Funding was received from the Fischell Department of Bioengineering (KM), T32 GM080201 (MA), Vogel Endowed Summer Fellowship (MA), LAM Foundation (KM), and American Lung Association (KM).&#160;The authors wish to thank Michele Kaluzienski for help with editing.

This protocol was approved by the UMD Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). Tissues from 7 to 9-week-old female C57BL/6J mice were used for these studies. The animals were obtained from a commercial source (see Table of Materials).
1. Manual dissociation
NOTE: This step is adapted from Maisel K. et al.7.
<ol>
	<li>Remove dissected tissue and place it in cold cell culture media with 5% fetal bovine serum (FBS).</li>
	<li>Chop the tissue using sharp dissection scissors until fragments are smaller than 1 mm in any dimension.</li>
	<li>Transfer the minced tissue to a 15 mL conical tube and add 5 mL of media.</li>
	<li>Add digestion enzymes based on the tissue and cell types being isolated. For the presented experiments, use Collagenase 4 (1 mg/mL), Collagenase D (1 mg/mL), and DNase (40 &#181;g/mL).</li>
	<li>Incubate on a shaker or rocker for 1 h at 37 &#176;C with gentle agitation throughout the incubation. Pipette the sample up and down 100 times.</li>
	<li>Add EDTA to achieve a sample volume with a 5 mM concentration. Pipette the sample up and down 100 times, and then vigorously pipette the sample up and down 100 times.</li>
	<li>Pass the sample through a 70 &#181;m cell strainer and collect it in a 50 mL or 15 mL tube.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the collected cells at 300 x g for 5 min at 4 &#176;C. Remove the supernatant using a pipette and resuspend cells in 1 mL of red blood cell lysis buffer. Incubate for 1 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Neutralize the lysis buffer by adding 9 mL of cold 1X Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS).</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the collected cells again at 300 x g for 5 min at 4 &#176;C. Remove the supernatant using a pipette and resuspend cells in the desired buffer or media.</li>
</ol>
2. Semi-automated mechanical dissociation
<ol>
	<li>Place dissected tissue in cold cell culture media with 5% fetal bovine serum (FBS). 
	NOTE: This protocol is intended for cell isolation from solid tissues.</li>
	<li>Chop the tissue using sharp dissection scissors until tissue fragments are approximately 5 mm in any dimension. Transfer the chopped tissue to a C-tube and add 1 mL of media.</li>
	<li>Load the C-tube onto the device. Fit the tube holder plate (Supplementary Figure 1A) over the D-shaped tube bottoms.</li>
	<li>Secure the tubes to the motor plate by latching the tension arms into the acrylic plate (Supplementary Figure 3).</li>
	<li>Set a custom program: Forward, 30 s; Reverse, 10 s; Loop, 4 times.
	<ol>
		<li>Choose Custom Mode from the Main Menu by pressing the blue button.</li>
		<li>In the first custom mode menu, specify the duration of forward rotation to 30 s by pressing the red button until the value on the screen reads 30 s. Press the blue button to select this value and advance to the next menu screen.</li>
		<li>In the second custom mode menu, specify the duration of reverse rotation to 10 s by pressing the red button until the value on the screen reads 10 s. Press the blue button to select this value and advance to the next menu screen.</li>
		<li>In the third custom mode menu, specify the number of times to repeat the selections set in steps 2.5.2-2.5.3 by pressing the red button until the value on the screen reads 4X. Press the blue button to select this value and start the program. 
		NOTE: Custom programs are not stored in the device memory but can be programmed as one of the preset programs for faster operation (device programming instructions are provided in Supplementary File 1).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Run the custom program at 200 rpm by adjusting the voltage control dial (Supplementary Figure 3) until the calculated rpm value in the bottom right corner of the LCD Screen reads 200 (Supplementary Figure 4).</li>
	<li>Add digestion enzymes in 4 mL&#160;media according to the tissue and cell types being isolated. 
	NOTE: For the presented experiments, use Collagenase 4 (1 mg/mL), Collagenase D (1 mg/mL), and DNase (40 &#181;g/mL).</li>
	<li>Load the C-tube onto the device and repeat steps 2.3-2.6 to run the following program at 200 rpm: Forward, 30 s; Reverse, 10 s; Loop, 4 times.</li>
	<li>Transfer the device with the tubes still loaded to a 37 &#176;C incubator for 45 min.</li>
	<li>Load the C-tube onto the device and repeat steps 2.3-2.6 to run the following program at 50 rpm: Forward, 270 s; Reverse, 30 s; Loop, 9 times.</li>
	<li>Add EDTA to achieve a 5 mM concentration in the sample.</li>
	<li>Load the C-tube onto the device and repeat steps 2.3-2.6 to run the following program at 100 rpm: Forward, 30 s; Reverse, 10 s; Loop, 2 times.</li>
	<li>Push the sample through a 70 &#181;m cell strainer and collect it in a 50 mL or 15 mL tube.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the collected cells at 300 x g for 5 min at 4 &#176;C. Discard the supernatant using a pipette and resuspend cells in 1 mL of red blood cell lysis buffer. Incubate for 1 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Neutralize the lysis buffer with 9 mL of cold Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS).</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the collected cells again at 300 x g for 5 min at 4 &#176;C. Discard the supernatant using a pipette and resuspend cells in the desired buffer or media.</li>
</ol>
3. Data analysis
<ol>
	<li>Analyze the data using a graphing and statistical analysis software (see Table of Materials).</li>
	<li>Use unpaired Welch t-tests to compare pairs of samples or groups, with sample sizes n &#62; 4 mice representing 2 replicate experiments. 
	NOTE: Differences were considered statistically significant when (p &#60; 0.05). *p &#60; 0.05, **p &#60; 0.01, ***p &#60; 0.001, ****p &#60; 0.0001.</li>
</ol>

