We thank the three anonymous reviewers for their feedback and suggestions. This research was funded by the BOF Special Research Fund for JVdB (BOF Starting Grant BOF.STG.2018.0007.01), for the UGCT as a Center of Expertise (BOF.EXP.2017.0007) and as a Core Facility (BOF.COR.2022.008), The authors also acknowledge the Research Foundation Flanders (G019521N and G009720N), and the UGent Industrial Research Fund (IOF) for the financial support to the infrastructure through grant IOF.APP.2021.0005 (project FaCT F2021/IOF-Equip/021).

High-Throughput Tree Ring Analysis and Density Estimation

The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Critical steps within the protocol 
Critical steps within the protocol include proper handling of the increment borer to obtain high-quality increment cores (step 1.1. and see39) to avoid bits and pieces. Next, it is essential that cores be left unmounted (but see26), both for insertion in the sample holder (Figure 5, see21) as well as for proper resin extraction50 and for possible future ana...

Wood density is an easy-to-measure variable1 that reflects both the anatomical and chemical properties of the wood2. In biomass estimations of aboveground biomass, wood density is an important weighing variable 3,4,5, that is multiplied with the dimensions of the tree and a factor representing the carbon content of the wood. Wood density is tightly linked to the mechanical properties of timber6 and reflects the life history of a tree7.
Cell wall density is measured as being approximately 1500 kg/m&#179; and is considered fairly constant8, however intra-ring cell wall density variations should be considered as well8,9.Woody cells (in general tracheids in conifers, vessels, parenchyma and fibers in hardwoods) are oriented/shaped in different ways and cell wall thickness and lumen size of these cells varies10. Therefore, wood density varies between trees, within a tree (axial and transversal) and within short intervals within a tree ring11,12. In many cases the wood density variation at the ring scale also delimits the tree ring boundary13. Wood density and ultimately tissue fractions are generated and in this paper are broadly put into three categories (i.e., three different resolution scales), depending on the study goal (Figure 1) as described below.
Inter-ring scale: By measuring pieces of wood, a single value is obtained for that sample. This can be done through water immersion or geometrically14. This way, general biomass or wood technological variables can be obtained. To include pith-to-bark variation, these pieces of wood can be further divided into blocks that are measured manually to obtain information on the life history strategy15. When switching to low-resolution X-ray CT such as in medical scanners17,18, TRW data on medium-to-wide rings can be made in an efficient way on many samples18,19,20. This is also the scale that can be used to assess biomass from pith-to-bark from both temperate and tropical trees4,22, typically ranging in resolutions from 50 &#181;m to 200 &#181;m.
Ring scale: Wood is a recorder of past environmental conditions. The best known parameter is tree-ring width (TRW), but for global temperature reconstructions, maximum latewood density (MXD) records are proven to be a better proxy for temperature22. MXD is an easy-to-measure variable23, and a proxy for cell wall thickness and cell size on the last cells of a tree ring, and are at tree line and boreal sites positively linked to seasonal air temperature24: the warmer and longer the summers, more cell wall lignification occurs which thus increases the density of these last cells. Traditional measurements such as immersion and geometry are less accurate to determine this ring-level density. A previous work developed a toolchain for using X-ray film on thin-cut samples25. This sparked a revolution in both forestry and later paleoclimatology15,18, defining maximum latewood density (MXD), i.e., the peak density value often at the end of a ring, as a proxy for summer temperature. The basic principle is that the samples are sawn (approximately 1.2 mm to 7 mm13) to be perfectly parallel to the axial direction, and the sample is put on a sensitive film exposed to an X-ray source. Then these radiography films are read out through a light source that detects the intensity and saves the profiles and the annual tree ring parameters. These tools, however, require a significant amount of sample preparation and manual work. Recently this has been developed for X-ray CT in a more standardized way or based on mounted cores26. Resolution here ranges between 10 &#181;m and 20 &#181;m. TRW is measured on this scale as well, especially when dealing with smaller rings.
Anatomical scale: At this scale (resolution &#60; 4 &#181;m), the average density levels become less relevant as the main anatomical features are visualized and their width and proportions can be measured. Typically, this is done through making microsections or high-resolution optical scans or &#181;-CT scans. When the ultrastructure of the cell walls needs to be visualized, scanning electron microscopy is the most commonly used method27. At the anatomical scale, the individual tissue fractions become visible so that physiological parameters can be derived from the images. Based on the individual anatomical parameters and the cell wall density of wood, anatomical density can be derived for comparison with conventional estimators of wood density24.
Due to improved sectioning techniques and image software29,30, dendro-anatomy30 has been developed to have a more accurate record of the wood, both to have a closer estimate of the MXD in conifers and to measure several anatomical variables from broadleaf trees. On this scale, actual anatomical parameters are measured and related to environmental parameters31 . With &#181;CT this level can be obtained as well32,33.
As wood is inherently hygroscopic and anisotropic, wood density needs to be carefully defined and the measurement conditions need to be specified, either as oven-dry, conditioned (typically at 12% moisture content) or green (as felled in the forest)34. For large samples and technical purposes, wood density is defined as the weight divided by its volume at given conditions. However, the value of wood density is strongly dependent on the scale at which it is measured, for instance from pith-to-bark wood density can double, and on a ring scale (in conifers) the transition of earlywood to latewood results in a significant rise in wood density as well, with a peak at the ring boundary.
Here, an X-ray CT scanning protocol of increment cores is presented in order to measure features at the aforenoted 3 scales (Figure 1). Recent developments in X-ray CT can cover most of these scales, due to a flexible set-up. The research goals will determine the eventual protocol for scanning.
A crucial limiting factor (which is inherently connected to the scaled nature of wood density and wood in general) is the resolution and time necessary for scanning. Examples demonstrate how to: (i) obtain inter-ring tree scale wood density profiles for biomass estimations in Terminalia superba from the Congo Basin, (ii) obtain density records from Clanwilliam cedar (Widdringtonia cedarbergensis) based on helical scanning on a HECTOR system35, and (iii) measure vessel parameters on sessile oak, on the Nanowood system.&#160;Both scanners are part of the suite of scanners at the UGent Center for X-ray Tomography (UGCT,
