The investigators thank all the volunteers in Zambia who participated in this study and all the staff at the Zambia Emory HIV Research Project in Lusaka who made this study possible. The investigators would like to thank Jon Allen, Smita Chavan, and Mackenzie Hurlston for technical assistance and sample management. We would also like to thank Dr. Mark Brockman for his discussions and generous donation of the GXR25 cells.
This study was funded by R01 AI64060 and R37 AI51231 (EH) and the International AIDS Vaccine Initiative. This work was made possible in part by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).&#160;The contents are the responsibility of the study authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government. This work also was supported, in part, by the Virology Core at the Emory Center for AIDS Research (Grant P30 AI050409). DC and JP were supported in part by Action Cycling Fellowships. This work was supported in part by the Yerkes National Primate Research Center base grant (2P51RR000165-51). This project was also funded in part by the National Center for Research Resources P51RR165 and is currently supported by the Office of Research Infrastructure Programs/OD P51OD11132.

The authors have nothing to disclose.

بسبب طول وطبيعة التقنية لهذا البروتوكول، وهناك العديد من الخطوات التي تعتبر بالغة الأهمية لكل من البناء الناجح خيالية البلازميدات الكمامة-MJ4 وكذلك لتقدير حجم القدرة تكاثر الفيروس. على الرغم من أن استراتيجية استنساخ انزيم التقييد استنادا لإدخال الجينات هفوة ال...