Semi-Automated Mechanical-Enzymatic Tissue Dissociation for Single-Cell Analysis

<ol>
	<li>Wiegleb, G., Reinhardt, S., Dahl, A., Posnien, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tissue+dissociation+for+single-cell+and+single-nuclei+RNA+sequencing+for+low+amounts+of+input+material.">Tissue dissociation for single-cell and single-nuclei RNA sequencing for low amounts of input material.</a> Frontiers in Zoology. 19 (1), 27 (2022).</li><li>Weiskirchen, S., Tag, C. G., Sauer-Lehnen, S., Tacke, F., Weiskirchen, R., Ritti&#233;, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+and+culture+of+primary+murine+hepatic+stellate+cells.">Isolation and culture of primary murine hepatic stellate cells.</a> Fibrosis: Methods and Protocols. , 7113-7118 (2017).</li><li>Wang, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+isolation+and+characterization+of+endothelial+cells+from+juvenile+nasopharyngeal+angiofibroma.">The isolation and characterization of endothelial cells from juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma.</a> Acta Biochimica et Biophysica Sinica. 48 (9), 856-858 (2016).</li><li>Burja, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+optimized+tissue+dissociation+protocol+for+single-cell+rna+sequencing+analysis+of+fresh+and+cultured+human+skin+biopsies.">An optimized tissue dissociation protocol for single-cell rna sequencing analysis of fresh and cultured human skin biopsies.</a> Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology. 10, 102022 (2022).</li><li>McBeth, C., Gutermuth, A., Ochs, J., Sharon, A., Sauer-Budge, A. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Automated+tissue+dissociation+for+rapid+extraction+of+viable+cells.">Automated tissue dissociation for rapid extraction of viable cells.</a> Procedia CIRP. 65, 88-92 (2017).</li><li>Welch, E. C., Yu, H., Barabino, G., Tapinos, N., Tripathi, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electric-field+facilitated+rapid+and+efficient+dissociation+of+tissues+into+viable+single+cells.">Electric-field facilitated rapid and efficient dissociation of tissues into viable single cells.</a> Scientific Reports. 12 (1), 10728 (2022).</li><li>Maisel, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pro-lymphangiogenic+VEGFR-3+signaling+modulates+memory+T+cell+responses+in+allergic+airway+inflammation.">Pro-lymphangiogenic VEGFR-3 signaling modulates memory T cell responses in allergic airway inflammation.</a> Mucosal Immunology. 14 (1), 144-151 (2021).</li><li>Karmakar, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+pilot+study+to+determine+the+utility+of+automated+tissue+dissociator+for+flowcytometry+based+evaluation+of+hematolymphoid+tumor+tissue+biopsies.">A pilot study to determine the utility of automated tissue dissociator for flowcytometry based evaluation of hematolymphoid tumor tissue biopsies.</a> Indian Journal of Hematology and Blood Transfusion. 38 (2), 403-410 (2022).</li><li>Montanari, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Automated-mechanical+procedure+compared+to+gentle+enzymatic+tissue+dissociation+in+cell+function+studies.">Automated-mechanical procedure compared to gentle enzymatic tissue dissociation in cell function studies.</a> Biomolecules. 12 (5), 701 (2022).</li><li>Genova, A., Dix, O., Saefan, A., Thakur, M., Hassan, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Carpal+tunnel+syndrome:+a+review+of+literature.">Carpal tunnel syndrome: a review of literature.</a> Cureus. 12 (3), e7333 (2020).</li></ol>

The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

This device was designed for easy assembly in the&#160;research setting to provide single-cell suspensions from whole tissues for subsequent single-cell analysis. The features, while basic, are sufficient to meet the needs of researchers in academic settings and beyond. A key benefit of using this device is its potential to improve the preparation of single-cell suspensions by reducing variability. Additionally, the ability to process 12+ samples simultaneously could enhance sample-to-sample consistency, which may be aff...