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65208/65208fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: General methodological decision tree for X-ray CT scanning. The rows indicate the steps to take, starting from the research goal all the way to the final data format. White boxes are the steps that are relevant for this toolchain. Greyed-out boxes are steps that can be performed with other software or R packages, such as dplr47 and Treeclim48 for tree-ring analysis, and ROXAS44 as well as ImageJ42 or other (commercial) applications for deriving wood anatomical parameters based on the CT images. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65208/65208fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
X-CT research on wood 
Set-up of a scanner: A standard X-ray CT scanner consists of an X-ray tube, an X-ray detector, a rotation stage, and a set of motors to move the rotation stage, and in most cases also the detector, back and forth (Figure 2).
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65208/65208fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. The HECTOR scanning system. The system35, showing the source detector distance (SDD) and the source object distance (SOD). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65208/65208fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Most lab-based systems have a cone-beam geometry, which means that the produced X-rays are distributed from the tube&#39;s exit window in a cone-beam shape, implying that by changing the distance between the object and the tube (SOD = Source-Object-Distance) and the detector and the tube (SDD = Source-Detector-Distance), the magnification is controlled (see the discussion on resolution). Due to the penetrating power of X-rays, they pass through the object, and the intensity of the attenuation beam is a function of the energy of the X-ray beam, the chemical composition of the object (the atomic number of the elements present) and the density of the material. Given a constant energy spectrum&#160;and a constant material composition of wood, the attenuation of the X-ray beam is highly dependent on the density of the material, which explains its use for densitometry. The attenuation (or transmission) can be expressed by the Beer-Lambert law:
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/65208/65208eq01.jpg" style="margin: auto;" />
with I0 the incoming X-ray beam exponentially which decays to a transmitted X-ray beam Id when propagating through the material over a distance d. The linear attenuation coefficient &#181; depends on a series of interactions with the material of the object. The projections are thus recordings of the transmitted beam.
Practically, the object is mounted on the rotation stage, a proper SOD and SDD are selected, a certain power is selected as well (related to object size, density, and composition) and the object is rotated 360&#176; and during that rotation multiple projections are taken. These projections are then used to reconstruct the interior structure of the object. There are several reconstruction algorithms available, of which the most used ones are still based on the analytical framework developed decades ago, relying on the Radon transformation and the Fourier slice theorem. For more details, the reader is referred to specialized literature36.
Conundrum of resolution, data volume and sample size: Resolution is key in X-ray CT scanning. In systems with inverse geometry, or parallel beam geometry such as synchrotron beamlines, other considerations play a role. This protocol only discusses standard lab-based X-ray CT scanning with cone-beam geometry. Here, the concept of magnification, detector pixel size and spot size are essential. Magnification is defined as the ratio of SDD/SOD. Next, the pixel size of the detector obviously also impacts the resolution: the smaller the pixel size, the higher the resolution, but in most cases the field of view (FoV) is also directly related to pixel size and size of the detector (smaller pixel size, smaller FoV for the same number of pixels). Further, the spot size of the X-ray beam is also important: the larger the spot size, the lower the resolution, which means that less details can be seen.
It is important to address that one could obtain a resolution that is higher than what is possible according to the abovementioned limits, therefore it is better to use the term voxel size (a voxel is a volume pixel) instead of resolution. Moreover, there are other factors at play, such as detector sharpness, which further limit the true resolution at which an object is scanned. Only a true calibration of the system, using established targets, supplies the truthful answer.
In most cases, however, the voxel size at which an object can be scanned is mostly limited by the size of the object. This means that the larger the object, the lower the voxel size will be. If the object does not fit within the FoV of the detector for a certain voxel size, then the voxel size can be reduced, e.g., by limiting the magnification.
Scan time and data volume are important to consider when deciding the desired voxel size. In general, the smaller the voxel size means the higher the detail one wants to see, the smaller the sample or the fewer samples that can be scanned at once, more time is required and larger the data volumes will be collected. Imagine the following theoretical example: one can scan a sample measuring 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm at 50 &#181;m at once with a certain X-ray CT system and would like to scan that same volume at 10 &#181;m, the volume that fits within the FoV would only be 2 cm x 2 cm x 2 cm, assuming that this is physically possible. This means that 125 scans are needed (5&#179; = 5 times higher resolution, scales to the power of 3 due to the volumetric nature of the imaging technique) to cover the entire volume, and that the data volume would increase likewise. Of course, this is only a thought experiment, and one needs to consider much more than only resolution. For more information, the reader is referred to an overview of the scanning possibilities37.
Flexibility of instruments for scanning of wooden objects: In the last decade, many companies have delivered X-ray CT systems with a similar assembly as HECTOR35. An overview of several CT systems, especially assessed for their temporal resolution, is given in38.
In all, the flexibility and user-friendliness of X-ray CT systems has improved considerably. Many systems allow scanning of a diverse range of objects, which is also the case with the systems at UGCT. The protocol below is demonstrated for the HECTOR system, which is suitable for tree-ring analysis. The protocol however is valid for any other available system if resolution and data format allows for it.
These systems allow the scanning of a variety of objects. A few pictures of different wooden objects scanned with the HECTOR system are given in Figure 3. It is this flexibility that comprises the three scales we present in Figure 1, ranging from a coarse resolution to a very fine resolution.
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65208/65208fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3.&#160;Scanning set-up examples. (A) A log, (B) a cello49, (C) sample holders (type 1) with tree cores for batch scanning and (D) sample holder type 2 with increment cores for helical scanning mounted on the rotation stage of HECTOR. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65208/65208fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

