HZ是由威康信托基金和葛兰素史克公司资助的转化医学和治疗学（德马）计划，以及由伯纳德·沃尔夫健康神经科学基金的支持。 NM是由威康信托博士课程资助。 ISF和PCF是由威康信托基金会高级研究员计划和伯纳德·沃尔夫健康神经科学基金的支持。 NS是由伯纳德·沃尔夫健康神经科学基金的支持。

所有在本协议中所述的程序进行开发和测试之后从剑桥当地研究伦理委员会的伦理审批。 1。握力作为食品相关激励措施一<ol><li>设备和设置： <ol><li>对刺激笔记本电脑交付切实工具箱安装MATLAB。 </li><li>通过以太网端口的力传感器和相关的数据采集系统连接到刺激交付的笔记本电脑。请参阅表1所需的硬件和软件的详细信息。 注意：要运行任务的磁共振成像（MRI）扫描仪的简单咬紧力橡胶球时，链接到压力传感器的扫描仪之外。变化时，它被挤压在灯泡内的空气压力，可以通过换能器来测量，并直接关系到所施加的努力。 </li><li>设立程序不断轮询的数据采集系统，并阅读10 SAMPLES每个轮询。取样品的平均值作为施加的力。注意：皮肤电反应（GSR），也可以沿着计量。对于这种刺激传递的笔记本电脑需要一个并行端口连接到GSR数据采集系统与其他措施同步GSR。使用单独的计算机来记录测量GSR信号，以尽量减少对刺激笔记本电脑交付负载。 GSR测量不作进一步讨论。 </li></ol></li></ol><img alt="图1" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281fig1highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281fig1.jpg" /> 图1。硬件设置为握力的任务。 <ol start="2"><li>步骤： <ol><li>设置设备放在桌子或其他稳定的表面， 如图1。等待数据采集系统连接到笔记本电脑。 </li><li>收集基线测量FOr处的握力换能器和该参与者的最大努力，以下简称为最大自主收缩力（MVC）开始执行任务之前。 <ol><li>将握力传感器在桌子​​上，并收集基线测量。 </li><li>为了测量MVC中，要求参与者保持握力传感器，并选择一个舒适的手臂位置，以保持对任务的持续时间。指示参与者挤传感器五倍硬越好，并采取五个卖力的平均值作为最大的校准任务。 注意：在反应期间由参与者施加的力被测量为基线和MVC如下之间的差值的百分比： <img alt="" fo:content-width="2in" height="44" src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281eq1.jpg" width="210" />如果这种努力是负它被设置到零的最小力，如果它大于校准期间测量的MVC它被设置为100个单位的最大努力。这样做后，如上所述的10个采样点的平滑施加到占任何剩余的噪声。由此带来的一系列努力的样品在响应时间积累和对审判工作的响应存储。 </li></ol></li><li>启动任务。 注意：如果任务会很长，那么疲劳作用可以采取到帐户通过测量MVC在任务结束的欢迎，并与疲劳效果在开始MVCS之间的区别和的结束任务会话。 </li></ol></li><li>关键因变量： 这种方法捕获每个试验​​力 - 时间曲线。从力 - 时间曲线中提取以下变量：在曲线（AUC）下的面积，最大或峰值力施加与速率或力 - 时间曲线的斜率。 </li><li>应用范围： 握力测量的三个应用程序描述如下。 <ol><li>研究相对报酬vALUE：在付出努力的图像选择的任务。 注：此任务测量的相对努力参与者都愿意发挥以查看不同种类的奖励图像，如食品和消费品。功夫评级是有关对同一图像的主观喜好评级。该实验设计如下： <ol><li>目前两个图像并排的任务的每个试验，一个是大（300 x 300像素），并清晰可见的默认图像，而其他小（5×5像素）恍非默认的图像。在传感器发力扩大了非默认的图像和缩小默认图像。 </li><li>选择6张图片从三个奖励类别：高热量的食物，低热量的食物和（特定性别）奖励nonfoods。有一个健康的自愿者团体独立评级为主观喜好的图像。创建图像对，使得每一个图像是搭配来自其他两个类别的所有图像。抵消对这样的EA通道图像显示为默认和非默认的图像在同等数量的试验。 </li><li>运行任务：执行第1.2节中描述的所有步骤。 </li><li>解释审判结构，参与者，并告诉她，她可以增加非默认图像的尺寸的大小和相应减少的默认图像的挤压换能器。 注：制衡确保所有图像将有审判数目相等，其中的努力将放大或缩小它们。 </li><li>设定为使非默认图像尽可能大于每个个体的MVC的10％所需的力（此百分比可能必须单独设置每个BIOPAC模块）。 注：输出力和图片大小之间的关系确定如下。假设双方的背景和前景图像是正方形，让1B中和LF是背景和前景图像的长度分别。设g，GMVC和，GBASE是在一个试验中，最大的力分别在校准过程中测量标定和基线测量时的响应时间测得的握力响应。进一步，假设握力和图像的大小之间的线性关系，LB和LF可以写成 <img alt="" fo:content-width="1.5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281eq2.jpg" width="140" /> 在所述约束下 <img alt="" fo:content-width="1.5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281eq3.jpg" width="120" /> 哪里 <img alt="" fo:content-width="3in" src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281eq4.jpg" width="280" /> 约束确保图像不会扩展超过最高声级，即使力超过GMVC施加。 </li><li>目前任务的简短演示。 </li><li>告诉她可以浏览图片，因为她的动产取决于她是多么努力发挥参与者。留在她自己的参与者来完成任务。 </li><li>后任务完成后，收集视觉模拟评分法每个图像随后的喜好评级。 </li><li>分析数据，为每个图像利用区域的平均下在所有的试验力 - 时间曲线，它是在非默认的图像，并须努力放大。这个平均AUC取作动机该特定图像的尺度。 </li></ol></li><li>检查潜意识动机的食物。 注：同时使用潜意识和意识的刺激介绍，这个任务同时检查潜意识和意识的动机为食。下面的描述中使用特定的感官饱食（见Ziauddeen 等人 16），基于先前的研究。该实验设计如下： <ol><li>选择三种刺激：咸味食品，甜食和中性非食品项目。收集两个图像的每个项目，一个是有意识的尝试和其他的潜意识试验，以减少电机直接s的技术性能的影响12。使用Adobe Photoshop，格式化所有图像具有相同的亮度和相同图案的背景（的黄，红，绿，棕1平方毫米方格阵列）。模糊使用单遍的图像边缘。 </li><li>通过随机扰码的所有图片创建一个面具图像，然后融入他们创建的合成图像。 </li><li>潜意识描述是由夹层屏蔽来实现。要做到这一点本掩模图像为200毫秒，那么对于33毫秒的刺激图象，然后由掩膜再次为267毫秒。对于有意识的试验呈现遮罩200毫秒，那么对于200毫秒刺激图像和落后面膜100毫秒。总的介绍是500毫秒在这两个试验类型。 </li><li>蒙面刺激呈现后，启动响应窗口在此期间，参与者可以发挥力量的握力传感器。通过屏幕上的液位的方式提供实时反馈。 注意：在所有任务使用反馈给参与者的流体水平，柱和可达到的最大高度的高度都随机地改变整个试验。 如柱的高度被设置为介于100，110，和120单位的变化，并且能80，90，和100个单位之间可以实现为每个参与者的最大力量于任务的开始测量的百分比最大高度。而反馈服务于从事学科与任务具有重要作用，这种设置确保有输出力和流体水平从审判审判的高度之间不存在一致的关系。的目的是为了防止参与者从调节他们的努力以实现特定的反馈，如得到的液位，以最顶部。参与者被明确告知，反馈是不可靠的，并指示来判断他们的努力本身，而不是依靠液位。 </li><li>对于每一个试验中，提出了一个固定交叉为500毫秒，接着掩蔽刺激为500毫秒，那么响应窗口为3000毫秒的流体水平的反馈。 </li><li>运行任务：如1.2节中执行的所有步骤。 </li><li>在每次试验要求参与者集中她的注意力在中央注视点。她解释，液面出现时，她可以挤力传感器赢点对刚刚提出的项目。解释说，在一些试验中，图像可能会很难看，并建议她跟随她的本能。强调的是，反馈不可靠的。 </li><li>如需要运行的任务在尽可能多块。 </li><li>继完成任务，检查有很好的屏蔽程序的工作。这可以通过两种方式来完成：通过收集参加者的主观报告，并通过执行一个强制选择歧视。在后者，呈现刺激蒙面作为主要任务，后面两个选项，并要求参与者指出WHICH一人刚刚提出。目前每个图像多次，因为它是在主任务的每个块呈现。 </li><li>计算鉴别力指数（D&#39;）按照信号检测理论，如果掩蔽一直运作良好，在D&#39;应该是接近于零。 </li></ol></li><li>检查食品相关动机的扫描仪。 <ol><li>使用握力球及随附的压力传感器，这些握力为基础的任务可以在核磁共振成像扫描仪上运行。如果反馈的使用，那么这样做如第1.4.2。 </li></ol></li></ol></li></ol> 2。支付意愿作为奖赏价值的衡量标准注：此任务可以在任何适当的刺激传递软件进行编程，只需要一个标准的台式机或笔记本电脑。这里所描述的版本已​​经编程演示（14.5版本，神经行为系统）。 <ol><li>程序： 注意：此过程的修改从Plassmann 13计算机化的拍卖程序。拍卖过程如下： <ol><li>此次拍卖涉及一系列回合，每间均设有一种食物。照片上相同的盘子和背景的所有食品。在此之前的任务显示在参与者的图像用于提供大规模的准确意义上的实际板的开始。 </li><li>给参与者一个固定的金钱预算， 如 3英镑。 </li><li>告诉她将通过几轮的拍卖采取，她可以放置一个出价在每一轮的参与者。她可以把她的出价递加的推移起价£0 - 3英镑10便士的增量。 </li><li>通知一轮将在拍卖结束被选为计数轮的参与者。因此，她并没有传播她3英镑预算在不同的回合，并且可以把每一轮，好像是唯一的一个。 </li><li>告诉与会者的计算机将被出价反对他们在每一轮。如果他们出价高于所选的轮电脑，他们赢了食品项目，并只需要支付的金额计算机的出价，将能够保留任何剩余的变化。然而，如果电脑抬高价格或符合他们的出价，他们没有得到食物的项目，但仍得到保持其货币的预算。 </li><li>解释的参与者认为，鉴于这些规则集，对招投标这​​次拍卖的最佳策略是最接近中标金额，他们将有多少是真正愿意为所提供的食品项目。 注：以这种方式收集的出价相当于其弟。 </li></ol></li><li>应用范围： <ol><li>检查测量灵敏度的变化，内部状态。 注：作为一个概念证明，该措施与变化，饥饿和饱足价值变动的敏感度进行了检查。健康体重正常的志愿者拍卖过程中参加了前吃一个固定的热量餐（550千卡）之后。为SEnsory具体的饱腹感操控使用。 <ol><li>收集饥饿和丰满的视觉模拟评分评级。 </li><li>执行中如2.1节所述任务的第一个块。设计任务，使食品计划项目被选定为一轮计数提供一个非零的出价被放置。 </li><li>目前参与者的食物，他们已经赢得了并给他们15分钟消耗了一顿。从3英镑预算中减去支付。 </li><li>再次收集饥饿和过饱评级。 </li><li>用新3英镑预算执行的任务的第二块。没有食物是赢得了第二块。 </li><li>对比WTP横跨两个街区不同的项目。 </li></ol></li><li>未来的应用：检查涉及价值计算的神经系统。 注：此任务可以设置和功能磁共振成像扫描仪以检验值计算的神经关联。最近有人在药理功能磁共振成像研究寻找使用在多巴胺能影响价值计算为食物奖励的效果。参加演出的任务单块接收的任何一个多巴胺激动剂（溴隐亭），多巴胺拮抗剂（舒必利）或安慰剂单次剂量后。这个程序是几乎相同的2.1节除此之外规模设置为增加20便士增量的事实。相比于类似的任务13，该措施允许弟的捕获作为多个连续的变量，而不是采用一个最大的4个值（对应于标准MRI按钮框的每一个按钮）的离散变量。 </li></ol></li></ol>

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作者宣称，他们有没有竞争的财务权益。 HZ，NS，VCC，ISF，和PCF已经参与了学术合作与葛兰素史克已经采用了一些在这个手稿中描述的技术。

本文介绍了一套动机食物奖励和奖励值的测量措施。握力的措施，食品相关动机在人类研究中的应用是特别新颖。代表性的成果已经呈现对于大多数应用程序的描述证明在食品相关的激励未来的研究和抗肥胖药物试验这些方法的价值及其对代谢和药理操作灵敏度，因此其潜在的进一步使用。这些比较客观的措施是很容易转移和不同的设置相媲美。这也将是有益的考虑个体差异对这些措施通过检查特征，如冲动性对他们的影响的影响。 一些重要的点必须强调。在使用的把持力的任务，在初始校准和MVC的捕获是至关重要的。它是理想吨Ø从每个试验开始捕获响应抓地力，而不是仅仅把它限制在指定的响应窗口，因为这允许过早考试响应。有一个在BIOPAC MP150模块，因此每个模块进行测试，以确定是那件装备最合适的设置方面的一些变化。其中非标准化的图像时，关键是要具有它们独立地评估，以确定它们是如何有益认为是。所有这些措施的一个重要的限制是，他们不喜欢捕捉所用食物奖励，因此采用视觉模拟评分法或其他适当的工具来收集主观喜好的措施，任务后是很重要的。然后，这些可以比较的激励措施或用来模拟其他变量对主要因变量的影响。然而值得注意的是，在实际的食物奖励被消耗的研究，顺心的任务后收集评级很可能会是很重要的受食品消费。这强调不仅具有代表性的图像，但也代表食物如巧克力布朗尼的外观和味道像极了巧克力布朗尼会的重要性，并让这些独立评级。 最后，关键是要承认，所有这些措施，利用食物的图片作为食物奖励，而不是实际的食物奖励的表示。虽然这并呈现一定的局限性，对食品和食品方面的决定先行行为的食品的陈述，而不是通过直接在消费奖励往往引导。然而，它是这里所描述，当它们与成果，如成功申办食品，真正的成果应交付的方法是必不可少的。

食品加工的奖励在人类的研究已收到有关肥胖流行的日益关注一个显著的推动作用。因为在大多数肥胖者的路线肥胖是通过能量摄入增加超出代谢需要1，了解过度消费的驱动程序和机制是非常重要的。当时的型号认为这过度成为nonhomeostatic或&#39;享乐&#39;的饮食形式， 即即是驱动不被体内平衡的需要而是由食品（S）的奖励方面消耗2的消耗。然而，这是一个复杂的现象和稳态和享乐/奖励制度是重叠和互动。另外有一些影响不直接涉及食品，如部分的大小或各种可用3食品享乐方面nonhomeostatic吃几个因素。尽管如此，它要能够表征和测量不同ASPE是很重要的食物奖励的仙。 贝里奇和他的同事所描述的奖励三部分组成：喜欢，想要和学习。这三个组件都是挂，但离解其潜在的神经系统方面。喜欢是指报酬的享乐影响，希望是动机的奖励。学习包括与协会和有关奖励的预测。这些组件被进一步区分为两个子，核心或隐含的，和有意识的或明确的。喜欢是由&#39;喜欢&#39;是指核心目标享乐的反应，和愉悦的主观意识经验。同样希望由&#39;想&#39;的，报酬和奖励相关线索的激励显着，并渴望激励的意识的主观经验，通常是由这个词的理解。喜欢和想要的意识，主观经验是由高胆阐述了核心反应可持续的竞争机制。最后学习过由隐性元素，如巴甫洛夫和器乐协会和联想的调理，以及明确的表述和认知预测4。 奖励的这三个要素联系在一起，但可分离的实验和在他们的神经基础方面。虽然这个框架可以帮助我们了解如何生物体响应一个奖励的时间，如何在与多个潜在回报面临的个体生物反应？根据神经经济学中一个被广泛接受的模型，在行为选择中央阶段涉及计算主观上提供所有选项的值。这种计算被认为涉及评估和加权的每个选项的不同属性，导致单一的可比价值，通常表示为目标值为5，具有最高的价值目标的选项可以被选中。 多少吨他的奖励的神经​​基础的工作是来自于动物神经优雅研究。在调查享乐主义的挑战，目标价值观和动机在人类一直在可靠地，客观地衡量这些不同的组件的难度。要超越奖励价值主观措施，如喜好或目标价值的自我评价，为可能，例如，被记录在视觉模拟评分，这一点至关重要。给予正确反思关于价值和疑虑它是否如实报道的难度，有必要开发了可以验证的稳健的量化工具。 而在啮齿动物中所观察到的客观享乐反应也出现在人类婴儿6，这些是很难在成人体内进行评估。在喜欢或享乐元素从而保持一个很难在成人体内客观地衡量。但是，可以检查希望或动机更客观和精确的这则阐述了一套基于使用的握力作为激励措施的方法。的努力，个人将花费收取报酬的数额是由他们所期望的报酬的幅度调制。