YCK承认通过项目NextPhase欧洲研究委员会（ERC STG 278616）的财政支持。作者也承认从中心国家D&#39;空间研究 （法国国家空间研究中心，法国）通过项目SHYRO（动作R＆T R-S10/LN-0001-004/DA:10076201）的支持，从ANR项目ORA（BLAN 031202），从地区德弗朗什-孔泰 ，法国。

该协议包括5个主要的阶段:在第一个，回音壁模式谐振器。为了控制的进展的谐振器的研磨，表面状态的测量被进行。在第三阶段，我们制造的工具，将推出光在谐振器。一旦这两个主要工具的制造，我们用它们来可视光的高Q值谐振。最后，用一个高功率的输入激光束时，谐振器的行为以非线性方式产生克尔梳。 1。抛光谐振器在此阶段，光学窗的晶体谐振器（掺杂MgF 2或CaF 2的，随时可以从光学元件的零售商）的形状和抛光。此抛光过程，并将其转换成高品质的WGM谐振器。定制抛光塔计划1。 <ol><li>上胶晶体光学窗口坚持可以持有的空气轴承主轴马达。 </li><li>外套一个V形的金属导板与相应的抛光支持组织，倾10μm的磨料粉（氧化铝，金刚石，或碳化硅）与水混合。本指南的方法旋转盘（约5000转，将20g压力），并开始把它磨。根据不同的材料和纺丝速度，这个过程可以持续2小时（CaF 2的 ），4小时（MgF 2中）。该抛光步骤将其双凸形状的谐振器。在此步骤结束时，该磁盘应方案2中提出的形状。 </li><li>下一个步骤通常 ​​被称为""程序24的磨削和抛光。它通常由重复前面的步骤，磨料颗粒的大小为10微米，3微米，1微米，250纳米，并最终为100nm。支持组织应适应每个粒子的大小，较小的晶粒僵硬。为了避免划伤和条纹，可以进行导向的水平换算。在每个步骤中的连续的研磨和抛光，表面状态应予以改善。 </li></ol> 2。国家控制的表面<ol><li>在光学显微镜下的可视化控制的表面状态控制的第一步是:磁盘是不透光，在第一阶段，然而，成功后的1微米的颗粒抛光，磁盘变得透明，其两侧反射光线:所谓所谓已达到光学抛光的谐振器的品质因数应在10 5 - 10 6范围内。 </li><li>对于较小的磨料，眼睛不能够评价的表面状态，即使使用一个标准的显微镜。在这一点上，一个干涉测量的表面状态是必要的。使用的显微镜​​配备一个Mirau干涉物镜与白色光源。无线网络的干扰的谐振器的图像第一个参考平面上，从而显示出一个白色的光移相加工工具的表面的高度独立的波长，即几纳米的分辨率的一小部分在每个点。这种测量方法也可以用于评估的盘25的曲率。 </li><li>通过修改样品和目标之间的长度，确定的谐振器的反射光相位，计算出的表面的高度变化。这可以是由于一台专用计算机，自动化，并在地图上的表面高度被创建时，允许用于测定样品的粗糙度。监视器的表面粗糙度，如在图1中解释，停止研磨抛光程序的干涉条纹时，尽可能顺利。 </li></ol> 3。绘制圆锥在共振器中的光耦合，一个非常小的光纤是必要的:它的直径应为约3微米（小于人的头发丝的20倍左右）。 <ol><li>剥去一个标准的单模石英光纤（SMF）关闭一个约5厘米长的塑料和聚合物涂层。对于监测的目的，纤维应被连接到激光源，在其输入端，在其输出端和一个光电二极管。 </li><li>修正每种尺寸的未涂覆部分的纤维，以计算机控制的高分辨率的电机。通过计算机接口的电机，将它们配置为移动不断加速运动，从而使纤维的每一侧拉开。 </li><li>的两个固定点之间的未涂覆的光纤加热用喷灯灯约1分钟，然后再开始拉伸。火焰应轻柔为了不吹锥度一旦它是非常小的。 </li><li>启动电机的运动，并且因此，该纤维的拉伸。一旦开始绘图，人们可以监测传输使用的激光源和一个光电二极管的锥度:干涉图样出现在这个过程中，它们的频率会增加，并且，最后，他们将消失腰身直径在1微米附近。在此阶段中，电机和火焰应同时停止。 </li></ol> 4。在WGM谐振器的光耦合在此阶段，锥度用于耦合光在共振器中观察的空腔，这些值表示在图2中的高Q值的本征模。 <ol><li>修复谐振器一个3轴压电控制翻译阶段。接近它的锥形光纤，在距离小于1微米。锥形光纤和谐振器的相对位置进行监测，由于显微镜，和反射镜是用来控制上的垂直位置和倾斜角。 </li><li>锥形光纤连接到一个可见激光二极管的谐振器应点亮时的耦合效率， 如图3所示。 </li><li>锥形光纤连接一个窄线宽（窄于线宽的共振）的一端，和一个光电二极管的另一端连接到示波器的模式跳自由激光。可以通过以下方式获得在输入​​扫描波长的谐振器的传输响应。评价使用得到的透射光谱的谐振器的品质因数，计算模式和它们的线宽（半峰全宽）的谐振频率之间的比率。 </li><li>更精确的测量进行与"腔环式"的实验26，波长扫描速度不够快，获得之间的谐振共鸣之光衰减在随后的时间和失谐光干扰。人们可以微调锥形的定位和谐振器的Q因子增加耦合，并获得如图4所示的典型模式。相关的拟合曲线给出的谐振器的品质因数。 </li></醇&gt; 5。生成梳在这最后的阶段，高功率泵激光激发谐振器的非线性效应。 <ol><li>插入可调谐激光器和谐振器之间的光放大器。 </li><li>由于光电二极管和示波器，进行微调，使所述激光源的输入波长的谐振旁边。 </li><li>一个高分辨率的光学频谱分析仪的输出光纤连接，增加的输入功率，同时稍微失谐的泵浦波长。新的频率上会出现泵的每一侧峰:这是一个克尔光学频率梳。 </li><li>切换到光电二极管，我们可以观察到不同的频谱模式创建之间的殴打。使用微波带通滤波器，一个可以在该电信号中分离出纯的频率非常低的噪声。 </li></ol>