<table><tbody><tr><td>6 mm paper straws&amp;nbsp;</td><td>http://artstraws.com/education/product/artstraws-thick-asst-cols/</td><td></td><td>Coring</td></tr><tr><td>Aluminium core holders</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ASTM standard ASTM D 1107 &amp;ndash; 96</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cardboard postal tubes</td><td>https://www.rajapack.co.uk/envelopes-mailing-bags/postal-tubes/1-5-2mm-brown-cardboard-postal-tubes_PDT05623.html</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Column drill</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Computer hardware for reconstruction and analysis</td><td></td><td></td><td>X-ray CT scanning</td></tr><tr><td>Cooling&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Drying oven</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ethanol&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Flask for under soxhlet (2000 ml)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Floral foam</td><td>https://www.oasisfloral.eu/</td><td></td><td>Sample holder type 1</td></tr><tr><td>Glass beads to fill void volume of Soxhlet to save solvent</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glue</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hot water bath&amp;nbsp;</td><td>https://www.memmert.com/products/water-baths/water-bath/#!filters=%7B%7D</td><td></td><td>Soxhlet extraction</td></tr><tr><td>Increment borer&amp;nbsp;</td><td>https://haglofsweden.com/project/increment-borers/</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Plastic cylinder&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Moonen et al. 2022&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td>Sample holder type 2</td></tr><tr><td>Plastic cylinders</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Reservoir</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tailored soxhlet apparatus&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Toluene&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Water pump&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>X-ray CT scanner</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