对奖励动机具有可操作性的尽力。 Pessiglione和同事们优雅地展示了使用握力为动力的金钱奖励的措施，与参加者发挥更大的力量为具有较大值7金钱奖励。在食物的情况下奖励的食物奖励给个人的价值取决于几个因素，其中内部状态（饥饿或过饱）是一个关键的8。与饱食，有神经活性下降的眶额皮层（OFC），大脑区域的刺激编码的当前值，以收到同样的食物9,10。该项目的OFC向腹侧纹状体的调制激励响应7。因此，一个良好的激励措施应该表现出的敏感性与饱食变化，奖励价值。 要确定目标价值，直接主观评价是不理想的。 ，也有激励与会者透露自己的真实价值目标的利益更间接的方式是使用贝克尔-鲍罗-Marschak所写拍卖11的修改版本。通过一组简单的规则，本次拍卖的过程促使人们揭示的货币资源，他们愿意支付的收购项目的最高金额。他们的支付意愿（WTP）作为衡量目标的价值。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="948">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">HARDWARE</td>
			<td style="width:203px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:293px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Biopac MP150 data acquisition system</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Biopac Systems Inc</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">TSD121C hand held isometric dynamometer</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Biopac Systems Inc</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">TSD121C</td>
			<td>Grip force transducer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">DA100C General Purpose Transducer Amplifier</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Biopac Systems Inc</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">DA100C</td>
			<td>Interface between MP150 and TSD121C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">SS56L Grip clench bulb</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Biopac Systems Inc</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SS56L</td>
			<td>MRI safe rubber clench bulb</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">TSD160C differential pressure transducer</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Biopac Systems Inc</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">TSD160C</td>
			<td>Interface between MP150 and TSD160C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PowerLab 8/30 or 8/35</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">ADinstruments Ltd</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PL358</td>
			<td>For Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) measurement only</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">FE116 GSR amplifier</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">ADinstruments Ltd</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FE116</td>