Single-cell analysis has rapidly become crucial for new biomedical discoveries, whether for applications such as flow cytometry, identifying different cell types, single-cell sequencing, or for identifying genomic or transcriptomic variations between cells1. Performing such cell isolations from tissues of interest&#160;requires mincing dissected tissues and pushing them through a fine cell strainer to filter out connective tissue from the desired cells (Figure 1A). Isolating adherent cell types, such as dendritic cells or macrophages, or cells from particularly fibrous tissues, requires additional mechanical or enzymatic separation steps2,3,4. This process is generally done manually, making it highly time-consuming and prone to user variability when assessing cell yields and sample viability. Therefore, it is crucial to introduce customizable options for automated tissue dissociation. While some attempts have been made to design such systems, the existing options are not always readily accessible, particularly in academic labs and lower-resource settings, largely due to the cost-prohibitive nature of these devices5. Furthermore, these devices are not always customizable to the individual needs of a research group6.
Here, a tissue dissociator device was designed to automate the digestion of whole tissues or tissue pieces into single-cell suspensions with the aid of digestive enzymes and mechanical disruption. This device can be easily assembled in the lab, placed into heating or cooling chambers for temperature regulation, customized for the required number of tissues to dissociate, and programmed with the desired dissociation protocols. The broad use of this device could significantly improve the reproducibility of cell extraction protocols and provide a time-saving alternative to manual dissociation.
The design allows for the simultaneous digestion of up to 12 tissues through an automated process. The device is composed of 12 individual motors wired in parallel and powered by a standard wall plug through an AC/DC adapter with an adjustable voltage dial to control the rotation/speed of the motors. The motors turn a hex bolt that fits snugly into the top of the C-tubes. The C-tubes are held in place by downward tension on an acrylic plate that latches on either side to the top plate where the motors are secured (Figure 1B). Because the motors are wired in parallel, their speed at any given voltage should not vary much, but the load (the number of C-tubes mounted on the device) will affect speed even when the voltage is kept constant. To measure rotations per minute (rpm), a tachometer has been incorporated using a hall effect sensor and a fixed magnet on one of the motor shafts (Supplementary Figure 1). The CAD files for building motor arrays are provided in Supplementary Coding File 1. Also included is a programmable switch to reverse the direction of rotation by reversing the positive/negative charges delivered to the motors. All of these features are integrated using coded software (Arduino IDE software, see Table of Materials) on an Arduino Nano (Supplementary Coding File 2). Using connected buttons and an LCD panel (Supplementary Figure 2), it is possible to create and run saved and custom protocols, automatically reverse the rotational direction at specified times of a protocol, adjust speed using the voltage (Supplementary Figure 3), and display the current motor speed and time left to complete a programmed protocol (Supplementary Figure 4).
For the present study, single-cell suspensions were prepared using both mechanical-enzymatic tissue dissociation with this device and manual-enzymatic tissue dissociation to determine differences, if any, in cells recovered for downstream applications. The cell preparations were evaluated based on total cell yields per tissue and&#160;percent cell viability. Flow&#160;cytometry was used to compare potential differences in surface marker expression. Data were analyzed using graphing and statistical analysis software. Unpaired Welch t-tests were used to compare pairs of samples or groups, with sample sizes n &#62; 4 mice representing 2 replicate experiments. Detailed instructions for the fabrication and assembly of this device can be found in Supplementary File 1. Materials needed for this protocol are listed in the Table of Materials.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>&#188; inch acrylic sheet&#160; 12&#34; x 24&#34;</td>
			<td>Acrylic Mega Store</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#189; inch acrylic sheet 12&#34; x 12&#34;</td>
			<td>SimbaLux</td>
			<td>SL-AS13-12x12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>12 G stainless steel wire (for tension arms)</td>
			<td>Everbilt</td>
			<td>1000847413</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>16 G electrical wire (stranded)</td>
			<td>Best Connections</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2 x 3 mm magnet&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>SU-CRO0587</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2-channel relay board (to reverse polarity of current to motors)</td>
			<td>AEDIKO</td>
			<td>AE06233</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>37 mm Diameter DC Motors (12 V, 200 rpm) x 12</td>
			<td>Greartisan</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Rated Torque: 2.2 Kg.cm 
			Reduction Ratio: 1:22 
			Rated Current: 0.1 A 
			D Shaped Output Shaft Size: 6 x 14mm (0.24&#34; x 0.55&#34;) (D x L) 
			Gearbox Size: 37 x 25 mm (1.46&#34; x 0.98&#34;) (D x L) 
			Motor Size: 36.2 x 33.3 mm (1.43&#34; x 1.31&#34;) (D x L) 
			Mounting Hole Size: M3 (not included)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AC/C Power Adapter with variable voltage controller&#160;&#160; (5 Amps, 3-12 volts)</td>
			<td>Mo-gu</td>
			<td>J19091-2-MG-US</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AC-DC 5 V 1 A Precision buck converter step down transformer</td>
			<td>Walfront</td>
			<td>1A</td>
			<td>(power adapter for powering Arduino Nano)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Arduino Nano&#160;&#160; (Lafvin)</td>
			<td>LAFVIN</td>
			<td>8541582500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Buttons&#160;</td>
			<td>Awpeye</td>
			<td>Push-button</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C57BL6/J mice&#160;</td>
			<td>Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Collagenase 4</td>
			<td>Worthington</td>
			<td>CLS4 LS004188</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Collagenase D</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11088866001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM (Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium)</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>10-013-CV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNAse</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11284932001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Double sided foam tape</td>
			<td>SANKA</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Double Sided prototyping circuit board</td>
			<td>deyue</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA</td>
			<td>Sigma- Aldrich</td>
			<td>E7889</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrical solder and soldering iron</td>
			<td>LDK</td>
			<td>1002P</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrical Tape</td>
			<td>3M</td>
			<td>03429NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FBS (Fetal Bovine Serum)</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>16140089</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>gentleMACS C Tubes</td>
			<td>Miltenyi</td>
			<td>130-093-237</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Graphpad Prism</td>
			<td>GraphPad, La Jolla, CA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Graphing and statistical analysis software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hall effect sensor Dimensions : 0.79 x 0.79x 0.39 inches</td>
			<td>SunFounder</td>
			<td>43237-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hex Coupler 6 mm Bore Motor Brass x 2 x 12</td>
			<td>Uxcell</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hex head bolts (M4-.70 X 12 Hex Head Cap Screw) x 12</td>
			<td>FAS</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Jumper wires (for Arduino Nano)</td>
			<td>ELEGOO</td>
			<td>EL-CP-004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LCD screen</td>
			<td>JANSANE</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M3 Hex Socket Head Cap Screws x 12</td>
			<td>Shenzhen 
			Baishichuangyou 
			Technology co.Ltd</td>
			<td>310luosditaozhuang</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M3 Stainless SteelMachine screws Flat Head Hex Socket Cap Screws (30 mm) x 36</td>
			<td>Still Awake</td>
			<td>a52400001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Quick disconnect terminal connectors</td>
			<td>IEUYO</td>
			<td>22010064</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Red Blood Cell Lysis Buffer (10x)</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>46232</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Terminal adapter shield Expansion board for Arduino Nano&#160; 12&#34; x 24&#34;</td>
			<td>Shenzhen 
			Weiyapuhua 
			Technology</td>
			<td>60-026-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