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作者宣称，他们有没有竞争经济利益。

此协议允许生产高Q值的光学谐振器，光耦合到他们，并引发各种微波光子学应用的非线性现象。 粗磨的第一步骤中，应该给它的形状为谐振器。与10微米的研磨粉，研磨在一个小时后，应该是方便的谐振器的一侧的边缘形（见方案2）。下面的步骤中的谐振器的表面平滑，并达到1微米直径的研磨粉的阶段时，其表面应该是透明的。这就是所谓的光学抛光。?...

回音壁模式谐振器是微型或毫米波半径1,2,3,4磁盘或领域。 ，谐振器几乎是完美的形（纳米尺寸的表面粗糙度），激光可能会被困在它的本征模，通常被称为的回音壁模式下（WGMS）通过全内反射。他们的自由光谱范围（或联运频率）可以从GHz的太赫兹谐振器的半径取决于不同，而他们的品质因数 Q可以是非常高的，从10月7日至10月11日。由于其独特的属性，储存和放慢光线，WGM光学谐振器已用于执行许多光信号处理的任务3:滤波，放大，时间拖延等 。随着制造技术的不断提高，其前所未有的品质因素使它们适合更苛刻的应用，计量或定量6-13 UM基于应用。 在这些超高Q值谐振器，体积小，禁闭，光子密度高，光子寿命长的（比例为Q）诱发很强的光与物质的相互作用，这可能会激发各种WGMS通过各种非线性效应，如克尔，拉曼布里渊例如14-19。在回音壁模式谐振器使用非线性现象提出了一个很有前途的超纯水微波和光波产生的范式转变。事实上，这个话题相交这么多领域的基础科学和技术是一个明确的指标，它具有极强的潜在影响广泛的学科。尤其是，航空航天以及通讯工程技术是目前需要特殊的连贯性，多功能微波和光波信号。 WGM技术超过现有或其他潜在的方法有几个优点:概念简单，Higher鲁棒性，较小的功耗，更长的使用寿命，抗干扰性，体积非常紧凑，频率的多功能性，易于芯片的集成度，以及强大的微波和光波技术的主流标准光子元件整合潜力。 在航天工程中，石英振荡器两个导航系统（飞机，卫星，宇宙飞船等 ）和检测系统（雷达，传感器等 ）作为主要的微波源占绝对主导地位。然而，它被一致认可的今天，石英振荡器的频率稳定性能达到地板，并不会显着提高了。在同一直线上，它们的频率是有限的，通用性，因此难以使超稳定的超过40 GHz的微波产生。微波光子振荡器的预期来克服这些限制。另一方面，在通信工程，微波光子IC振荡器预计也将在光通信网络的关键组成部分，在那里他们将执行以前所未有的效率光波/微波转换。他们还与光波技术的紧凑型全光学元件持续的趋势，这使超高速处理[上/下变频，（德）调制，放大，复用，混合等 ，而无需操纵大规模（然后，缓慢）的电子。这个概念的紧凑型光子光子控制电路中通过非线性介质光子旨在规避源于与有限的光电处理速度几乎无限的光带宽瓶颈。光通信系统也非常苛刻的超低相位噪声微波炉，以满足两个时钟（低相位噪声相当于低抖动）和带宽（比特率增加的时钟频率成比例）的要求。事实上，在高速COMMUNication网络，这种超稳定的振荡器用于多种用途（上/下变频的本地振荡器，网络同步，载波合成等 ）的基本的引用。 WGM谐振器中的非线性现象的研究打开新的视野，为其他的应用，如拉曼和布里渊激光器。