تحديد كل من المضيف وخصائص الفيروسية التي تؤثر HIV-1 المرضية وتطور المرض هو الهدف الأسمى لتصميم لقاح عقلانية. الاستجابة المناعية الخلوية عنصرا أساسيا من الاستجابة المناعية للعدوى البشرية HIV-1. السامة للخلايا T الليمفاوية (CTL) ضرورية لمراقبة الأولية من افيروس الحاد، وتسمح المضيف لتأسيس حالة مستقرة (مجموعة نقطة) الحمل الفيروسي 1،2. نضوب التجريبية من هذه الخلايا المستجيب النتائج في فقدان السيطرة الفيروسية 3،4. على الرغم من هذا، والهروب تنشأ الطفرات داخل الجينوم الفيروسي أن تخريب الاعتراف CTL من الخلايا المصابة فيروسي 5-9. وقد ارتبطت أليل HLA معينة مع انخفاض الأحمال الفيروسية وتباطؤ تطور المرض بما في ذلك B * 57، B * 27 و 81 * B 10-15. ويمكن أن يعزى جزء من فائدة وقائية من الدرجة HLA I الأليلات إلى حقيقة أنها مقيدة وظيفيا استهداف مناطق من الجينوم مثل الكمامةوحدد للطفرات الهروب التي تقلل من قدرة الفيروس على تكرار في المختبر 16-21. على الرغم من الهروب من نظام المناعة الخلوية هو مفيد للفيروس في سياق الطبقة اختيار أليل HLA I، وتأثير هذه الطفرات قد تكون له عواقب التفاضلية للمضيف على انتقال لHLA-متطابقة الفردية 22،23. ولذلك، فهم آثار الطفرات الهروب المرتبط HLA تنتقل القدرة على تكاثر الفيروس سيكون من المهم تعزيز فهمنا لأوائل HIV-1 المرضية. بينما تم إحراز تقدم كبير في تحديد وتوصيف العيوب اللياقة البدنية من الطفرات الهروب الفردية المرتبطة الدرجة HLA محددة I الأليلات 24-29، تحدث بشكل طبيعي HIV-1 العزلات وآثار أقدام فريدة ومعقدة من الأشكال HLA المصاحب، من المحتمل الناشئة عن HLA ضغط المناعة بوساطة من مختلف الخلفيات مستمنع 30. في أبتحليل revious، Goepfert وآخرون. أظهرت أن تراكم HLA المصاحب الطفرات في تسلسل الكمامة تنتقل المستمدة من 88 الزامبيين المصابة تماما كان مرتبطا مع انخفاض في مجموعة الحمل الفيروسي نقطة 31. اقترح هذا أن نقل من الطفرات الضارة الهروب، وتحديدا في الكمامة، إلى المستلمين HLA-متطابقة يوفر فائدة سريرية، وربما يعود لتكاثر الفيروس الموهن. المضي قدما، لا بد من دراسة كيفية مجموعات من الأشكال الكمامة داخل مجمع العزلات التي تحدث بشكل طبيعي تعمل في تناسق لتحديد خصائص الفيروس ينتقل مثل القدرة تكرارها، وكيفية تكرارها في وقت مبكر قد يؤثر بدوره HIV-1 المعلمات السريرية والمراحل المتأخرة المرضية. بروكمان وآخرون أظهرت لأول مرة وجود علاقة بين القدرة تكرار متواليات هفوة الموالية معزولة خلال مرحلة الإصابة المزمنة والحمل الفيروسي C في كل من فرعي والتهابات B32-35. المنهج التجريبي المقدم في هذه الدراسات، على الرغم المناسب لاختبار قدرة تكرارها في المختبر من متواليات المستمدة من الأشخاص المصابين بشكل مزمن، لديها العديد من المحاذير والقيود الفنية التي تجعل من دراسة HIV-1 قدرة تنسخي في النوع الفرعي C المصابين تماما صعوبة. ويعتمد هذا الأسلوب على إعادة التركيب من القائمة على السكان تسلسل PCR تضخيم في النوع الفرعي B NL4-3 طليعة الفيروس، والتي كانت مستمدة جزئيا من LAV، تكييف مختبر الفيروسات الأسهم 36. تم انجازه الجيل الفيروس عن طريق التعاون ترنسفكأيشن خط T-خلية مقرها CEM-37 مع amplicons PCR وهضمها delta--هفوة الموالية NL4-3 DNA. يتطلب هذا الأسلوب ثمرة من الفيروسات على مدى فترة من أسابيع إلى أشهر، وربما انحراف طبيعة الأسهم فيروس تعافى فيما يتعلق quasispecies الفيروسية في الجسم الحي، وبالتالي تغيير قياس قدرة تكرارها في المختبر. طريقة هذا طهو أكثر مناسبة لدراسة الأفراد المصابين المزمنين، حيث يختار بشكل فعال للفيروس وفقا لأعلى قدرة تنسخي، وحيث استنساخ العديد من المتغيرات الفيروسية مختلفة من عدد كبير من الأشخاص المصابين بشكل مزمن هو العمل المكثف تماما، وبالتالي لا جدوى. ومع ذلك، داخل الفرد المصاب تماما، وهناك عموما 1-2 متغيرات الحاضر، وبالتالي القضاء على خطر انحراف طبيعة الفيروس الأسهم المستردة، في المختبر من خلال الضغوط الاختيار، ويسمح لإجراء تقييم أكثر دقة للفي المختبر قدرة النسخ المتماثل. ثانيا، هذا الأسلوب يتطلب إعادة توحيد فرعي C-هفوة الموالية تسلسل إلى النمط الفرعي B العمود الفقري المشتقة، ويمكن إدخال العمود الفقري التحيزات عدم التوافق في التحليل. بسبب هذه القيود، يجب تحليل أعداد كبيرة من متواليات من أجل التغلب على أي التحيزات المحتملة قدم. نحن هنا وصف لAPPRO التجريبي بديلمنظمة العمل ضد الجوع المناسب لدراسة تسلسل المستمدة من النوع الفرعي C الأفراد المصابين تماما. نحن نستخدم استراتيجية استنساخ انزيم التقييد استنادا إلى إدخال الجين هفوة المستمدة من النقاط الزمنية العدوى الحادة للHIV-1 النوع الفرعي C المصابين في العمود الفقري proviral النوع الفرعي C، MJ4. استخدام MJ4 بمثابة العمود الفقري شيوعا التي لاستنساخ الجينات أسكت أمر بالغ الأهمية لتحليل النوع الفرعي C تسلسل مشتقة. مشتق MJ4 من عزل الأساسي 38، وبالتالي سيكون أقل احتمالا لتقديم التحيز بسبب عدم التوافق بين فرعي العمود الفقري والجينات هفوة. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك، فإن النهج القائمة على استخدام انزيم تقييد الاستنساخ يسمح للproviral يبني أن transfected مباشرة إلى خلايا 293T، وانتعاش الأسهم فيروس النسيلي مطابقة للتسلسل هفوة المستنسخة. طريقة الواردة أدناه هي طريقة إنتاجية عالية لتقييم قدرة تكرار النوع الفرعي C المستمدة الكمامة-MJ4الفيروسات خيالية. ترنسفكأيشن في الخلايا 293T واضح ومباشر والتعافي من الفيروس يأخذ ثلاثة أيام فقط. ويعاير في المختبر قدرة النسخ المتماثل على نفس أساس خط T-خلية CEM-CCR5 التي أنشأتها بروكمان وآخرون 37، ولكن باستخدام بروتوكول التعديلات الهامة اللازمة لتكرار النجاح من النوع الفرعي C MJ4 الفيروسات خيالية. استخدام خط T-خلية المناسب بدلا من PBMCs يسمح لأعداد كبيرة من النوع الفرعي C-MJ4 خيالية الفيروسات لفحصها مع فحص عالية التكاثر. أخيرا، وذلك باستخدام رديولبلد الناسخ العكسي لفحص الكمي للفيروس في طاف هو أكثر فعالية من استخدام P24 المتاحة تجاريا مجموعات ELISA التكلفة. كما انه يعطي مجموعة أعلى ديناميكية، وهذا أمر مهم للكشف عن الفيروسات على حد سواء سيئة للغاية وتكرار في نفس الفحص وللكشف عن الفروق الدقيقة في النسخ المتماثل بين العزلات. في الختام، فإن الطريقة المعروضة هنا قد سمح لدراسة متعمقة لقدرات تكرار متواليات هفوة المستمدة من HIV-1 النوع الفرعي C إصابة حادة الأفراد من زامبيا، وكما هو مكتوب، ويمكن أيضا أن توسعت لدراسة النوع الفرعي الآخر C إصابة السكان. ولوحظ وجود درجة عالية من التباين في القدرات النسخ المتماثل بين العزلات الكمامة مختلفة. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، كنا قادرين على إظهار ارتباط إحصائية بين قدرة تكرار الكمامة تنتقل ووضع نقطة الحمل الفيروسي وكذلك مع CD4 + انخفاض على مدى فترة ثلاث سنوات 39. هذه النتائج تبرز أهمية دراسة الخصائص الفيروسية كيف تنتقل، مثل القدرة التكرار، تتفاعل مع الجهاز المناعي المضيفة للتأثير المرضية خلال العدوى في وقت مبكر، وسوف تكون متكاملة لتطوير لقاح التدخلات الفعالة وكذلك العلاج.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1024">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:444px;">Name of the Reagent</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:133px;">Catalogue number</td>
			<td style="width:252px;">Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PCR reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">GOF: 5&#39; ATTTGACTAGCGGAGGCTAGAA 3&#39;</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom Oligo</td>
			<td>25nmol, standard desalt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">VifOR: 5&#39; TTCTACGGAGACTCCATGACCC 3&#39;</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom Oligo</td>
			<td>25nmol, standard desalt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">GagInnerF1: 
			5&#39; AGGCTAGAAGGAGAGAGATG 3&#39;</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom Oligo</td>
			<td>25nmol, standard desalt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">BclIDegRev2: 
			5&#39; AGTATTTGATCATAYTGYYTYACTTTR 3&#39;</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom Oligo</td>
			<td>25nmol, standard desalt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MJ4For1b: 5&#39; CGAAATCGGCAAAATCCC 3&#39;</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom Oligo</td>
			<td>25nmol, standard desalt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MJ4Rev: 5&#39; CCCATCTCTCTCCTTCTAGC 3&#39;</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom Oligo</td>
			<td>25nmol, standard desalt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">BclIRev: 5&#39; TCTATAAGTATTTGATCATACTGTCTT 3&#39;</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom Oligo</td>
			<td>25nmol, standard desalt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">GagF2: 5&#39; GGGACATCAAGCAGCCAT 3&#39;</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom Oligo</td>
			<td>25nmol, standard desalt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">For3: 5&#39; CTAGGAAAAAGGGCTGTTGGAAATG 3&#39;</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom Oligo</td>
			<td>25nmol, standard desalt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">GagR6: 5&#39; CTGTATCATCTGCTCCTG 3&#39;</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom Oligo</td>
			<td>25nmol, standard desalt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Rev3: 5&#39; GACAGGGCTATACATTCTTACTAT 3&#39;</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom Oligo</td>
			<td>25nmol, standard desalt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Rev1: 5&#39; AATTTTTCCAGCTCCCTGCTTGCCCA 3&#39;</td>
			<td>IDT DNA</td>
			<td>Custom Oligo</td>
			<td>25nmol, standard desalt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">CoolRack PCR 96 XT</td>
			<td>Biocision</td>
			<td>BCS-529</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">CoolRack M15</td>
			<td>Biocision</td>
			<td>BCS-125</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Nuclease free water</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>SH30538FS</td>
			<td>Manufactured by Hyclone</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">QIAamp Viral RNA Mini Kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:133px;">52906</td>
			<td style="width:252px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Simport PCR 8 Strip Tubes, Blue (Flat Cap)</td>
			<td>Daigger</td>
			<td>EF3647BX</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">SuperScript III one-step RT-PCR system</td>
			<td>Life Technologies/Invitrogen</td>
			<td>12574035</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Phusion Hot-start II DNA polymerase</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>F-549L&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PCR Nucleotide Mix</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>4638956001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Agarose, high gel strength</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>50-213-128</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">TAE 10X</td>
			<td>Life Technologies/Invitrogen</td>
			<td>AM9869</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Promega 1kb DNA ladder</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>PRG5711</td>