tree core analysis with x-ray computed tomography

An X-ray computed tomography (CT) toolchain is presented to obtain tree-ring width (TRW), maximum latewood density (MXD), other density parameters, and quantitative wood anatomy (QWA) data without the need for labor-intensive surface treatment or any physical sample preparation. The focus here is on increment cores and scanning procedures at resolutions ranging from 60 &#181;m down to 4 &#181;m. Three scales are defined at which wood should be looked at: (i) inter-ring scale, (ii) ring scale, i.e., tree-ring analysis and densitometry scale, as well as (iii) anatomical scale, the latter approaching the conventional thin-section quality. Custom-designed sample holders for each of these scales enable high-throughput scanning of multiple increment cores. A series of software routines were specifically developed to efficiently treat three-dimensional X-ray CT images of the tree cores for TRW and densitometry. This work briefly explains the basic principles of CT, which are needed for a proper understanding of the protocol. The protocol is presented for some known species that are commonly used in dendrochronology. The combination of rough density estimates, TRW and MXD data, as well as quantitative anatomy data, allows us to broaden and deepen current analyses for climate reconstructions or tree response, as well as further develop the field of dendroecology/climatology and archeology.

If the goal is biomass estimation or tree growth increment of many samples, i.e., inter-ring scale (Figure 1), then sample holder 1 (Figure 5) is used to scan samples to obtain density profiles (see step 5.4.3) and estimates of tree growth, e.g., for fast-growing trees with large TRW, which allows for a coarser resolution. Figure 12 shows an example of both pith-to-bark and axial density trends of T. superba, a species from...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Author Spotlight: Advancements in X-ray CT Tool Chain for Tree Core Analysis at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Advancements in X-ray CT Tool Chain for Tree Core Analysis

Here we show how to process tree cores with an X-ray computed tomography toolchain. Except for chemical extraction for some purposes, no further physical lab treatment is needed. The toolchain can be used for biomass estimations, for obtaining MXD/tree-ring width data as well as for obtaining quantitative wood anatomy data.

Tree Core Analysis with X-ray Computed Tomography

An X-ray computed tomography (CT) toolchain is presented to obtain tree-ring width (TRW), maximum latewood density (MXD), other density parameters, and ...

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1.0K Views.  University of Liège. Here we show how to process tree cores with an X-ray computed tomography toolchain. Except for chemical extraction for some purposes, no further physical lab treatment is needed. The toolchain can be used for biomass estimations, for obtaining MXD/tree-ring width data as well as for obtaining quantitative wood anatomy data. 