更一般地，这些现象都可以被合并在从更宽的视野光学腔与波导中的非线性现象，它是一种结晶或硅光子卓有成效的范例。强有力的约束和很长的使用寿命光子进入圆环WGMS还提供了一个优异的测试台进行调查，凝聚态物理和量子物理的基本问题。比赛不断增加电磁信号的准确性，也有助于回答典型的物理问题，涉及到相对论（洛伦兹不变性测试），或一个基本物理常数的测量ND他们可能随时间的变化。 在这篇文章中，获得晶体的光学回音壁模式（WGM）谐振器所需的不同步骤的描述和他们的定性解释。协议还提出，获得高品质的锥形光纤需要夫妇到这些谐振器的激光。最后，这些谐振器在微波光子学领域，即超稳定产生微波，采用克尔梳子，一个旗舰应用程序介绍和讨论。 在第一部分中，我们详细的协议遵循，获得超高 Q WGM谐振器。我们的方法依赖于研磨和抛光的方法，这让人联想到用来打磨，比如镜头或望远镜反射镜的光学元件的标准技术。第二部分专门用于表征表面粗糙度。我们使用一种非接触式白光干涉轮廓仪测量表面ŗ从而导致表面散射引起的损失，从而降低Q因子性能oughness。此步骤是一个重要的实验测试，以评估质量的抛光。与制造有关的第三部分，以发射光在共振器中的纤维直径在微米范围的锥形二氧化硅。要达到这样的小直径，我们采用"刷牙火焰"技术，同时使用计算机控制的电机，除了拉光纤，喷灯加热纤维面积圆锥20。在第四部分中，彼此接近的谐振器和锥形光纤的使用波长扫描激光的回音壁模式以可视化的共振信号。我们表明在第五部分，通过在共振器中的光功率增加，如何管理触发非线性现象，直到我们观察到克尔光学频率梳的形成，用频谱等距的谱线。由于电子以上mphasized，这些科尔梳光谱具有特殊的特点，是适合一些应用科学和技术21-23。我们会考虑WGM谐振器最值得关注的应用之一通过展示多波长光信号，其联运是一个超稳定的微波频率。

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microwave photonics systems based on whispering-gallery-mode resonators

微波光子系统从根本上依赖微波和光信号之间的相互作用。这些系统是非常有前途的技术和应用科学的各个领域，如航空航天与通信工程，传感，计量，非线性光子学和量子光学。在这篇文章中，我们提出了在我们的实验室中使用的主要技术，建立基于超高 Q回音壁模式谐振器的微波光子系统。在本文中详述首先是谐振器的抛光，这是基于用于抛光透镜望远镜的反射镜等光学部件的研磨和抛光技术的协议。然后，白光干涉轮廓仪测量表面粗糙度，这是一个关键的参数来表征的抛光质量。为了启动光在共振器中，一个锥形的二氧化硅纤维直径在微米范围被使用。要达到这样的小直径，我们采用"刷牙火焰"技术，同时使用计算机控制的电机，除了拉光纤，喷灯加热纤维面积锥形。谐振器和锥形光纤后来走近彼此以可视化的回音壁模式使用的波长扫描激光共振信号。通过增加的谐振器中的光功率，非线性现象被触发的克尔光学频率梳，直到形成等距的谱线的光谱观察。这些克尔梳光谱有特殊的特点，是适合在科学和技术的几个应用程序。我们认为超稳定的微波频率合成和应用，展示了一代克尔GHz的联运频率梳。