			<td>Manufactured by Promega</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sybr Safe DNA Gel Stain, 10000x</td>
			<td>Life Technologies/Invitrogen</td>
			<td>S33102</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Wizard SV Gel and PCR Clean-Up System</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>A9282</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Razor blades, single-edged</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>12-640</td>
			<td>Manufactured by Surgical Design</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Thermocycler, PTC-200</td>
			<td>MJ Research</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;">Microbiology &#38; Cloning reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">LB Agar, Miller</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP1425-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">LB Broth, Lennox</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP1427-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sterile 100mm x 15mm polystyrene petri dishes</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>08-757-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Ampicillin sodium salt</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A9518-5G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Falcon 14ml Polypropylene round-bottom tubes</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>352059</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">NgoMIV restriction endonuclease</td>
			<td>New England BioLabs</td>
			<td>R0564L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">BclI restriction endonuclease</td>
			<td>New England BioLabs</td>
			<td>R0160L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">HpaI restriction endonuclease</td>
			<td>New England BioLabs</td>
			<td>R0105L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">T4 DNA Ligase, 5U/&#956;L</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>10799009001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">JM109 competent cells, &#62;10^8 cfu/&#956;g&#160;</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>L2001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PureYield plasmid miniprep system</td>
			<td>Promega&#160;</td>
			<td>A1222</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Safe Imager 2.0 Blue Light Transilluminator</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>G6600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Microfuge 18 centrifuge</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>367160</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Cell culture reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Amphyl cleaner/disinfectant</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>22-030-394</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Fugene HD, 1 mL</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>PAE2311</td>
			<td>Manufactured by Promega</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Hexadimethrine bromide (Polybrene)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H9268-5G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Costar Plates, 6-well, flat</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>07-200-83</td>
			<td>Manufactured by Corning Life</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Costar Plates, 24-well, flat</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>07-200-84</td>
			<td>Manufactured by Corning Life</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Costar Plates, 96-well, round</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>07-200-95</td>
			<td>Manufactured by Corning Life</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Flasks, Corning filter top/canted neck, 75 cm^2</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>10-126-37</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Flasks, Corning filter top/canted neck, 150 cm^2</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>10-126-34</td>
			<td>Manufactured by Corning Life</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Conical Tubes, 50ml, blue cap</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>14-432-22</td>
			<td>Manufactured by BD Biosciences</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Conical Tubes, 15ml, blue cap</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>14-959-70C&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Manufactured by BD Biosciences</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Trypsin-EDTA</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>MT25052CI</td>
			<td>Manufactured by Mediatech</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">RPMI, 500 ml</td>
			<td>Life Technologies/Invitrogen</td>
			<td>11875-119</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">DMEM, 500 ml</td>
			<td>Life Technologies/Invitrogen</td>
			<td>11965-118</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Penicillin/Streptomycin/Glutamine, 100X</td>
			<td>Life Technologies/Invitrogen</td>
			<td>10378-016</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PBS with magnesium and calcium, 500ml</td>
			<td>Life Technologies/Invitrogen</td>
			<td>14040-133</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PBS without magnesium and calcium</td>
			<td>Life Technologies/Invitrogen</td>
			<td>20012-050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sarstedt tubes, assorted colors</td>
			<td>Sarstedt</td>
			<td>72.694.996</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Reservoir Trays for Multichannel, 55ml</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>13-681-501</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">DEAE-Dextran</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>NC9691007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Corning 96 well clear V bottom tissue culture treated microplate</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>07-200-96</td>
			<td>Manufactured by Corning Life</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">HEPES, 1M Buffer Solution</td>
			<td>Life Technologies/Invitrogen</td>
			<td>15630-080</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">FBS, Defined, 500 ml</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>SH30070 03</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">X-gal</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>PAV3941</td>
			<td>Manufactured by Promega</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Glutaraldehyde, Grade II, 25% in H2O</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G6257-100ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">1M Magnesium chloride solution</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M1028-100ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Formaldehyde solution, for molecular biology, 36.5%</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>F8775-500ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) trihydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P9387-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P8131-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Allegra X15-R centrifuge</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>392932</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">TC10 automated cell counter</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1450001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">VistaVision inverted microscope</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Reverse-Transcriptase Quantification Assay reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">dTTP, [&#945;-33P]- 3000Ci/mmol, 10mCi/ml, 1 mCi</td>
			<td>Perkin-Elmer</td>
			<td>NEG605H001MC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">1M Tris-Cl, pH 8.0</td>
			<td>Life Technologies/Invitrogen</td>
			<td>15568025</td>
			<td>Must be adjusted to pH 7.8 with KOH</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">2M potassium chloride (KCl)</td>
			<td>Life Technologies/Invitrogen</td>
			<td>AM9640G</td>
			<td>Adjust to 1M solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">0.5M EDTA</td>
			<td>Life Technologies/Invitrogen</td>
			<td>15575-020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Nonidet P40</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td style="width:133px;">11333941103</td>
			<td style="width:252px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Polyadenylic acid (Poly rA) potassium salt&#160;</td>
			<td>Midland Reagent Co.</td>
			<td>P-3001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Oligo d(T) primer&#160;</td>
			<td>Life Technologies/Invitrogen</td>
			<td>18418-012</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Dithiothreitol (DTT)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>43815-1G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">SR, Super Resolution Phosphor Screen, Small</td>
			<td>Perkin-Elmer</td>
			<td>7001485</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Corning Costar Thermowell 96 well plate model (M) Polycarbonate</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>07-200-245</td>
			<td>Manufactured by Corning Life</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Corning 96 Well Microplate Aluminum Sealing Tape, Nonsterile</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>07-200-684</td>
			<td>Manufactured by Corning Life</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">DE-81 anion exchange paper</td>
			<td>Whatman</td>
			<td>3658-915</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Trisodium citrate dihydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S1804-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>S671-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Autoradiography cassette</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>FB-CA-810</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Cyclone storage phoshpor screen</td>
			<td>Packard</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a restriction enzyme based cloning method to assess the in vitro replication capacity of hiv-1 subtype c gag-mj4 chimeric viruses