Video: Author Spotlight: Advancements in X-ray CT Tool Chain for Tree Core Analysis

Technique for Studying Arthropod and Microbial Communities within Tree Tissues

Phloem tissues of pine are habitats for many thousands of organisms. Arthropods and microbes use phloem and cambium tissues to seek mates, lay eggs, rear young, feed, or hide from natural enemies or harsh environmental conditions outside of the tree. Organisms that persist within the phloem habitat are difficult to observe given their location under bark. We provide a technique to preserve intact phloem and prepare it for experimentation with invertebrates and microorganisms. The apparatus is called a &#8216;phloem sandwich&#8217; and allows for the introduction and observation of arthropods, microbes, and other organisms. This technique has resulted in a better understanding of the feeding behaviors, life-history traits, reproduction, development, and interactions of organisms within tree phloem. The strengths of this technique include the use of inexpensive materials, variability in sandwich size, flexibility to re-open the sandwich or introduce multiple organisms through drilled holes, and the preservation and maintenance of phloem integrity. The phloem sandwich is an excellent educational tool for scientific discovery in both K-12 science courses and university research laboratories.

We provide a technique to preserve intact tree phloem and prepare it for observation. We create an apparatus called a phloem sandwich that allows for the introduction and observation of arthropods, microbes, and other organisms that inhabit phloem tissues.

Phloem tissues of pine are habitats for many thousands of organisms.  Arthropods and microbes use phloem and cambium tissues to seek mates, lay eggs, rear ...

Transcript and Metabolite Profiling for the Evaluation of Tobacco Tree and Poplar as Feedstock for the Bio-based Industry

The global demand for food, feed, energy, and water poses extraordinary challenges for future generations. It is evident that robust platforms for the exploration of renewable resources are necessary to overcome these challenges. Within the multinational framework MultiBioPro we are developing biorefinery pipelines to maximize the use of plant biomass. More specifically, we use poplar and tobacco tree (Nicotiana glauca) as target crop species for improving saccharification, isoprenoid, long chain hydrocarbon contents, fiber quality, and suberin and lignin contents. The methods used to obtain these outputs include GC-MS, LC-MS and RNA sequencing platforms. The metabolite pipelines are well established tools to generate these types of data, but also have the limitations in that only well characterized metabolites can be used. The deep sequencing will allow us to include all transcripts present during the developmental stages of the tobacco tree leaf, but has to be mapped back to the sequence of Nicotiana tabacum. With these set-ups, we aim at a basic understanding for underlying processes and at establishing an industrial framework to exploit the outcomes. In a more long term perspective, we believe that data generated here will provide means for a sustainable biorefinery process using poplar and tobacco tree as raw material. To date the basal level of metabolites in the samples have been analyzed and the protocols utilized are provided in this article.

Plant biomass offers a renewable resource for multiple products, including fuel, feed, food, and a variety of materials. In this paper we investigate the properties of tobacco tree (Nicotiana glauca) and poplar as suitable sources for a biorefinery pipeline.

The global demand for food, feed, energy, and water poses extraordinary challenges for future generations. It is evident that robust platforms for the ...

A Technical Perspective in Modern Tree-ring Research - How to Overcome Dendroecological and Wood Anatomical Challenges

Dendroecological research uses information stored in tree rings to understand how single trees and even entire forest ecosystems responded to environmental changes and to finally reconstruct such changes. This is done by analyzing growth variations back in time and correlating various plant-specific parameters to (for example) temperature records. Integrating wood anatomical parameters in these analyses would strengthen reconstructions, even down to intra-annual resolution. We therefore present a protocol on how to sample, prepare, and analyze wooden specimen for common macroscopic analyses, but also for subsequent microscopic analyses. Furthermore we introduce a potential solution for analyzing digital images generated from common small and large specimens to support time-series analyses. The protocol presents the basic steps as they currently can be used. Beyond this, there is an ongoing need for the improvement of existing techniques, and development of new techniques, to record and quantify past and ongoing environmental processes. Traditional wood anatomical research needs to be expanded to include ecological information to this field of research. This would support dendro-scientists who intend to analyze new parameters and develop new methodologies to understand the short and long term effects of specific environmental factors on the anatomy of woody plants.

Here we present a protocol outlining how to sample wooden specimens for the overall assessment of their growth structures. Macro- and microscopic preparation and visualization techniques necessary to generate well-replicated and highly resolved wood anatomical and dendroecological dataset, are described are described.

Dendroecological research uses information stored in tree rings to understand how single trees and even entire forest ecosystems responded to ...