mechanical dissociation of tissues for single cell analysis using a motorized device

Being able to isolate and prepare single cells for the analysis of tissue samples has rapidly become crucial for new biomedical discoveries and research. Manual protocols for single-cell isolations are highly time-consuming and prone to user variability. Automated mechanical protocols are able to reduce processing time and sample variability but aren't easily accessible or cost-effective in lower-resourced research settings. The device described here was designed for semi-automated tissue dissociation using commercially available materials as a low-cost alternative for academic laboratories. Instructions to fabricate, assemble, and operate the device design have been provided. The dissociation protocol reliably produces single-cell suspensions with comparable cell yields and sample viability to manual preparations across multiple mouse tissues. The protocol provides the ability to process up to 12 tissue samples simultaneously per device, making studies requiring large sample sizes more manageable. The accompanying software also allows for customization of the device protocol to accommodate varying tissues and experimental constraints.

This semi-automated mechanical protocol can replicate results from experiments in which cells were processed manually. Cell suspensions prepared using this device and by manual dissociation show comparable cell yields and sample viability across mouse lung, kidney, and heart tissues (Figure 2A,B). Populations of immune cells, such as T cells and dendritic cells, were not significantly affected by a difference in isolation protocol (Figure 2C). S...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Mechanical Dissociation of Tissues for Single Cell Analysis Using a Motorized Device at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Advancements in Nanoparticle Technology for Drug Delivery and Immunotherapy

A general protocol for the combined enzymatic and semi-automated mechanical dissociation of tissues to generate single-cell suspensions for downstream analyses, such as flow cytometry, is provided. Instructions for the fabrication, assembly, and operation of the low-cost mechanical device developed for this protocol are included.

Mechanical Dissociation of Tissues for Single Cell Analysis Using a Motorized Device

Being able to isolate and prepare single cells for the analysis of tissue samples has rapidly become crucial for new biomedical discoveries and research. ...

mechanical-dissociation-tissues-for-single-cell-analysis-using

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

824 Views.  University of Maryland. A general protocol for the combined enzymatic and semi-automated mechanical dissociation of tissues to generate single-cell suspensions for downstream analyses, such as flow cytometry, is provided. Instructions for the fabrication, assembly, and operation of the low-cost mechanical device developed for this protocol are included.

Video: Author Spotlight: Advancements in Nanoparticle Technology for Drug Delivery and Immunotherapy

Microfabricated Platforms for Mechanically Dynamic Cell Culture

The ability to systematically probe in vitro cellular response to combinations of mechanobiological stimuli for tissue engineering, drug discovery or fundamental cell biology studies is limited by current bioreactor technologies, which cannot simultaneously apply a variety of mechanical stimuli to cultured cells. In order to address this issue, we have developed a series of microfabricated platforms designed to screen for the effects of mechanical stimuli in a high-throughput format. In this protocol, we demonstrate the fabrication of a microactuator array of vertically displaced posts on which the technology is based, and further demonstrate how this base technology can be modified to conduct high-throughput mechanically dynamic cell culture in both two-dimensional and three-dimensional culture paradigms.

In this protocol, we demonstrate the fabrication of a microactuator array of vertically displaced posts on which the technology is based, and how this base technology can be modified to conduct high-throughput mechanically dynamic cell culture in both two-dimensional and three-dimensional culture paradigms.

The ability to systematically probe in vitro cellular response to combinations of mechanobiological stimuli for tissue engineering, drug discovery or ...

