cancer cell line to provide a cost-effective way of obtaining organoids for intensive...

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synthesis of decellularized cartilage extracellular matrix hydrogels

Synthesis of Decellularized Cartilage Extracellular Matrix Hydrogels

This paper introduces a new method for the synthesis of decellularized cartilage extracellular matrix (DC-ECM) hydrogels. DC-ECM hydrogels have excellent biocompatibility and provide a superior microenvironment for cell growth. Therefore, they can be ideal cell scaffolds and biological delivery...

quantitative characterization of liquid photosensitive bioink properties for continuous digital light processing based printing

Author Spotlight: Quantitative Characterization of Liquid Photosensitive Bioink Properties for Continuous Digital Light Processing Based Printing  

This study uses temperature and material composition to control the yield stress properties of yield stress fluids. The solid-like state of the ink can protect the printing structure, and the liquid-like state can continuously fill the printing position, realizing the digital light processing 3D printing of extremely soft...

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Novel Atomic Force Microscopy Based Biopanning for Isolation of Morphology Specific Reagents against TDP-43 Variants in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Because protein variants play critical roles in many diseases including TDP-43 in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), alpha-synuclein in Parkinson&#8217;s disease and beta-amyloid and tau in Alzheimer&#8217;s disease, it is critically important to develop morphology specific reagents that can selectively target these disease-specific protein variants to study the role of these variants in disease pathology and for potential diagnostic and therapeutic applications. We have developed novel atomic force microscopy (AFM) based biopanning techniques that enable isolation of reagents that selectively recognize disease-specific protein variants. There are two key phases involved in the process, the negative and positive panning phases. During the negative panning phase, phages that are reactive to off-target antigens are eliminated through multiple rounds of subtractive panning utilizing a series of carefully selected off-target antigens. A key feature in the negative panning phase is utilizing AFM imaging to monitor the process and confirm that all undesired phage particles are removed. For the positive panning phase, the target antigen of interest is fixed on a mica surface and bound phages are eluted and screened to identify phages that selectively bind the target antigen. The target protein variant does not need to be purified providing the appropriate negative panning controls have been used. Even target protein variants that are only present at very low concentrations in complex biological material can be utilized in the positive panning step. Through application of this technology, we acquired antibodies to protein variants of TDP-43 that are selectively found in human ALS brain tissue. We expect that this protocol should be applicable to generating reagents that selectively bind protein variants present in a wide variety of different biological processes and diseases.

Using atomic force microscopy in combination with biopanning technology we created a negative and positive biopanning system to acquire antibodies against disease-specific protein variants present in any biological material, even at low concentrations. We were successful in obtaining antibodies to TDP-43 protein variants involved in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis.

Because protein variants play critical roles in many diseases including TDP-43 in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), alpha-synuclein in ...

In Situ Mapping of the Mechanical Properties of Biofilms by Particle-tracking Microrheology

Bacterial cells are able to form surface-attached biofilm communities known as biofilms by encasing themselves in extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). The EPS serves as a physical and protective scaffold that houses the bacterial cells and consists of a variety of materials that includes proteins, exopolysaccharides and DNA. The composition of the EPS may change, which remodels the mechanic properties of the biofilm to further develop or support alternative biofilm structures, such as streamers, as a response to environmental cues. Despite this, there are little quantitative descriptions on how EPS components contribute to the mechanical properties and function of biofilms. Rheology, the study of the flow of matter, is of particular relevance to biofilms as many biofilms grow in flow conditions and are constantly exposed to shear stress. It also provides measurement and insight on the spreading of the biofilm on a surface. Here, particle-tracking microrheology is used to examine the viscoelasticity and effective crosslinking roles of different matrix components in various parts of the biofilm during development. This approach allows researchers to measure mechanic properties of biofilms at the micro-scale, which might provide useful information for controlling and engineering biofilms.

In Situ Mapping of the Mechanical Properties of Biofilms by Particle-tracking Microrheology

Particle-tracking microrheology investigates the viscoelasticity of materials. Here, the technique is used to determine the viscoelasticity, creep compliance and effective crosslinking roles of different matrix components of a bacterial biofilm. The matrix consists of polymeric substances secreted by the bacteria and its components determine biofilm structure and mechanical properties.

Bacterial cells are able to form surface-attached biofilm communities known as biofilms by encasing themselves in extracellular polymeric substances ...