The protective effect of many HLA class I alleles on HIV-1 pathogenesis and disease progression is, in part, attributed to their ability to target conserved portions of the HIV-1 genome that escape with difficulty. Sequence changes attributed to cellular immune pressure arise across the genome during infection, and if found within conserved regions of the genome such as Gag, can affect the ability of the virus to replicate in vitro. Transmission of HLA-linked polymorphisms in Gag to HLA-mismatched recipients has been associated with reduced set point viral loads. We hypothesized this may be due to a reduced replication capacity of the virus. Here we present a novel method for assessing the in vitro replication of HIV-1 as influenced by the gag gene isolated from acute time points from subtype C infected Zambians. This method uses restriction enzyme based cloning to insert the gag gene into a common subtype C HIV-1 proviral backbone, MJ4. This makes it more appropriate to the study of subtype C sequences than previous recombination based methods that have assessed the in vitro replication of chronically derived gag-pro sequences. Nevertheless, the protocol could be readily modified for studies of viruses from other subtypes. Moreover, this protocol details a robust and reproducible method for assessing the replication capacity of the Gag-MJ4 chimeric viruses on a CEM-based T cell line. This method was utilized for the study of Gag-MJ4 chimeric viruses derived from 149 subtype C acutely infected Zambians, and has allowed for the identification of residues in Gag that affect replication. More importantly, the implementation of this technique has facilitated a deeper understanding of how viral replication defines parameters of early HIV-1 pathogenesis such as set point viral load and longitudinal CD4+ T cell decline.