High Throughput Single-cell and Multiple-cell Micro-encapsulation

Microfluidic encapsulation methods have been previously utilized to capture cells in picoliter-scale aqueous, monodisperse drops, providing confinement from a bulk fluid environment with applications in high throughput screening, cytometry, and mass spectrometry. We describe a method to not only encapsulate single cells, but to repeatedly capture a set number of cells (here we demonstrate one- and two-cell encapsulation) to study both isolation and the interactions between cells in groups of controlled sizes. By combining drop generation techniques with cell and particle ordering, we demonstrate controlled encapsulation of cell-sized particles for efficient, continuous encapsulation. Using an aqueous particle suspension and immiscible fluorocarbon oil, we generate aqueous drops in oil with a flow focusing nozzle. The aqueous flow rate is sufficiently high to create ordering of particles which reach the nozzle at integer multiple frequencies of the drop generation frequency, encapsulating a controlled number of cells in each drop. For representative results, 9.9 &mu;m polystyrene particles are used as cell surrogates. This study shows a single-particle encapsulation efficiency Pk=1 of 83.7% and a double-particle encapsulation efficiency Pk=2 of 79.5% as compared to their respective Poisson efficiencies of 39.3% and 33.3%, respectively. The effect of consistent cell and particle concentration is demonstrated to be of major importance for efficient encapsulation, and dripping to jetting transitions are also addressed. 
Introduction 
Continuous media aqueous cell suspensions share a common fluid environment which allows cells to interact in parallel and also homogenizes the effects of specific cells in measurements from the media. High-throughput encapsulation of cells into picoliter-scale drops confines the samples to protect drops from cross-contamination, enable a measure of cellular diversity within samples, prevent dilution of reagents and expressed biomarkers, and amplify signals from bioreactor products. Drops also provide the ability to re-merge drops into larger aqueous samples or with other drops for intercellular signaling studies.1,2 The reduction in dilution implies stronger detection signals for higher accuracy measurements as well as the ability to reduce potentially costly sample and reagent volumes.3 Encapsulation of cells in drops has been utilized to improve detection of protein expression,4 antibodies,5,6 enzymes,7 and metabolic activity8 for high throughput screening, and could be used to improve high throughput cytometry.9 Additional studies present applications in bio-electrospraying of cell containing drops for mass spectrometry10 and targeted surface cell coatings.11 Some applications, however, have been limited by the lack of ability to control the number of cells encapsulated in drops. Here we present a method of ordered encapsulation12 which increases the demonstrated encapsulation efficiencies for one and two cells and may be extrapolated for encapsulation of a larger number of cells.
To achieve monodisperse drop generation, microfluidic "flow focusing" enables the creation of controllable-size drops of one fluid (an aqueous cell mixture) within another (a continuous oil phase) by using a nozzle at which the streams converge.13 For a given nozzle geometry, the drop generation frequency f and drop size can be altered by adjusting oil and aqueous flow rates Qoil and Qaq. As the flow rates increase, the flows may transition from drop generation to unstable jetting of aqueous fluid from the nozzle.14 
When the aqueous solution contains suspended particles, particles become encapsulated and isolated from one another at the nozzle. For drop generation using a randomly distributed aqueous cell suspension, the average fraction of drops Dk containing k cells is dictated by Poisson statistics, where Dk = &lambda;k exp(-&lambda;)/(k!) and &lambda; is the average number of cells per drop. The fraction of cells which end up in the "correctly" encapsulated drops is calculated using Pk = (k x Dk)/&Sigma;(k' x Dk'). The subtle difference between the two metrics is that Dk relates to the utilization of aqueous fluid and the amount of drop sorting that must be completed following encapsulation, and Pk relates to the utilization of the cell sample. As an example, one could use a dilute cell suspension (low &lambda;) to encapsulate drops where most drops containing cells would contain just one cell. While the efficiency metric Pk would be high, the majority of drops would be empty (low Dk), thus requiring a sorting mechanism to remove empty drops, also reducing throughput.15
Combining drop generation with inertial ordering provides the ability to encapsulate drops with more predictable numbers of cells per drop and higher throughputs than random encapsulation. Inertial focusing was first discovered by Segre and Silberberg16 and refers to the tendency of finite-sized particles to migrate to lateral equilibrium positions in channel flow. Inertial ordering refers to the tendency of the particles and cells to passively organize into equally spaced, staggered, constant velocity trains. Both focusing and ordering require sufficiently high flow rates (high Reynolds number) and particle sizes (high Particle Reynolds number).17,18 Here, the Reynolds number Re =uDh/&nu; and particle Reynolds number Rep =Re(a/Dh)2, where u is a characteristic flow velocity, Dh [=2wh/(w+h)] is the hydraulic diameter, &nu; is the kinematic viscosity, a is the particle diameter, w is the channel width, and h is the channel height. Empirically, the length required to achieve fully ordered trains decreases as Re and Rep increase. Note that the high Re and Rep requirements (for this study on the order of 5 and 0.5, respectively) may conflict with the need to keep aqueous flow rates low to avoid jetting at the drop generation nozzle. Additionally, high flow rates lead to higher shear stresses on cells, which are not addressed in this protocol. The previous ordered encapsulation study demonstrated that over 90% of singly encapsulated HL60 cells under similar flow conditions to those in this study maintained cell membrane integrity.12 However, the effect of the magnitude and time scales of shear stresses will need to be carefully considered when extrapolating to different cell types and flow parameters. The overlapping of the cell ordering, drop generation, and cell viability aqueous flow rate constraints provides an ideal operational regime for controlled encapsulation of single and multiple cells.
Because very few studies address inter-particle train spacing,19,20 determining the spacing is most easily done empirically and will depend on channel geometry, flow rate, particle size, and particle concentration. Nonetheless, the equal lateral spacing between trains implies that cells arrive at predictable, consistent time intervals. When drop generation occurs at the same rate at which ordered cells arrive at the nozzle, the cells become encapsulated within the drop in a controlled manner. This technique has been utilized to encapsulate single cells with throughputs on the order of 15 kHz,12 a significant improvement over previous studies reporting encapsulation rates on the order of 60-160 Hz.4,15 In the controlled encapsulation work, over 80% of drops contained one and only one cell, a significant efficiency improvement over Poisson (random) statistics, which predicts less than 40% efficiency on average.12
In previous controlled encapsulation work,12 the average number of particles per drop &lambda; was tuned to provide single-cell encapsulation. We hypothesize that through tuning of flow rates, we can efficiently encapsulate any number of cells per drop when &lambda; is equal or close to the number of desired cells per drop. While single-cell encapsulation is valuable in determining individual cell responses from stimuli, multiple-cell encapsulation provides information relating to the interaction of controlled numbers and types of cells. Here we present a protocol, representative results using polystyrene microspheres, and discussion for controlled encapsulation of multiple cells using a passive inertial ordering channel and drop generation nozzle.