Use of Chironomidae (Diptera) Surface-Floating Pupal Exuviae as a Rapid Bioassessment Protocol for Water Bodies

Rapid bioassessment protocols using benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages have been successfully used to assess human impacts on water quality. Unfortunately, traditional benthic larval sampling methods, such as the dip-net, can be time-consuming and expensive. An alternative protocol involves collection of Chironomidae surface-floating pupal exuviae (SFPE). Chironomidae is a species-rich family of flies (Diptera) whose immature stages typically occur in aquatic habitats. Adult chironomids emerge from the water, leaving their pupal skins, or exuviae, floating on the water&#8217;s surface. Exuviae often accumulate along banks or behind obstructions by action of the wind or water current, where they can be collected to assess chironomid diversity and richness. Chironomids can be used as important biological indicators, since some species are more tolerant to pollution than others. Therefore, the relative abundance and species composition of collected SFPE reflect changes in water quality. Here, methods associated with field collection, laboratory processing, slide mounting, and identification of chironomid SFPE are described in detail. Advantages of the SFPE method include minimal disturbance at a sampling area, efficient and economical sample collection and laboratory processing, ease of identification, applicability in nearly all aquatic environments, and a potentially more sensitive measure of ecosystem stress. Limitations include the inability to determine larval microhabitat use and inability to identify pupal exuviae to species if they have not been associated with adult males.

Use of Chironomidae Diptera Surface-Floating Pupal Exuviae as a Rapid Bioassessment Protocol for Water Bodies

Rapid bioassessment protocols using benthic macroinvertebrates are often used to monitor and assess water quality. An efficient protocol involves collections of Chironomidae surface-floating pupal exuviae (SFPE). Here, techniques for field collection, laboratory processing, slide mounting, and identification of Chironomidae SFPE are described.

Rapid bioassessment protocols using benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages have been successfully used to assess human impacts on water quality. ...

Sediment Core Sectioning and Extraction of Pore Waters under Anoxic Conditions

We demonstrate a method for sectioning sediment cores and extracting pore waters while maintaining oxygen-free conditions. A simple, inexpensive system is built and can be transported to a temporary work space close to field sampling site(s) to facilitate rapid analysis. Cores are extruded into a portable glove bag, where they are sectioned and each 1-3 cm thick section (depending on core diameter) is sealed into 50 ml centrifuge tubes. Pore waters are separated with centrifugation outside of the glove bag and then returned to the glove bag for separation from the sediment. These extracted pore water samples can be analyzed immediately. Immediate analyses of redox sensitive species, such as sulfide, iron speciation, and arsenic speciation indicate that oxidation of pore waters is minimal; some samples show approximately 100% of the reduced species, e.g. 100% Fe(II) with no detectable Fe(III). Both sediment and pore water samples can be preserved to maintain chemical species for further analysis upon return to the laboratory.

A protocol for sectioning sediment cores and extracting pore waters under anoxic conditions in order to permit analysis of redox sensitive species in both solids and fluids is presented.

We demonstrate a method for sectioning sediment cores and extracting pore waters while maintaining oxygen-free conditions. A simple, inexpensive system is ...

Extracting Metrics for Three-dimensional Root Systems: Volume and Surface Analysis from In-soil X-ray Computed Tomography Data

Plant roots play a critical role in plant-soil-microbe interactions that occur in the rhizosphere, as well as processes with important implications to climate change and crop management. Quantitative size information on roots in their native environment is invaluable for studying root growth and environmental processes involving plants. X-ray computed tomography (XCT) has been demonstrated to be an effective tool for in situ root scanning and analysis. We aimed to develop a costless and efficient tool that approximates the surface and volume of the root regardless of its shape from three-dimensional (3D) tomography data. The root structure of a Prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis) specimen was imaged using XCT. The root was reconstructed, and the primary root structure was extracted from the data using a combination of licensed and open-source software. An isosurface polygonal mesh was then created for ease of analysis. We have developed the standalone application imeshJ, generated in MATLAB1, to calculate root volume and surface area from the mesh. The outputs of imeshJ are surface area (in mm2) and the volume (in mm3). The process, utilizing a unique combination of tools from imaging to quantitative root analysis, is described. A combination of XCT and open-source software proved to be a powerful combination to noninvasively image plant root samples, segment root data, and extract quantitative information from the 3D data. This methodology of processing 3D data should be applicable to other material/sample systems where there is connectivity between components of similar X-ray attenuation and difficulties arise with segmentation.