The chemical cross-linking of &#946;-cyclodextrin (&#946;-CD) with ethylenediaminetetraacetic dianhydride (EDTA) led to branched polymers referred to as cyclodextrin nanosponges (CDNSEDTA). Two different preparations are described with 1:4 and 1:8 CD-EDTA molar ratios. The corresponding cross-linked polymers were contacted with 0.27 M aqueous solution of ibuprofen sodium salt (IP) leading to homogeneous, colorless, drug loaded hydrogels.
The systems were characterized by high resolution magic angle spinning (HR-MAS) NMR spectroscopy. Pulsed field gradient spin echo (PGSE) NMR spectroscopy was used to determine the mean square displacement (MSD) of IP inside the polymeric gel at different observation times td. The data were further processed in order to study the time dependence of MSD: MSD = f(td). The proposed methodology is useful to characterize the different diffusion regimes that, in principle, the solute may experience inside the hydrogel, namely normal or anomalous diffusion. The full protocols including the polymer preparation and purification, the obtainment of drug-loaded hydrogels, the NMR sample preparation, the measurement of MSD by HR-MAS NMR spectroscopy and the final data processing to achieve the time dependence of MSD are here reported and discussed. The presented experiments represent a paradigmatic case and the data are discussed in terms of innovative approach to the characterization of the transport properties of an encapsulated guest within a polymeric host of potential application for drug delivery.

The motion regimes of ibuprofen encapsulated in &#946;-cyclodextrin nanosponges polymer network are investigated using pulsed-field-gradient spin-echo (PGSE) NMR technique. Synthesis, purification, drug loading, implementation of the NMR pulse sequence and data analysis to work out the mean square displacement of the drug at several observation times are described in detail.

The chemical cross-linking of &#946;-cyclodextrin (&#946;-CD) with ethylenediaminetetraacetic dianhydride (EDTA) led to branched polymers referred to as ...

Prion diseases result from the misfolding of the normal, cellular prion protein (PrPC) to an abnormal protease resistant isomer called PrPRes. The emergence of prion diseases in wildlife populations and their increasing threat to human health has led to increased efforts to find a treatment for these diseases. Recent studies have found numerous anti-prion compounds that can either inhibit the infectious PrPRes isomer or down regulate the normal cellular prion protein. However, most of these compounds do not cross the blood brain barrier to effectively inhibit PrPRes formation in brain tissue, do not specifically target neuronal PrPC, and are often too toxic to use in animal or human subjects. 
We investigated whether siRNA delivered intravascularly and targeted towards neuronal PrPC is a safer and more effective anti-prion compound. This report outlines a protocol to produce two siRNA liposomal delivery vehicles, and to package and deliver PrP siRNA to neuronal cells. The two liposomal delivery vehicles are 1) complexed-siRNA liposome formulation using cationic liposomes (LSPCs), and 2) encapsulated-siRNA liposome formulation using cationic or anionic liposomes (PALETS). For the LSPCs, negatively charged siRNA is electrostatically bound to the cationic liposome. A positively charged peptide (RVG-9r [rabies virus glycoprotein]) is added to the complex, which specifically targets the liposome-siRNA-peptide complexes (LSPCs) across the blood brain barrier (BBB) to acetylcholine expressing neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). For the PALETS (peptide addressed liposome encapsulated therapeutic siRNA), the cationic and anionic lipids were rehydrated by the PrP siRNA. This procedure results in encapsulation of the siRNA within the cationic or anionic liposomes. Again, the RVG-9r neuropeptide was bound to the liposomes to target the siRNA/liposome complexes to the CNS. Using these formulations, we have successfully delivered PrP siRNA to AchR-expressing neurons, and decreased the PrPC expression of neurons in the CNS.

The goal of this protocol is to use cationic/anionic liposomes with a neuro-targeting peptide as a CNS delivery system to enable siRNA to cross the BBB. The optimization of a delivery system for treatments, like siRNA, would allow for more treatment options for prion and other neurodegenerative diseases.

Prion diseases result from the misfolding of the normal, cellular prion protein (PrPC) to an abnormal protease resistant isomer called PrPRes.  The ...