这五个步骤的协议能够获得WGM谐振器的微波光子的应用具有非常高的品质因素。 第一个步骤的目的是给到谐振器所要求的形状，表示方案2。这里的主要困难是生产磁盘，其边缘不够锐利，这样就可以强烈被困光子限制，而导致结构脆弱，从机械的角度来看。这种抛光塔也具有非凡的功能，因为它允许研磨磁盘的大小，形状和散装材料具有很大的可变性。 <p cla...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Microwave Photonics Systems Based on Whispering-gallery-mode Resonators at JoVE.com

Microwave Photonics Systems Based on Whispering-gallery-mode Resonators

定制的技术建立在我们的实验室开发的基于超高Q回音壁模式谐振器的微波光子系统。详细协议，以取得和表征这些谐振，和他们的一些应用在微波光子学的解释。

基于微波光子系统回音壁模式谐振器

Microwave photonics systems rely fundamentally on the interaction between microwave and optical signals. These systems are extremely promising for various ...

microwave-photonics-systems-based-on-whispering-gallery-mode

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

16.9K 次观看.  FEMTO-ST Institute. 定制的技术建立在我们的实验室开发的基于超高Q回音壁模式谐振器的微波光子系统。详细协议，以取得和表征这些谐振，和他们的一些应用在微波光子学的解释。

视频: Microwave Photonics Systems Based on Whispering-gallery-mode Resonators

Fabrication of Silica Ultra High Quality Factor Microresonators

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the quality factor (Q) of the cavity, can be in excess of 500ns for cavities with Q factors above 100 million. As a result of their low material losses, silica microcavities have demonstrated some of the longest photon lifetimes to date1-2. Since a portion of the circulating light extends outside the resonator, these devices can also be used to probe the surroundings. This interaction has enabled numerous experiments in biology, such as single molecule biodetection and antibody-antigen kinetics, as well as discoveries in other fields, such as development of ultra-low-threshold microlasers, characterization of thin films, and cavity quantum electrodynamics studies.3-7
The two primary silica resonant cavity geometries are the microsphere and the microtoroid. Both devices rely on a carbon dioxide laser reflow step to achieve their ultra-high-Q factors (Q&gt;100 million).1-2,8-9 However, there are several notable differences between the two structures. Silica microspheres are free-standing, supported by a single optical fiber, whereas silica microtoroids can be fabricated on a silicon wafer in large arrays using a combination of lithography and etching steps. These differences influence which device is optimal for a given experiment.
Here, we present detailed fabrication protocols for both types of resonant cavities. While the fabrication of microsphere resonant cavities is fairly straightforward, the fabrication of microtoroid resonant cavities requires additional specialized equipment and facilities (cleanroom). Therefore, this additional requirement may also influence which device is selected for a given experiment.
Introduction
An optical resonator efficiently confines light at specific wavelengths, known as the resonant wavelengths of the device. 1-2 The common figure of merit for these optical resonators is the quality factor or Q. This term describes the photon lifetime (&tau;o) within the resonator, which is directly related to the resonator's optical losses. Therefore, an optical resonator with a high Q factor has low optical losses, long photon lifetimes, and very low photon decay rates (1/&tau;o). As a result of the long photon lifetimes, it is possible to build-up extremely large circulating optical field intensities in these devices. This very unique property has allowed these devices to be used as laser sources and integrated biosensors.10
A unique sub-class of resonators is the whispering gallery mode optical microcavity. In these devices, the light is confined in circular orbits at the periphery. Therefore, the field is not completely confined within the device, but evanesces into the environment. Whispering gallery mode optical cavities have demonstrated some of the highest quality factors of any optical resonant cavity to date.9,11 Therefore, these devices are used throughout science and engineering, including in fundamental physics studies and in telecommunications as well as in biodetection experiments. 3-7,12
Optical microcavities can be fabricated from a wide range of materials and in a wide variety of geometries. A few examples include silica and silicon microtoroids, silicon, silicon nitride, and silica microdisks, micropillars, and silica and polymer microrings.13-17 The range in quality factor (Q) varies as dramatically as the geometry. Although both geometry and high Q are important considerations in any field, in many applications, there is far greater leverage in boosting device performance through Q enhancement. Among the numerous options detailed previously, the silica microsphere and the silica microtoroid resonator have achieved some of the highest Q factors to date.1,9 Additionally, as a result of the extremely low optical loss of silica from the visible through the near-IR, both microspheres and microtoroids are able to maintain their Q factors over a wide range of testing wavelengths.18 Finally, because silica is inherently biocompatible, it is routinely used in biodetection experiments.
In addition to high material absorption, there are several other potential loss mechanisms, including surface roughness, radiation loss, and contamination loss.2 Through an optimization of the device size, it is possible to eliminate radiation losses, which arise from poor optical field confinement within the device. Similarly, by storing a device in an appropriately clean environment, contamination of the surface can be minimized. Therefore, in addition to material loss, surface scattering is the primary loss mechanism of concern.2,8
In silica devices, surface scattering is minimized by using a laser reflow technique, which melts the silica through surface tension induced reflow. While spherical optical resonators have been studied for many years, it is only with recent advances in fabrication technologies that researchers been able to fabricate high quality silica optical toroidal microresonators (Q&gt;100 million) on a silicon substrate, thus paving the way for integration with microfluidics.1
The present series of protocols details how to fabricate both silica microsphere and microtoroid resonant cavities. While silica microsphere resonant cavities are well-established, microtoroid resonant cavities were only recently invented.1 As many of the fundamental methods used to fabricate the microsphere are also used in the more complex microtoroid fabrication procedure, by including both in a single protocol it will enable researchers to more easily trouble-shoot their experiments.