من أجل تنفيذ هذا البروتوكول بشكل صحيح، مما يخلق البلازميد proviral قادرة على تجميع وظيفية بالكامل، المعدية الوهم الكمامة-MJ4، يجب توخي الحذر الشديد لتوليد amplicons PCR المناسبة. تحديد ما إذا كان PCR ولدت في amplicon هفوة بحجم مناسب أمر بالغ الأهمية. يجب أن تكون المنتجات ضمن 100 ز?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Restriction Enzyme Based Cloning Method to Assess the In vitro Replication Capacity of HIV-1 Subtype C Gag-MJ4 Chimeric Viruses at JoVE.com

A Restriction Enzyme Based Cloning Method to Assess the In vitro Replication Capacity of HIV-1 Subtype C Gag-MJ4 Chimeric Viruses

HIV-1 pathogenesis is defined by both viral characteristics and host genetic factors. Here we describe a robust method that allows for reproducible measurements to assess the impact of the gag gene sequence variation on the in vitro replication capacity of the virus.

تقييد أنزيم الاستنساخ القائم على أسلوب لتقييم<em&gt; في المختبر</em&gt; القدرة تكرار HIV-1 النوع الفرعي C-الكمامة MJ4 همي الفيروسات

The protective effect of many HLA class I alleles on HIV-1 pathogenesis and disease progression is, in part, attributed to their ability to target ...

a-restriction-enzyme-based-cloning-method-to-assess-vitro-replication

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

A Restriction Enzyme Based Cloning Method to Assess the In vitro Replication Capacity of HIV-1 Subtype C Gag-MJ4 Chimeric Viruses

15.5K Views.  Emory University. HIV-1 pathogenesis is defined by both viral characteristics and host genetic factors. Here we describe a robust method that allows for reproducible measurements to assess the impact of the gag gene sequence variation on the in vitro replication capacity of the virus.

Video: A Restriction Enzyme Based Cloning Method to Assess the In vitro Replication Capacity of HIV-1 Subtype C Gag-MJ4 Chimeric Viruses

Genotypic Inference of HIV-1 Tropism Using Population-based Sequencing of V3

Background: Prior to receiving a drug from CCR5-antagonist class in HIV therapy, a patient must undergo an HIV tropism test to confirm that his or her viral population uses the CCR5 coreceptor for cellular entry, and not an alternative coreceptor. One approach to tropism testing is to examine the sequence of the V3 region of the HIV envelope, which interacts with the coreceptor.
Methods: Viral RNA is extracted from blood plasma. The V3 region is amplified in triplicate with nested reverse transcriptase-PCR. The amplifications are then sequenced and analyzed using the software, RE_Call. Sequences are then submitted to a bioinformatic algorithm such as geno2pheno to infer viral tropism from the V3 region. Sequences are inferred to be non-R5 if their geno2pheno false positive rate falls below 5.75%. If any one of the three sequences from a sample is inferred to be non-R5, the patient is unlikely to respond to a CCR5-antagonist.

HIV tropism can be inferred from the V3 region of the viral envelope. V3 is PCR amplified in triplicate using nested RT-PCR, sequenced, and interpreted using bioinformatic software. Samples with with 1 or more sequence(s) with low g2P scores are classified as non-R5 virus.

الاستدلال الوراثي من HIV - 1 Tropism باستخدام السكان على أساس تسلسل V3

Background: Prior to receiving a drug from CCR5-antagonist class in HIV therapy, a patient must undergo an HIV tropism test to confirm that his or her ...

In vitro Uncoating of HIV-1 Cores

The genome of the retroviruses is encased in a capsid surrounded by a lipid envelope. For lentiviruses, such as HIV-1, the conical capsid shell is composed of CA protein arranged as a lattice of hexagon. The capsid is closed by 7 pentamers at the broad end and 5 at the narrow end of the cone1, 2. Encased in this capsid shell is the viral ribonucleoprotein complex, and together they comprise the core.
Following fusion of the viral membrane with the target cell membrane, the HIV-1 is released into the cytoplasm. The capsid then disassembles releasing free CA in the soluble form3 in a process referred to as uncoating. The intracellular location and timing of HIV-1 uncoating are poorly understood. Single amino-acid substitutions in CA that alter the stability of the capsid also impair the ability of HIV-1 to infect cells4. This indicates that the stability of the capsid is critical for HIV-1 infection.
HIV-1 uncoating has been difficult to study due to lack of availability of sensitive and reliable assays for this process. Here we describe a quantitative method for studying uncoating in vitro using cores isolated from infectious HIV-1 particles. The approach involves isolation of cores by sedimentation of concentrated virions through a layer of detergent and into a linear sucrose gradient, in the cold. To quantify uncoating, the isolated cores are incubated at 37&deg;C for various timed intervals and subsequently pelleted by ultracentrifugation. The extent of uncoating is analyzed by quantifying the fraction of CA in the supernatant. This approach has been employed to analyze effects of viral mutations on HIV-1 capsid stability4, 5, 6. It should also be useful for studying the role of cellular factors in HIV-1 uncoating.

In vitro Uncoating of HIV-1 Cores

Uncoating is an essential step in the early phase of the HIV-1 life cycle and is defined as the disassembly of the capsid shell and the release of the viral ribonucleoprotein complex (vRNP). Here, we demonstrate techniques for isolating intact cores from HIV-1 virions and for quantifying their uncoating in vitro.