Combining monodisperse drop generation with inertial ordering of cells and particles, we describe a method to encapsulate a desired number of cells or particles in a single drop at kHz rates. We demonstrate efficiencies twice exceeding those of unordered encapsulation for single- and double-particle drops.

Microfluidic encapsulation methods have been previously utilized to capture cells in picoliter-scale aqueous, monodisperse drops, providing confinement ...

Systematic Analysis of In Vitro Cell Rolling Using a Multi-well Plate Microfluidic System

A major challenge for cell-based therapy is the inability to systemically target a large quantity of viable cells with high efficiency to tissues of interest following intravenous or intraarterial infusion. Consequently, increasing cell homing is currently studied as a strategy to improve cell therapy. Cell rolling on the vascular endothelium is an important step in the process of cell homing and can be probed in-vitro using a parallel plate flow chamber (PPFC). However, this is an extremely tedious, low throughput assay, with poorly controlled flow conditions. Instead, we used a multi-well plate microfluidic system that enables study of cellular rolling properties in a higher throughput under precisely controlled, physiologically relevant shear flow1,2. In this paper, we show how the rolling properties of HL-60 (human promyelocytic leukemia) cells on P- and E-selectin-coated surfaces as well as on cell monolayer-coated surfaces can be readily examined. To better simulate inflammatory conditions, the microfluidic channel surface was coated with endothelial cells (ECs), which were then activated with tumor necrosis factor-&#945; (TNF-&#945;), significantly increasing interactions with HL-60 cells under dynamic conditions. The enhanced throughput and integrated multi-parameter software analysis platform, that permits rapid analysis of parameters such as rolling velocities and rolling path, are important advantages for assessing cell rolling properties in-vitro. Allowing rapid and accurate analysis of engineering approaches designed to impact cell rolling and homing, this platform may help advance exogenous cell-based therapy.

Systematic Analysis of In Vitro Cell Rolling Using a Multi-well Plate Microfluidic System

This study used a multi-well plate microfluidic system, significantly increasing throughput of cell rolling studies under physiologically relevant shear flow. Given the importance of cell rolling in the multi-step cell homing cascade and the importance of cell homing following systemic delivery of exogenous populations of cells in patients, this system offers potential as a screening platform to improve cell-based therapy.

A major challenge for cell-based therapy is the inability to systemically target a large quantity of viable cells with high efficiency to tissues of ...

Protocol for Biofilm Streamer Formation in a Microfluidic Device with Micro-pillars

Several bacterial species possess the ability to attach to surfaces and colonize them in the form of thin films called biofilms. Biofilms that grow in porous media are relevant to several industrial and environmental processes such as wastewater treatment and CO2 sequestration. We used Pseudomonas fluorescens, a Gram-negative aerobic bacterium, to investigate biofilm formation in a microfluidic device that mimics porous media. The microfluidic device consists of an array of micro-posts, which were fabricated using soft-lithography. Subsequently, biofilm formation in these devices with flow was investigated and we demonstrate the formation of filamentous biofilms known as streamers in our device. The detailed protocols for fabrication and assembly of microfluidic device are provided here along with the bacterial culture protocols. Detailed procedures for experimentation with the microfluidic device are also presented along with representative results.