We describe the use of a carbon dioxide laser reflow technique to fabricate silica resonant cavities, including free-standing microspheres and on-chip microtoroids. The reflow method removes surface imperfections, allowing long photon lifetimes within both devices. The resulting devices have ultra high quality factors, enabling applications ranging from telecommunications to biodetection.

硅胶超高品质因子微谐振器的制造

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the ...

科研

工程学

Development of Whispering Gallery Mode Polymeric Micro-optical Electric Field Sensors

Optical modes of dielectric micro-cavities have received significant attention in recent years for their potential in a broad range of applications. The optical modes are frequently referred to as "whispering gallery modes" (WGM) or "morphology dependent resonances" (MDR) and exhibit high optical quality factors. Some proposed applications of micro-cavity optical resonators are in spectroscopy1, micro-cavity laser technology2, optical communications3-6 as well as sensor technology. The WGM-based sensor applications include those in biology7, trace gas detection8, and impurity detection in liquids9. Mechanical sensors based on microsphere resonators have also been proposed, including those for force10,11, pressure12, acceleration13 and wall shear stress14. In the present, we demonstrate a WGM-based electric field sensor, which builds on our previous studies15,16. A candidate application of this sensor is in the detection of neuronal action potential.
The electric field sensor is based on polymeric multi-layered dielectric microspheres. The external electric field induces surface and body forces on the spheres (electrostriction effect) leading to elastic deformation. This change in the morphology of the spheres, leads to shifts in the WGM. The electric field-induced WGM shifts are interrogated by exciting the optical modes of the spheres by laser light. Light from a distributed feedback (DFB) laser (nominal wavelength of ~ 1.3 &mu;m) is side-coupled into the microspheres using a tapered section of a single mode optical fiber. The base material of the spheres is polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). Three microsphere geometries are used: (1) PDMS sphere with a 60:1 volumetric ratio of base-to-curing agent mixture, (2) multi layer sphere with 60:1 PDMS core, in order to increase the dielectric constant of the sphere, a middle layer of 60:1 PDMS that is mixed with varying amounts (2% to 10% by volume) of barium titanate and an outer layer of 60:1 PDMS and (3) solid silica sphere coated with a thin layer of uncured PDMS base. In each type of sensor, laser light from the tapered fiber is coupled into the outermost layer that provides high optical quality factor WGM (Q ~ 106). The microspheres are poled for several hours at electric fields of ~ 1 MV/m to increase their sensitivity to electric field.

A high-sensitivity photonic micro sensor was developed for electric field detection. The sensor exploits the optical modes of a dielectric sphere. Changes in the external electric field perturb the sphere morphology leading to shifts in its optical modes. The electric field strength is measured by monitoring these optical shifts.