Uncoating في المختبر من HIV - 1 النوى

The genome of the retroviruses is encased in a capsid surrounded by a lipid envelope. For lentiviruses, such as HIV-1, the conical capsid shell is ...

An In vitro Co-infection Model to Study Plasmodium falciparum-HIV-1 Interactions in Human Primary Monocyte-derived Immune Cells

Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of the deadliest form of malaria, and human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) are among the most important health problems worldwide, being responsible for a total of 4 million deaths annually1. Due to their extensive overlap in developing regions, especially Sub-Saharan Africa, co-infections with malaria and HIV-1 are common, but the interplay between the two diseases is poorly understood. Epidemiological reports have suggested that malarial infection transiently enhances HIV-1 replication and increases HIV-1 viral load in co-infected individuals2,3. Because this viremia stays high for several weeks after treatment with antimalarials, this phenomenon could have an impact on disease progression and transmission.
The cellular immunological mechanisms behind these observations have been studied only scarcely. The few in vitro studies investigating the impact of malaria on HIV-1 have demonstrated that exposure to soluble malarial antigens can increase HIV-1 infection and reactivation in immune cells. However, these studies used whole cell extracts of P. falciparum schizont stage parasites and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), making it hard to decipher which malarial component(s) was responsible for the observed effects and what the target host cells were4,5. Recent work has demonstrated that exposure of immature monocyte-derived dendritic cells to the malarial pigment hemozoin increased their ability to transfer HIV-1 to CD4+ T cells6,7, but that it decreased HIV-1 infection of macrophages8. To shed light on this complex process, a systematic analysis of the interactions between the malaria parasite and HIV-1 in different relevant human primary cell populations is critically needed.
Several techniques for investigating the impact of HIV-1 on the phagocytosis of micro-organisms and the effect of such pathogens on HIV-1 replication have been described. We here present a method to investigate the effects of P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes on the replication of HIV-1 in human primary monocyte-derived macrophages. The impact of parasite exposure on HIV-1 transcriptional/translational events is monitored by using single cycle pseudotyped viruses in which a luciferase reporter gene has replaced the Env gene while the effect on the quantity of virus released by the infected macrophages is determined by measuring the HIV-1 capsid protein p24 by ELISA in cell supernatants.

An In vitro Co-infection Model to Study Plasmodium falciparum-HIV-1 Interactions in Human Primary Monocyte-derived Immune Cells

We have developed an in vitro malaria-HIV-1 co-infection model to study the impact of Plasmodium falciparum on the HIV-1 replicative cycle in human primary monocyte-derived macrophages. This versatile system can easily be adapted to other primary cell types susceptible to HIV-1 infection.

و<em&gt; في المختبر</em&gt; المشارك عدوى نموذج لدراسة<em&gt; المتصورة المنجلية</em&gt; HIV-1-التفاعلات في الإنسان خلايا الوحيدات المشتقة الابتدائية المناعي

Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent  of the deadliest form of malaria, and human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) are among the most important ...

Establishing a Liquid-covered Culture of Polarized Human Airway Epithelial Calu-3 Cells to Study Host Cell Response to Respiratory Pathogens In vitro

The apical and basolateral surfaces of airway epithelial cells demonstrate directional responses to pathogen exposure in vivo. Thus, ideal in vitro models for examining cellular responses to respiratory pathogens polarize, forming apical and basolateral surfaces. One such model is differentiated normal human bronchial epithelial cells (NHBE). However, this system requires lung tissue samples, expertise isolating and culturing epithelial cells from tissue, and time to generate an air-liquid interface culture.
Calu-3 cells, derived from a human bronchial adenocarcinoma, are an alternative model for examining the response of proximal airway epithelial cells to respiratory insult1, pharmacological compounds2-6, and bacterial7-9 and viral pathogens, including influenza virus, rhinovirus and severe acute respiratory syndrome - associated coronavirus10-14. Recently, we demonstrated that Calu-3 cells are susceptible to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection in a manner consistent with NHBE15,16 . Here, we detail the establishment of a polarized, liquid-covered culture (LCC) of Calu-3 cells, focusing on the technical details of growing and culturing Calu-3 cells, maintaining cells that have been cultured into LCC, and we present the method for performing respiratory virus infection of polarized Calu-3 cells.
To consistently obtain polarized Calu-3 LCC, Calu-3 cells must be carefully subcultured before culturing in Transwell inserts. Calu-3 monolayer cultures should remain below 90% confluence, should be subcultured fewer than 10 times from frozen stock, and should regularly be supplied with fresh medium. Once cultured in Transwells, Calu-3 LCC must be handled with care. Irregular media changes and mechanical or physical disruption of the cell layers or plates negatively impact polarization for several hours or days. Polarization is monitored by evaluating trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and is verified by evaluating the passive equilibration of sodium fluorescein between the apical and basolateral compartments17,18 . Once TEER plateaus at or above 1,000 &Omega;&times;cm2, Calu-3 LCC are ready to use to examine cellular responses to respiratory pathogens.