A methodology for obtaining visual and quantitative root structure information from X-ray computed tomography data acquired in-soil is presented.

Plant roots play a critical role in plant-soil-microbe interactions that occur in the rhizosphere, as well as processes with important implications to ...

A Protocol for Collecting and Constructing Soil Core Lysimeters

Leaching of nutrients from land applied fertilizers and manure used in agriculture can lead to accelerated eutrophication of surface water. Because the landscape has complex and varied soil morphology, an accompanying disparity in flow paths for leachate through the soil macropore and matrix structure is present. The rate of flow through these paths is further affected by antecedent soil moisture. Lysimeters are used to quantify flow rate, volume of water and concentration of nutrients leaching downward through soils. While many lysimeter designs exist, accurately determining the volume of water and mass balance of nutrients is best accomplished with bounded lysimeters that leave the natural soil structure intact. 
Here we present a detailed method for the extraction and construction of soil core lysimeters equipped with soil moisture sensors at 5 cm and 25 cm depths. Lysimeters from four different Coastal Plain soils (Bojac, Evesboro, Quindocqua and Sassafras) were collected on the Delmarva Peninsula and moved to an indoor climate controlled facility. Soils were irrigated once weekly with the equivalent of 2 cm of rainfall to draw down soil nitrate-N concentrations. At the end of the draw down period, poultry litter was applied (162 kg TN ha-1) and leaching was resumed for an additional five weeks. Total recovery of applied irrigation water varied from 71% to 85%. Nitrate-N concentration varied over the course of the study from an average of 27.1 mg L-1 before litter application to 40.3 mg L-1 following litter application. While greatest flux of nutrients was measured in soils dominated by coarse sand (Sassafras) the greatest immediate flux occurred from the finest textured soil with pronounced macropore development (Quindocqua).

A detailed method for extraction and assembly of intact soil core lysimeters and their use for study of leachate and associated loss of nutrients from surface applied poultry litter is demonstrated.

Leaching of nutrients from land applied fertilizers and manure used in agriculture can lead to accelerated eutrophication of surface water. Because the ...

Leveraging Micro-CT Scanning to Analyze Parasitic Plant-Host Interactions

Micro-CT scanning has become an established tool in investigating plant structure and function. Its non-destructive nature, combined with the possibility of three-dimensional visualization and virtual sectioning, has allowed novel and increasingly detailed analysis of complex plant organs. Interactions among plants, including between parasitic plants and their hosts, can also be explored. However, sample preparation before scanning becomes crucial due to the interaction between these plants, which often differ in tissue organization and composition. Furthermore, the broad diversity of parasitic flowering plants, ranging from highly reduced vegetative bodies to trees, herbs, and shrubs, must be considered during the sampling, treatment, and preparation of parasite-host material. Here two different approaches are described for introducing contrast solutions into the parasite and/or host plants, focusing on analyzing the haustorium. This organ promotes connection and communication between the two plants. Following a simple approach, details of haustorium tissue organization can be explored three-dimensionally, as shown here for&#160;euphytoid, vine, and mistletoe parasitic species. Selecting specific contrasting agents and application approaches also allow detailed observation of endoparasite spread within the host body and detection of direct vessel-to-vessel connection between parasite and host, as shown here for an obligate root parasite. Thus, the protocol discussed here can be applied to the broad diversity of parasitic flowering plants to advance the understanding of their development, structure, and functioning.

Micro-CT is a non-destructive tool that can analyze plant structures in three dimensions. The present protocol describes the sample preparation to leverage micro-CT to analyze parasitic plant structure and function. Different species are used to highlight the advantages of this method when coupled with specific preparations.