回音壁模式聚合物微光学电场传感器的发展

Optical modes of dielectric micro-cavities have received significant attention in recent years for their potential in a broad range of applications. The ...

Fabrication And Characterization Of Photonic Crystal Slow Light Waveguides And Cavities

Slow light has been one of the hot topics in the photonics community in the past decade, generating great interest both from a fundamental point of view and for its considerable potential for practical applications. Slow light photonic crystal waveguides, in particular, have played a major part and have been successfully employed for delaying optical signals1-4 and the enhancement of both linear5-7 and nonlinear devices.8-11
Photonic crystal cavities achieve similar effects to that of slow light waveguides, but over a reduced band-width. These cavities offer high Q-factor/volume ratio, for the realization of optically12 and electrically13 pumped ultra-low threshold lasers and the enhancement of nonlinear effects.14-16 Furthermore, passive filters17 and modulators18-19 have been demonstrated, exhibiting ultra-narrow line-width, high free-spectral range and record values of low energy consumption.
To attain these exciting results, a robust repeatable fabrication protocol must be developed. In this paper we take an in-depth look at our fabrication protocol which employs electron-beam lithography for the definition of photonic crystal patterns and uses wet and dry etching techniques. Our optimised fabrication recipe results in photonic crystals that do not suffer from vertical asymmetry and exhibit very good edge-wall roughness. We discuss the results of varying the etching parameters and the detrimental effects that they can have on a device, leading to a diagnostic route that can be taken to identify and eliminate similar issues.
The key to evaluating slow light waveguides is the passive characterization of transmission and group index spectra. Various methods have been reported, most notably resolving the Fabry-Perot fringes of the transmission spectrum20-21 and interferometric techniques.22-25 Here, we describe a direct, broadband measurement technique combining spectral interferometry with Fourier transform analysis.26 Our method stands out for its simplicity and power, as we can characterise a bare photonic crystal with access waveguides, without need for on-chip interference components, and the setup only consists of a Mach-Zehnder interferometer, with no need for moving parts and delay scans.
When characterising photonic crystal cavities, techniques involving internal sources21 or external waveguides directly coupled to the cavity27 impact on the performance of the cavity itself, thereby distorting the measurement. Here, we describe a novel and non-intrusive technique that makes use of a cross-polarised probe beam and is known as resonant scattering (RS), where the probe is coupled out-of plane into the cavity through an objective. The technique was first demonstrated by McCutcheon et al.28 and further developed by Galli et al.29

Use of photonic crystal slow light waveguides and cavities has been widely adopted by the photonics community in many differing applications. Therefore fabrication and characterization of these devices are of great interest. This paper outlines our fabrication technique and two optical characterization methods, namely: interferometric (waveguides) and resonant scattering (cavities).

光子晶体慢光波导和腔体的制备与表征

Slow light has been one of the hot topics in the photonics community in the past decade, generating great interest both from a fundamental point of view ...

Implementation of a Reference Interferometer for Nanodetection

A thermally and mechanically stabilized fiber interferometer suited for examining ultra-high quality factor microcavities is fashioned. After assessing its free spectral range (FSR), the module is put in parallel with a fiber taper-microcavity system and then calibrated through isolating and eliminating random shifts in the laser frequency (i.e. laser jitter noise). To realize the taper-microcavity junction and to maximize the optical power that is transferred to the resonator, a single-mode optical fiber waveguide is pulled. Solutions containing polystyrene nanobeads are then prepared and flown to the microcavity in order to demonstrate the system&#8217;s ability to sense binding to the surface of the microcavity. Data is post-processed via adaptive curve fitting, which allows for high-resolution measurements of the quality factor as well as the plotting of time-dependent parameters, such as resonant wavelength and split frequency shifts. By carefully inspecting steps in the time-domain response and shifting in the frequency-domain response, this instrument can quantify discrete binding events.

A reference interferometer technique, which is designed to remove undesirable laser jitter noise for nanodetection, is utilized for probing an ultra-high quality factor microcavity. Instructions for assembly, setup, and data acquisition are provided, alongside the measurement process for specifying the cavity quality factor.

一个参考干涉仪的Nanodetection实施

A thermally and mechanically stabilized fiber interferometer suited for examining ultra-high quality factor microcavities is fashioned. After assessing ...