Establishing a Liquid-covered Culture of Polarized Human Airway Epithelial Calu-3 Cells to Study Host Cell Response to Respiratory Pathogens In vitro

The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

إرساء ثقافة السائل المغطاة من مجرى الهواء الإنسان المستقطب طلائي Calu-3 خلايا لدراسة استجابة الخلية المضيفة لمسببات الأمراض التنفسية<em&gt; في المختبر</em

The  apical and basolateral surfaces of airway epithelial cells demonstrate  directional responses to pathogen exposure in  vivo. Thus, ideal in vitro ...

Conformational Evaluation of HIV-1 Trimeric Envelope Glycoproteins Using a Cell-based ELISA Assay

HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Env) mediate viral entry into target cells and are essential to the infectious cycle. Understanding how those glycoproteins are able to fuel the fusion process through their conformational changes could lead to the design of better, more effective immunogens for vaccine strategies. Here we describe a cell-based ELISA assay that allows studying the recognition of trimeric HIV-1 Env by monoclonal antibodies. Following expression of HIV-1 trimeric Env at the surface of transfected cells, conformation specific anti-Env antibodies are incubated with the cells. A horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody and a simple chemiluminescence reaction are then used to detect bound antibodies. This system is highly flexible and can detect Env conformational changes induced by soluble CD4 or cellular proteins. It requires minimal amount of material and no highly-specialized equipment or know-how. Thus, this technique can be established for medium to high throughput screening of antigens and antibodies, such as newly-isolated antibodies.

Understanding viral surface antigens conformations is required to evaluate antibody neutralization and guide the design of effective vaccine immunogens. Here we describe a cell-based ELISA assay that allows the study of the recognition of trimeric HIV-1 Env expressed at the surface of transfected cells by specific anti-Env antibodies.

تقييم بتكوين لHIV-1 مغلف مثلوثي بروتينات سكرية باستخدام خلية القاعدة ELISA الفحص

HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Env) mediate viral entry into target cells and are essential to the infectious cycle. Understanding how those glycoproteins ...

Pairwise Growth Competition Assay for Determining the Replication Fitness of Human Immunodeficiency Viruses

In vitro fitness assays are essential tools for determining viral replication fitness for viruses such as HIV-1. Various measurements have been used to extrapolate viral replication fitness, ranging from the number of viral particles per infectious unit, growth rate in cell culture, and relative fitness derived from multiple-cycle growth competition assays. Growth competition assays provide a particularly sensitive measurement of fitness since the viruses are competing for cellular targets under identical growth conditions. There are several experimental factors to consider when conducting growth competition assays, including the multiplicity of infection (MOI), sampling times, and viral detection and fitness calculation methods. Each factor can affect the end result and hence must be considered carefully during the experimental design. The protocol presented here includes steps from constructing a new recombinant HIV-1 clone to performing growth competition assays and analyzing the experimental results. This protocol utilizes experimental parameter values previously shown to yield consistent and robust results. Alternatives are discussed, as some parameters need to be adjusted according to the cell type and viruses being studied. The protocol contains two alternative viral detection methods to provide flexibility as the availability of instruments, reagents and expertise varies between laboratories.

Growth competition between nearly isogenic viruses provides a sensitive measurement for determining relative replication fitness. The protocols described here include the construction of recombinant HIV-1 clones, virus propagation and growth competition and analysis methods optimized to yield sensitive and consistent results.

زوجيا النمو الفحص التنافس على تحديد النسخ المتماثل للياقة البدنية من الفيروسات نقص المناعة البشرية

In vitro fitness assays are essential tools for determining viral replication fitness for viruses such as HIV-1. Various measurements have been used to ...

Intranasal Administration of Recombinant Influenza Vaccines in Chimeric Mouse Models to Study Mucosal Immunity

Vaccines are one of the greatest achievements of mankind, and have saved millions of lives over the last century. Paradoxically, little is known about the physiological mechanisms that mediate immune responses to vaccines perhaps due to the overall success of vaccination, which has reduced interest into the molecular and physiological mechanisms of vaccine immunity. However, several important human pathogens including influenza virus still pose a challenge for vaccination, and may benefit from immune-based strategies. 
Although influenza reverse genetics has been successfully applied to the generation of live-attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIVs), the addition of molecular tools in vaccine preparations such as tracer components to follow up the kinetics of vaccination in vivo, has not been addressed. In addition, the recent generation of mouse models that allow specific depletion of leukocytes during kinetic studies has opened a window of opportunity to understand the basic immune mechanisms underlying vaccine-elicited protection. Here, we describe how the combination of reverse genetics and chimeric mouse models may help to provide new insights into how vaccines work at physiological and molecular levels, using as example a recombinant, cold-adapted, live-attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV). We utilized laboratory-generated LAIVs harboring cell tracers as well as competitive bone marrow chimeras (BMCs) to determine the early kinetics of vaccine immunity and the main physiological mechanisms responsible for the initiation of vaccine-specific adaptive immunity. In addition, we show how this technique may facilitate gene function studies in single animals during immune responses to vaccines. We propose that this technique can be applied to improve current prophylactic strategies against pathogens for which urgent medical countermeasures are needed, for example influenza, HIV, Plasmodium, and hemorrhagic fever viruses such as Ebola virus.

There is an overall lack of knowledge about how vaccines work. Here we propose the combined use of reverse genetics and bone marrow chimeric mice to gain insight into the early host immune responses to vaccines with a special focus on dendritic cells and T cell immunity.

إدارة الأنف المؤتلف لقاحات الأنفلونزا في همي ماوس نماذج لدراسة الأغشية المخاطية الحصانة

Vaccines are one of the greatest achievements of mankind, and have saved millions of lives over the last century. Paradoxically, little is known about the ...