Micro-CT scanning has become an established tool in investigating plant structure and function. Its non-destructive nature, combined with the possibility ...

Using High Resolution Computed Tomography to Visualize the Three Dimensional Structure and Function of Plant Vasculature

High resolution x-ray computed tomography (HRCT) is a non-destructive diagnostic imaging technique with sub-micron resolution capability that is now being used to evaluate the structure and function of plant xylem network in three dimensions (3D) (e.g. Brodersen et al. 2010; 2011; 2012a,b). HRCT imaging is based on the same principles as medical CT systems, but a high intensity synchrotron x-ray source results in higher spatial resolution and decreased image acquisition time. Here, we demonstrate in detail how synchrotron-based HRCT (performed at the Advanced Light Source-LBNL Berkeley, CA, USA) in combination with Avizo software (VSG Inc., Burlington, MA, USA) is being used to explore plant xylem in excised tissue and living plants. This new imaging tool allows users to move beyond traditional static, 2D light or electron micrographs and study samples using virtual serial sections in any plane. An infinite number of slices in any orientation can be made on the same sample, a feature that is physically impossible using traditional microscopy methods.
Results demonstrate that HRCT can be applied to both herbaceous and woody plant species, and a range of plant organs (i.e. leaves, petioles, stems, trunks, roots). Figures presented here help demonstrate both a range of representative plant vascular anatomy and the type of detail extracted from HRCT datasets, including scans for coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), walnut (Juglans spp.), oak (Quercus spp.), and maple (Acer spp.) tree saplings to sunflowers (Helianthus annuus), grapevines (Vitis spp.), and ferns (Pteridium aquilinum and Woodwardia fimbriata). Excised and dried samples from woody species are easiest to scan and typically yield the best images. However, recent improvements (i.e. more rapid scans and sample stabilization) have made it possible to use this visualization technique on green tissues (e.g. petioles) and in living plants. On occasion some shrinkage of hydrated green plant tissues will cause images to blur and methods to avoid these issues are described. These recent advances with HRCT provide promising new insights into plant vascular function.

High resolution x-ray computed tomography (HRCT) is a non-destructive diagnostic imaging technique that can be used to study the structure and function of plant vasculature in 3D. We demonstrate how HRCT facilitates exploration of xylem networks across a wide range of plant tissues and species.

High resolution x-ray computed tomography (HRCT) is a non-destructive diagnostic imaging technique with sub-micron resolution capability that is now being ...

Biology

A 3D Cartographic Description of the Cell by Cryo Soft X-ray Tomography

Imaging techniques are fundamental in order to understand cell organization and machinery in biological research and the related fields. Among these techniques, cryo soft X-ray tomography (SXT) allows imaging whole cryo-preserved cells in the water window X-ray energy range (284-543 eV), in which carbon structures have intrinsically higher absorption than water, allowing the 3D reconstruction of the linear absorption coefficient of the material contained in each voxel. Quantitative structural information at the level of whole cells up to 10 &#181;m thick is then achievable this way, with high throughput and spatial resolution down to 25-30 nm half-pitch. Cryo-SXT has proven itself relevant to current biomedical research, providing 3D information on cellular infection processes (virus, bacteria, or parasites), morphological changes due to diseases (such as recessive genetic diseases) and helping us understand drug action at the cellular level, or locating specific structures in the 3D cellular environment. In addition, by taking advantage of the tunable wavelength at synchrotron facilities, spectro-microscopy or its 3D counterpart, spectro-tomography, can also be used to image and quantify specific elements in the cell, such as calcium in biomineralization processes. Cryo-SXT provides complementary information to other biological imaging techniques such as electron microscopy, X-ray fluorescence or visible light fluorescence, and is generally used as a partner method for 2D or 3D correlative imaging at cryogenic conditions in order to link function, location, and morphology.

Here, a protocol describing the sample preparation and data collection steps required in cryo soft X-ray tomography (SXT) to image the ultrastructure of whole cryo-preserved cells at a resolution of 25 nm half pitch, is presented.

Imaging techniques are fundamental in order to understand cell organization and machinery in biological research and the related fields. Among these ...