Fabrication and Testing of Microfluidic Optomechanical Oscillators

Cavity optomechanics experiments that parametrically couple the phonon modes and photon modes have been investigated in various optical systems including microresonators. However, because of the increased acoustic radiative losses during direct liquid immersion of optomechanical devices, almost all published optomechanical experiments have been performed in solid phase. This paper discusses a recently introduced hollow microfluidic optomechanical resonator. Detailed methodology is provided to fabricate these ultra-high-Q microfluidic resonators, perform optomechanical testing, and measure radiation pressure-driven breathing mode and SBS-driven whispering gallery mode parametric vibrations. By confining liquids inside the capillary resonator, high mechanical- and optical- quality factors are simultaneously maintained.

Parametric optomechanical excitations have recently been experimentally demonstrated in microfluidic optomechanical resonators by means of optical radiation pressure and stimulated Brillouin scattering. This paper describes the fabrication of these microfluidic resonators along with methodologies for generating and verifying optomechanical oscillations.

制造和微流控光机振荡器测试

Cavity optomechanics experiments that parametrically couple the phonon modes and photon modes have been investigated in various optical systems including ...

Using Microwave and Macroscopic Samples of Dielectric Solids to Study the Photonic Properties of Disordered Photonic Bandgap Materials

Recently, disordered photonic materials have been suggested as an alternative to periodic crystals for the formation of a complete photonic bandgap (PBG). In this article we will describe the methods for constructing and characterizing macroscopic disordered photonic structures using microwaves. The microwave regime offers the most convenient experimental sample size to build and test PBG media. Easily manipulated dielectric lattice components extend flexibility in building various 2D structures on top of pre-printed plastic templates. Once built, the structures could be quickly modified with point and line defects to make freeform waveguides and filters. Testing is done using a widely available Vector Network Analyzer and pairs of microwave horn antennas. Due to the scale invariance property of electromagnetic fields, the results we obtained in the microwave region can be directly applied to infrared and optical regions. Our approach is simple but delivers exciting new insight into the nature of light and disordered matter interaction.

Our representative results include the first experimental demonstration of the existence of a complete and isotropic PBG in a two-dimensional (2D) hyperuniform disordered dielectric structure. Additionally we demonstrate experimentally the ability of this novel photonic structure to guide electromagnetic waves (EM) through freeform waveguides of arbitrary shape.

Disordered structures offer new mechanisms for forming photonic bandgaps and unprecedented freedom in functional-defect designs. To circumvent the computational challenges of disordered systems, we construct modular macroscopic samples of the new class of PBG materials and use microwaves to characterize their scale-invariant photonic properties, in an easy and inexpensive manner.

利用微波和电介质固体的宏观样本，研究无序光子带隙材料的光子特性

Recently, disordered photonic materials have been suggested as an alternative to periodic crystals for the formation of a complete photonic bandgap (PBG). ...

Fabrication and Characterization of Superconducting Resonators

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for a wide range of applications, including for their use as microwave kinetic inductance detectors (MKIDs) for the detection of faint astrophysical signatures, as well as for quantum computing applications and materials characterization. In this paper, procedures are presented for the fabrication and characterization of thin-film superconducting microwave resonators. The fabrication methodology allows for the realization of superconducting transmission-line resonators with features on both sides of an atomically smooth single-crystal silicon dielectric. This work describes the procedure for the installation of resonator devices into a cryogenic microwave testbed and for cool-down below the superconducting transition temperature. The set-up of the cryogenic microwave testbed allows one to do careful measurements of the complex microwave transmission of these resonator devices, enabling the extraction of the properties of the superconducting lines and dielectric substrate (e.g., internal quality factors, loss and kinetic inductance fractions), which are important for device design and performance.

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for detection of light, quantum computing applications and materials characterization. This work presents a detailed procedure for fabrication and characterization of superconducting microwave resonator scattering parameters.

制备与表征超导谐振器的

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for a wide range of applications, including for their use as microwave kinetic inductance detectors ...