Measurement of In Vitro Integration Activity of HIV-1 Preintegration Complexes

HIV-1 envelope proteins engage cognate receptors on the target cell surface, which leads to viral-cell membrane fusion followed by the release of the viral capsid (CA) core into the cytoplasm. Subsequently, the viral Reverse Transcriptase (RT), as part of a namesake nucleoprotein complex termed the Reverse Transcription Complex (RTC), converts the viral single-stranded RNA genome into a double-stranded DNA copy (vDNA). This leads to the biogenesis of another nucleoprotein complex, termed the pre-integration complex (PIC), composed of the vDNA and associated virus proteins and host factors. The PIC-associated viral integrase (IN) orchestrates the integration of the vDNA into the host chromosomal DNA in a temporally and spatially regulated two-step process. First, the IN processes the 3&#39; ends of the vDNA in the cytoplasm and, second, after the PIC traffics to the nucleus, it mediates integration of the processed vDNA into the chromosomal DNA. The PICs isolated from target cells acutely infected with HIV-1 are functional in vitro, as they are competent to integrate the associated vDNA into an exogenously added heterologous target DNA. Such PIC-based in vitro integration assays have significantly contributed to delineating the mechanistic details of retroviral integration and to discovering IN inhibitors. In this report, we elaborate upon an updated HIV-1 PIC assay that employs a nested real-time quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR)-based strategy for measuring the in vitro integration activity of isolated native PICs.

Measurement of In Vitro Integration Activity of HIV-1 Preintegration Complexes

This report describes an in vitro assay for measuring the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) preintegration complex (PIC)-associated integration activity in the cytoplasmic extracts of acutely infected cells. The integration of PIC-associated HIV-1 DNA into heterologous target DNA is quantified by using a nested real-time polymerase chain reaction strategy.

قياس ل<em&gt; في المختبر</em&gt; التكامل آخر من HIV-1 Preintegration مجمعات

HIV-1 envelope proteins engage cognate receptors on the target cell surface, which leads to viral-cell membrane fusion followed by the release of the ...

SILAC Based Proteomic Characterization of Exosomes from HIV-1 Infected Cells

Proteomics is the large-scale analysis of proteins. Proteomic techniques, such as liquid chromatography tandem mass spectroscopy (LC-MS/MS), can characterize thousands of proteins at a time. These powerful techniques allow us to have a systemic understanding of cellular changes, especially when cells are subjected to various stimuli, such as infections, stresses, and specific test conditions. Even with recent developments, analyzing the exosomal proteome is time-consuming and often involves complex methodologies. In addition, the resultant large dataset often needs robust and streamlined analysis in order for researchers to perform further downstream studies. Here, we describe a SILAC-based protocol for characterizing the exosomal proteome when cells are infected with HIV-1. The method is based on simple isotope labeling, isolation of exosomes from differentially labeled cells, and mass spectrometry analysis. This is followed by detailed data mining and bioinformatics analysis of the proteomic hits. The resultant datasets and candidates are easy to understand and often offer a wealth of information that is useful for downstream analysis. This protocol is applicable to other subcellular compartments and a wide range of test conditions.

Here, we describe a quantitative proteomics method using the technique of stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) to analyze the effects of HIV-1 infection on host exosomal proteomes. This protocol can be easily adapted to cells under different stress or infection conditions.

SILAC القائم [بروتيوميك توصيف Exosomes من HIV-1 الخلايا المصابة

Proteomics is the large-scale analysis of proteins. Proteomic techniques, such as liquid chromatography tandem mass spectroscopy (LC-MS/MS), can ...

Fluorescence-based Neuraminidase Inhibition Assay to Assess the Susceptibility of Influenza Viruses to The Neuraminidase Inhibitor Class of Antivirals

The neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors are the only class of antivirals approved for the treatment and prophylaxis of influenza that are effective against currently circulating strains. In addition to their use in treating seasonal influenza, the NA inhibitors have been stockpiled by a number of countries for use in the event of a pandemic. It is therefore important to monitor the susceptibility of circulating influenza viruses to this class of antivirals. There are different types of assays that can be used to assess the susceptibility of influenza viruses to the NA inhibitors, but the enzyme inhibition assays using either a fluorescent substrate or a chemiluminescent substrate are the most widely used and recommended. This protocol describes the use of a fluorescence-based assay to assess influenza virus susceptibility to NA inhibitors. The assay is based on the NA enzyme cleaving the 2&#8242;-(4-Methylumbelliferyl)-&#945;-D-N-acetylneuraminic acid (MUNANA) substrate to release the fluorescent product 4-methylumbelliferone (4-MU). Therefore, the inhibitory effect of an NA inhibitor on the influenza virus NA is determined based on the concentration of the NA inhibitor that is required to reduce 50% of the NA activity, given as an IC50 value.

We describe the use of a phenotypic fluorescence-based neuraminidase inhibition assay to assess the susceptibility of influenza A and B viruses to the neuraminidase inhibitor class of antivirals.

مضان القائم على النورامينيداز تثبيط الفحص لتقييم مدى حساسية فيروسات الأنفلونزا إلى والنورامينيداز المانع فئة من الأدوية المضادة للفيروسات

The neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors are the only class of antivirals approved for the treatment and prophylaxis of influenza that are effective against ...