Synthesis of Monocyte-targeting Peptide Amphiphile Micelles for Imaging of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a major contributor to cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of death worldwide, which claims 17.3 million lives annually. Atherosclerosis is also the leading cause of sudden death and myocardial infarction, instigated by unstable plaques that rupture and occlude the blood vessel without warning. Current imaging modalities cannot differentiate between stable and unstable plaques that rupture. Peptide amphiphiles micelles (PAMs) can overcome this drawback as they can be modified with a variety of targeting moieties that bind specifically to diseased tissue. Monocytes have been shown to be early markers of atherosclerosis, while large accumulation of monocytes is associated with plaques prone to rupture. Hence, nanoparticles that can target monocytes can be used to discriminate different stages of atherosclerosis. To that end, here, we describe a protocol for the preparation of monocyte-targeting PAMs (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) PAMs). MCP-1 PAMs are self-assembled through synthesis under mild conditions to form nanoparticles of 15 nm in diameter with near neutral surface charge. In vitro, PAMs were found to be biocompatible and had a high binding affinity for monocytes. The methods described herein show promise for a wide range of applications in atherosclerosis as well as other inflammatory diseases.

This paper presents a method involving the synthesis and characterization of monocyte-targeting peptide amphiphile micelles and the corresponding assays to test for biocompatibility and ability of the micelle to bind to monocytes.

Atherosclerosis is a major contributor to cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of death worldwide, which claims 17.3 million lives annually. ...

Generation of Cationic Nanoliposomes for the Efficient Delivery of In Vitro Transcribed Messenger RNA

The development of messenger RNA (mRNA)-based therapeutics for the treatment of various diseases becomes more and more important because of the positive properties of in vitro transcribed (IVT) mRNA. With the help of IVT mRNA, the de novo synthesis of a desired protein can be induced without changing the physiological state of the target cell. Moreover, protein biosynthesis can be precisely controlled due to the transient effect of IVT mRNA.
For the efficient transfection of cells, nanoliposomes (NLps) may represent a safe and efficient delivery vehicle for therapeutic mRNA. This study describes a protocol to generate safe and efficient cationic NLps consisting of DC-cholesterol and 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DOPE) as a delivery vector for IVT mRNA. NLps having a defined size, a homogeneous distribution, and a high complexation capacity, and can be produced using the dry-film method. Moreover, we present different test systems to analyze their complexation and transfection efficacies using synthetic enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) mRNA, as well as their effect on cell viability. Overall, the presented protocol provides an effective and safe approach for mRNA complexation, which may advance and improve the administration of therapeutic mRNA.

Generation of Cationic Nanoliposomes for the Efficient Delivery of In Vitro Transcribed Messenger RNA

Here we describe a protocol for the generation of cationic nanoliposomes, which is based on the dry-film method and can be used for the safe and efficient delivery of in vitro transcribed messenger RNA.

The development of messenger RNA (mRNA)-based therapeutics for the treatment of various diseases becomes more and more important because of the positive ...

Detection of Endotoxin in Nano-formulations Using Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL) Assays

When present in pharmaceutical products, a Gram-negative bacterial cell wall component endotoxin (often also called lipopolysaccharide) can cause inflammation, fever, hypo- or hypertension, and, in extreme cases, can lead to tissue and organ damage that may become fatal. The amounts of endotoxin in pharmaceutical products, therefore, are strictly regulated. Among the methods available for endotoxin detection and quantification, the Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL) assay is commonly used worldwide. While any pharmaceutical product can interfere with the LAL assay, nano-formulations represent a particular challenge due to their complexity. The purpose of this paper is to provide a practical guide to researchers inexperienced in estimating endotoxins in engineered nanomaterials and nanoparticle-formulated drugs. Herein, practical recommendations for performing three LAL formats including turbidity, chromogenic and gel-clot assays are discussed. These assays can be used to determine endotoxin contamination in nanotechnology-based drug products, vaccines, and adjuvants.

Detection of Endotoxin in Nano-formulations Using Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate LAL Assays

Detection of endotoxins in engineered nanomaterials represents one of the grand challenges in the field of nanomedicine. Here, we present a case study that describes the framework composed of three different LAL formats to estimate potential endotoxin contamination in nanoparticles.

When present in pharmaceutical products, a Gram-negative bacterial cell wall component endotoxin (often also called lipopolysaccharide) can cause ...