Stimulated Stokes and Antistokes Raman Scattering in Microspherical Whispering Gallery Mode Resonators

Dielectric microspheres can confine light and sound for a length of time through high quality factor whispering gallery modes (WGM). Glass microspheres can be thought as a store of energy with a huge variety of applications: compact laser sources, highly sensitive biochemical sensors and nonlinear phenomena. A protocol for the fabrication of both the microspheres and coupling system is given. The couplers described here are tapered fibers. Efficient generation of nonlinear phenomena related to third order optical non-linear susceptibility &#935;(3) interactions in triply resonant silica microspheres is presented in this paper. The interactions here reported are: Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS), and four wave mixing processes comprising Stimulated Anti-stokes Raman Scattering (SARS). A proof of the cavity-enhanced phenomenon is given by the lack of correlation among the pump, signal and idler: a resonant mode has to exist in order to obtain the pair of signal and idler. In the case of hyperparametric oscillations (four wave mixing and stimulated anti-stokes Raman scattering), the modes must fulfill the energy and momentum conservation and, last but not least, have a good spatial overlap.

Efficient generation of nonlinear phenomena related to third order optical non-linear susceptibility &#935;(3) interactions in triply resonant silica microspheres is presented in this paper. The interactions here reported are: Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS), and four wave mixing processes comprising Stimulated Anti-stokes Raman Scattering (SARS).

刺激斯托克斯和反斯托克斯拉曼散射在微球形回音壁模式谐振器

Dielectric microspheres can confine light and sound for a length of time through high quality factor whispering gallery modes (WGM). Glass microspheres ...

Recombination Dynamics in Thin-film Photovoltaic Materials via Time-resolved Microwave Conductivity

A method for investigating recombination dynamics of photo-induced charge carriers in thin film semiconductors, specifically in photovoltaic materials such as organo-lead halide perovskites is presented. The perovskite film thickness and absorption coefficient are initially characterized by profilometry and UV-VIS absorption spectroscopy. Calibration of both laser power and cavity sensitivity is described in detail. A protocol for performing Flash-photolysis Time Resolved Microwave Conductivity (TRMC) experiments, a non-contact method of determining the conductivity of a material, is presented. A process for identifying the real and imaginary components of the complex conductivity by performing TRMC as a function of microwave frequency is given. Charge carrier dynamics are determined under different excitation regimes (including both power and wavelength). Techniques for distinguishing between direct and trap-mediated decay processes are presented and discussed. Results are modelled and interpreted with reference to a general kinetic model of photoinduced charge carriers in a semiconductor. The techniques described are applicable to a wide range of optoelectronic materials, including organic and inorganic photovoltaic materials, nanoparticles, and conducting/semiconducting thin films.

A Time Resolved Microwave Conductivity technique for investigating direct and trap-mediated recombination dynamics and determining carrier mobilities of thin film semiconductors is presented here.

通过时间分辨微波电导率重组动力学薄膜光伏材料

A method for investigating recombination dynamics of photo-induced charge carriers in thin film semiconductors, specifically in photovoltaic materials ...

Fabrication of Polymer Microspheres for Optical Resonator and Laser Applications

This paper describes three methods of preparing fluorescent microspheres comprising &#960;-conjugated or non-conjugated polymers: vapor diffusion, interface precipitation, and mini-emulsion. In all methods, well-defined, micrometer-sized spheres are obtained from a self-assembling process in solution. The vapor diffusion method can result in spheres with the highest sphericity and surface smoothness, yet the types of the polymers able to form these spheres are limited. On the other hand, in the mini-emulsion method, microspheres can be made from various types of polymers, even from highly crystalline polymers with coplanar, &#960;-conjugated backbones. The photoluminescent (PL) properties from single isolated microspheres are unusual: the PL is confined inside the spheres, propagates at the circumference of the spheres via the total internal reflection at the polymer/air interface, and self-interferes to show sharp and periodic resonant PL lines. These resonating modes are so-called "whispering gallery modes" (WGMs). This work demonstrates how to measure WGM PL from single isolated spheres using the micro-photoluminescence (&#181;-PL) technique. In this technique, a focused laser beam irradiates a single microsphere, and the luminescence is detected by a spectrometer. A micromanipulation technique is then used to connect the microspheres one by one and to demonstrate the intersphere PL propagation and color conversion from coupled microspheres upon excitation at the perimeter of one sphere and detection of PL from the other microsphere. These techniques, &#181;-PL and micromanipulation, are useful for experiments on micro-optic application using polymer materials.

Protocols for the synthesis of microspheres from polymers, the manipulation of microspheres, and micro-photoluminescence measurements are presented.