			<td>For GSR measurement only</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MLT116F&#160;GSR electrodes</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">ADinstruments Ltd</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MLT116F</td>
			<td>Supplied with GSR amplifier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:335px;">Compute ethernet port and compatible with MP150</td>
			<td style="width:203px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>For stimulus delivery and running of task. Ethernet port to connect to Biopac MP150</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Computer with parallel port</td>
			<td style="width:203px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>For GSR recording. Parallel port required to interface with Powerlab 8/30</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;"></td>
			<td style="width:203px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">SOFTWARE</td>
			<td style="width:203px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">API module for Biopac hardware</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Biopac Systems Inc</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Cogent and Cogent graphics toolboxes, version 1.29&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Publically available</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Download from Laboratory of Neurobiology, UCL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Labchart 6 or above</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Adinstruments Ltd</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>For stimulus Display</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">inpout.dll module for parallel port communication</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Publically available</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>For Galvanic Skin Response measurement only</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">MATLAB R2009a</td>
			<td style="width:203px;">Mathworks Inc</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Programming of main task</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

studying food reward and motivation in humans

在人类学习奖励处理的一个关键挑战是超越主观的自我报告的措施和量化奖励的不同方面，如享乐主义，动机，并在更客观的方式目标值。这是特别重要的暴食及肥胖的理解，以及他们潜在的治疗。在本文中描述了一套使用手柄力作为一种激励措施，与食品有关的激励措施。这些方法可以用来检验与代谢（饱腹感）以及药理操作改变与食物有关的动机，并且可以用来评价针对暴食和肥胖的干预措施。然而，了解食品相关的决策在复杂的食品环境就必须能够确定的奖励目标价值观指导决策和行为的选择，人们作出。这些值是隐藏的，但它是可能使用的度量，如以确定它们更客观地支付意愿和对本方法进行说明。这两个组的方法提供了动力和目标价值的量化措施，可以在和个人之间进行比较。