Protocols for the study of biofilm formation in a microfluidic device that mimics porous media are discussed. The microfluidic device consists of an array of micro-pillars and biofilm formation by Pseudomonas fluorescens in this device is investigated.

Several bacterial species possess the ability to attach to surfaces and colonize them in the form of thin films called biofilms. Biofilms that grow in ...

A Novel Method for Localizing Reporter Fluorescent Beads Near the Cell Culture Surface for Traction Force Microscopy

PA gels have long been used as a platform to study cell traction forces due to ease of fabrication and the ability to tune their elastic properties. When the substrate is coated with an extracellular matrix protein, cells adhere to the gel and apply forces, causing the gel to deform. The deformation depends on the cell traction and the elastic properties of the gel. If the deformation field of the surface is known, surface traction can be calculated using elasticity theory. Gel deformation is commonly measured by embedding fluorescent marker beads uniformly into the gel. The probes displace as the gel deforms. The probes near the surface of the gel are tracked. The displacements reported by these probes are considered as surface displacements. Their depths from the surface are ignored. This assumption introduces error in traction force evaluations. For precise measurement of cell forces, it is critical for the location of the beads to be known. We have developed a technique that utilizes simple chemistry to confine fluorescent marker beads, 0.1 and 1 &#181;m in diameter, in PA gels, within 1.6 &#956;m of the surface. We coat a coverslip with poly-D-lysine (PDL) and fluorescent beads. PA gel solution is then sandwiched between the coverslip and an adherent surface. The fluorescent beads transfer to the gel solution during curing. After polymerization, the PA gel contains fluorescent beads on a plane close to the gel surface.

Traditional techniques for fabricating polyacrylamide (PA) gels containing fluorescent probes involve sandwiching a gel between an adherent surface and a glass slide. Here, we show that coating this slide with poly-D-lysine (PDL) and fluorescent probes localizes the probes to within 1.6 &#181;m from the gel surface.

PA gels have long been used as a platform to study cell traction forces due to ease of fabrication and the ability to tune their elastic properties. When ...

Ordering Single Cells and Single Embryos in 3D Confinement: A New Device for High Content Screening

Biological cells are usually observed on flat (2D) surfaces. This condition is not physiological, and phenotypes and shapes are highly variable. Screening based on cells in such environments have therefore serious limitations: cell organelles show extreme phenotypes, cell morphologies and sizes are heterogeneous and/or specific cell organelles cannot be properly visualized. In addition, cells in vivo are located in a 3D environment; in this situation, cells show different phenotypes mainly because of their interaction with the surrounding extracellular matrix of the tissue. In order to standardize and generate order of single cells in a physiologically-relevant 3D environment for cell-based assays, we report here the microfabrication and applications of a device for in vitro 3D cell culture. This device consists of a 2D array of microcavities (typically 105 cavities/cm2), each filled with single cells or embryos. Cell position, shape, polarity and internal cell organization become then normalized showing a 3D architecture. We used replica molding to pattern an array of microcavities, &#8216;eggcups&#8217;, onto a thin polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) layer adhered on a coverslip. Cavities were covered with fibronectin to facilitate adhesion. Cells were inserted by centrifugation. Filling percentage was optimized for each system allowing up to 80%. Cells and embryos viability was confirmed. We applied this methodology for the visualization of cellular organelles, such as nucleus and Golgi apparatus, and to study active processes, such as the closure of the cytokinetic ring during cell mitosis. This device allowed the identification of new features, such as periodic accumulations and inhomogeneities of myosin and actin during the cytokinetic ring closure and compacted phenotypes for Golgi and nucleus alignment. We characterized the method for mammalian cells, fission yeast, budding yeast, C. elegans with specific adaptation in each case. Finally, the characteristics of this device make it particularly interesting for drug screening assays and personalized medicine.

We report a device and a new method to study cells and embryos. Single cells are precisely ordered in microcavity arrays. Their 3D confinement is a step towards 3D environments encountered in physiological conditions and allows organelle orientation. By controlling cell shape, this setup minimizes variability reported in standard assays.

Biological cells are usually observed on flat (2D) surfaces. This condition is not physiological, and phenotypes and shapes are highly variable. Screening ...

Analyzing Mixing Inhomogeneity in a Microfluidic Device by Microscale Schlieren Technique

In this paper, we introduce the use of microscale schlieren technique to measure mixing inhomogeneity in a microfluidic device. The microscale schlieren system is constructed from a Hoffman modulation contrast microscope, which provides easy access to the rear focal plane of the objective lens, by removing the slit plate and replacing the modulator with a knife-edge. The working principle of microscale schlieren technique relies on detecting light deflection caused by variation of refractive index1-3. The deflected light either escapes or is obstructed by the knife-edge to produce a bright or a dark band, respectively. If the refractive index of the mixture varies linearly with its composition, the local change in light intensity in the image plane is proportional to the concentration gradient normal to the optical axis. The micro-schlieren image gives a two-dimensional projection of the disturbed light produced by three-dimensional inhomogeneity.
To accomplish quantitative analysis, we describe a calibration procedure that mixes two fluids in a T-microchannel. We carry out a numerical simulation to obtain the concentration gradient in the T-microchannel that correlates closely with the corresponding micro-schlieren image. By comparison, a relationship between the grayscale readouts of the micro-schlieren image and the concentration gradients presented in a microfluidic device is established. Using this relationship, we are able to analyze the mixing inhomogeneity from associate micro-schlieren image and demonstrate the capability of microscale schlieren technique with measurements in a microfluidic oscillator4. For optically transparent fluids, microscale schlieren technique is an attractive diagnostic tool to provide instantaneous full-field information that retains the three-dimensional features of the mixing process.