Designing Porous Silicon Films as Carriers of Nerve Growth Factor

Despite the great potential of NGF for treating neurodegenerative diseases, its therapeutic administration represents a significant challenge as the protein does not cross the blood-brain barrier, owing to its chemical properties, and thus requires long-term delivery to the brain to have a biological effect. This work describes fabrication of nanostructured PSi films as degradable carriers of NGF for sustained delivery of this sensitive protein. The PSi carriers are specifically tailored to obtain high loading efficacy and continuous release of NGF for a period of four weeks, while preserving its biological activity. The behavior of the NGF-PSi carriers as a NGF delivery system is investigated in vitro by examining their capability to induce neuronal differentiation and outgrowth of PC12 cells and dissociated DRG neurons. Cell viability in the presence of neat and NGF-loaded PSi carriers is evaluated. The bioactivity of NGF released from the PSi carriers is compared to the conventional treatment of repetitive free NGF administrations. PC12 cell differentiation is analyzed and characterized by the measurement of three different morphological parameters of differentiated cells; (i) the number of neurites extracting from the soma (ii) the total neurites' length and (iii) the number of branching points. PC12 cells treated with the NGF-PSi carriers demonstrate a profound differentiation throughout the release period. Furthermore, DRG neuronal cells cultured with the NGF-PSi carriers show an extensive neurite initiation, similar to neurons treated with repetitive free NGF administrations. The studied tunable carriers demonstrate the long-term implants for NGF release with a therapeutic potential for neurodegenerative diseases.

Here, we present a protocol to design and fabricate nanostructured porous silicon (PSi) films as degradable carriers for the nerve growth factor (NGF). Neuronal differentiation and outgrowth of PC12 cells and mice dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons are characterized upon treatment with the NGF-loaded PSi carriers.

Despite the great potential of NGF for treating neurodegenerative diseases, its therapeutic administration represents a significant challenge as the ...

In Vesiculo Synthesis of Peptide Membrane Precursors for Autonomous Vesicle Growth

Compartmentalization of biochemical reactions is a central aspect of synthetic cells. For this purpose, peptide-based reaction compartments serve as an attractive alternative to liposomes or fatty acid-based vesicles. Externally or within the vesicles, peptides can be easily expressed and simplify the synthesis of membrane precursors. Provided here is a protocol for the creation of vesicles with diameters of ~200 nm based on the amphiphilic elastin-like polypeptides (ELP) utilizing dehydration-rehydration from glass beads. Also presented are protocols for bacterial ELP expression and purification via inverse temperature cycling, as well as their covalent functionalization with fluorescent dyes. Furthermore, this report describes a protocol to enable the transcription of RNA aptamer dBroccoli inside ELP vesicles as a less complex example for a biochemical reaction. Finally, a protocol is provided, which allows in vesiculo expression of fluorescent proteins and the membrane peptide, whereas synthesis of the latter results in vesicle growth.

Presented here are protocols for the creation of peptide-based small unilamellar vesicles capable of growth. To facilitate in vesiculo production of the membrane peptide, these vesicles are equipped with a transcription-translation system and the peptide-encoding plasmid.

Compartmentalization of biochemical reactions is a central aspect of synthetic cells. For this purpose, peptide-based reaction compartments serve as an ...

A Quantitative Fluorescence Microscopy-based Single Liposome Assay for Detecting the Compositional Inhomogeneity Between Individual Liposomes

Most research employing liposomes as membrane model systems or drug delivery carriers relies on bulk read-out techniques and thus intrinsically assumes all liposomes of the ensemble to be identical. However, new experimental platforms able to observe liposomes at the single-particle level have made it possible to perform highly sophisticated and quantitative studies on protein-membrane interactions or drug carrier properties on individual liposomes, thus avoiding errors from ensemble averaging. Here we present a protocol for preparing, detecting, and analyzing single liposomes using a fluorescence-based microscopy assay, facilitating such single-particle measurements. The setup allows for imaging individual liposomes in a massive parallel manner and is employed to reveal intra-sample size and compositional inhomogeneities. Additionally, the protocol describes the advantages of studying liposomes at the single liposome level, the limitations of the assay, and the important features to be considered when modifying it to study other research questions.

This protocol describes the fabrication of liposomes and how these can be immobilized on a surface and imaged individually in a massive parallel manner using fluorescence microscopy. This allows for the quantification of the size and compositional inhomogeneity between single liposomes of the population.

Most research employing liposomes as membrane model systems or drug delivery carriers relies on bulk read-out techniques and thus intrinsically assumes ...