Herein, we describe a procedure that employs microscale schlieren technique to measure mixing inhomogeneity in a microfluidic device. Through calibration, distribution of concentration gradient can be derived from the micro-schlieren image.

In this paper, we introduce the use of microscale schlieren technique to measure mixing inhomogeneity in a microfluidic device. The microscale schlieren ...

A Microfluidic System with Surface Patterning for Investigating Cavitation Bubble(s)&#8211;Cell Interaction and the Resultant Bioeffects at the Single-cell Level

In this manuscript, we first describe the fabrication protocol of a microfluidic chip, with gold dots and fibronectin-coated regions on the same glass substrate, that precisely controls the generation of tandem bubbles and individual cells patterned nearby with well-defined locations and shapes. We then demonstrate the generation of tandem bubbles by using two pulsed lasers illuminating a pair of gold dots with a few-microsecond time delay. We visualize the bubble-bubble interaction and jet formation by high-speed imaging and characterize the resultant flow field using particle image velocimetry (PIV). Finally, we present some applications of this technique for single cell analysis, including cell membrane poration with macromolecule uptake, localized membrane deformation determined by the displacements of attached integrin-binding beads, and intracellular calcium response from ratiometric imaging. Our results show that a fast and directional jetting flow is produced by the tandem bubble interaction, which can impose a highly localized shear stress on the surface of a cell grown in close proximity. Furthermore, different bioeffects can be induced by altering the strength of the jetting flow by adjusting the standoff distance from the cell to the tandem bubbles.

A microfluidic chip was fabricated to produce pairs of gold dots for tandem bubble generation and fibronectin-coated islands for single-cell patterning nearby. The resultant flow field was characterized by particle image velocimetry and was employed to study various bioeffects, including cell membrane poration, membrane deformation, and intracellular calcium response.

In this manuscript, we first describe the fabrication protocol of a microfluidic chip, with gold dots and fibronectin-coated regions on the same glass ...

A Microcontroller Operated Device for the Generation of Liquid Extracts from Conventional Cigarette Smoke and Electronic Cigarette Aerosol

Electronic cigarettes are the most popular tobacco product among middle and high schoolers and are the most popular alternative tobacco product among adults. High quality, reproducible research on the consequences of electronic cigarette use is essential for understanding emerging public health concerns and crafting evidence based regulatory policy. While a growing number of papers discuss electronic cigarettes, there is little consistency in methods across groups and very little consensus on results. Here, we describe a programmable laboratory device that can be used to create extracts of conventional cigarette smoke and electronic cigarette aerosol. This protocol details instructions for the assembly and operation of said device, and demonstrates the use of the generated extract in two sample applications: an in vitro cell viability assay and gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry. This method provides a tool for making direct comparisons between conventional cigarettes and electronic cigarettes, and is an accessible entry point into electronic cigarette research.

Here, we describe a programmable laboratory device that can be used to create extracts of conventional cigarette smoke and electronic cigarette aerosol. This method provides a useful tool for making direct comparisons between conventional cigarettes and electronic cigarettes, and is an accessible entry point into electronic cigarette research.

Electronic cigarettes are the most popular tobacco product among middle and high schoolers and are the most popular alternative tobacco product among ...

Automated Slide Scanning and Segmentation in Fluorescently-labeled Tissues Using a Widefield High-content Analysis System

Automated slide scanning and segmentation of fluorescently-labeled tissues is the most efficient way to analyze whole slides or large tissue sections. Unfortunately, many researchers spend large amounts of time and resources developing and optimizing workflows that are only relevant to their own experiments. In this article, we describe a protocol that can be used by those with access to a widefield high-content analysis system (WHCAS) to image any slide-mounted tissue, with options for customization within pre-built modules found in the associated software. Not originally intended for slide scanning, the steps detailed in this article make it possible to acquire slide scanning images in the WHCAS which can be imported into the associated software. In this example, the automated segmentation of brain tumor slides is demonstrated, but the automated segmentation of any fluorescently-labeled nuclear or cytoplasmic marker is possible. Furthermore, there are a variety of other quantitative software modules including assays for protein localization/translocation, cellular proliferation/viability/apoptosis, and angiogenesis that can be run. This technique will save researchers time and effort and create an automated protocol for slide analysis.

Here we describe a protocol for the automated segmentation of fluorescently labeled tissues on slides using a widefield high-content analysis system (WHCAS). This protocol has wide-ranging applications in any field which involves the quantitation of fluorescent markers in biological tissues including the biological sciences, medical engineering, and health sciences.

Automated slide scanning and segmentation of fluorescently-labeled tissues is the most efficient way to analyze whole slides or large tissue sections. ...