从每个上述的方法的不同应用的有代表性的结果如下所示： 握力为动力的措施 检查相对奖励价值：在付出努力的图像选择任务 这个特殊的任务被用于概念验证的的暴食及肥胖14治疗开发出一种新型的μ-阿片受体拮抗剂药物GSK1521498的研究。在这项研究中15，肥胖暴饮暴食受试者被随机分配到4周的安慰剂或GSK1521498在2毫克/天或5毫克/天。的目的是确定该药物的效应是否有特定的食物奖励，而不影响其他类型的奖励。 图2和3分别示出了从安慰剂的数据和5毫克/天组的食品和非食品的奖励。在这项研究中的关键问题是药物是否会哈已经对食物奖励的特定效果而这一措施允许我们研究的。 图2示出了药物对动机高热量的食物的特定作用，它可以从图3可以看出，有在收获非食用图像没有影响。 <img alt="图2" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281fig2highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281fig2.jpg" /> 图2。付出努力的图像选择任务：付出努力和喜欢食物的图像评级顶部面板显示的握力和施加相应的喜欢收视率基线两组，并分别为安慰剂组和GSK1521498组在治疗结束。可以看出，该力之间的差所施加的高脂肪（HF）相对于低脂肪（LF）的食物图像不再是药物治疗后显著，尽管主观喜好的图像本身也较高。底部面板显示输出力和高脂肪的食物影像顺心评级之间的关系，又在基线两组，并分别在这两项措施之间的天28。相关性被认为是在基线和安慰剂组在治疗结束，但失去了药物组（* P &lt;0.05; ** P &lt;0.01; *** P &lt;0.001）。这个数字是从剑桥等 14）转载。 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281fig2highres.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> <img alt="图3" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281fig3highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281fig3.jpg" /> 图3。付出努力的图像选择任务：付出努力和喜欢非食品图片评级左边的面板上施加的力为vi。安慰剂（PBO）和GSK1521498（498 5毫克）组EW奖励非食品图片。右侧面板显示相同的图像的喜好评级。可以看出，目前对上的动机或主观的喜好，以奖励​​非食品图片无显著药物作用。这个数字是从剑桥等 14）转载。 检查潜意识动机 这种特殊的应用程序是从先前的研究中，参与者进行了食品奖励力任务16两个街区。在块之间，他们是专门吃饱（感官专用）上的两个测试的食物之一，所有的参与者在这一个饮食节目给予他们的每日卡路里摄入量的30％。在每个审判，他们有机会赢得积分对岌岌可危奖根据力的大小它们施加一个夹紧力换能器。有意识的试验，其中危在旦夕奖已提交的200毫秒和潜意识的试验，它只是提出了33毫秒。有两个奖项食品，比萨饼和蛋糕，而作为对照项目1非食品奖。潜意识描述是用夹心屏蔽程序采用正向和反向掩码来实现。对数据的分析中，感兴趣的因变量是握力，这是力曲线（AUC）对所有试验下提取作为该区域。为了让所有的参与者比较，为每一位受试者，AUC为每次试验类型被归由6种的最大平均AUC（吃饱，nonsated，非食品;无论进食和禁食）。这提供了0-1之间的标准化得分为每个参与者。为了控制疲劳，餐后低迷和整个进食和禁食会议上，AUC非特异性作用于每个会话的非食品项目作为一个基准，从吃饱和nonsated措施减去。 （详情见Ziauddeen 等人16）。可以看出，在饱食食品的动机在有意识和潜意识条件减小（ 见图4）。 <img alt="图4" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281fig4highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281fig4.jpg" /> 图4。具体的饱腹感调节动机的努力。（A）在饥饿和饱腹评级食物消费变化。 （B，C）参与者施加少刚刚吃的食物，但仍挤在其他食物，不管认识。 Y轴是在弯道内主体归一化并且对于基线的变化修正下的面积。这个数字是从Ziauddeen 等 15）转载。 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281fig4highres.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。</a> </a&gt; 在扫描仪检查食品相关的动机 参与者在其挤压铆紧灯泡赢得对高热量和在会议结束后他们的午餐低热量的食物分扫描器所执行的激励力任务的会议。 图5给出从10名受试者在最近的药理功能磁共振成像数据的说明研究显示该任务捕获微分动力高回报与奖励少的食物。 <img alt="图5" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281fig5highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281fig5.jpg" /> 图5。力施加不同的奖励类别主题挤压握力球在扫描仪赢得对来自3个不同的类别（HF项要点：高热量的食物，LF：低热量的食物，NF：NEUT拉尔nonfoods）。 支付意愿作为衡量奖励价值 图6给出从饱腹感的支付意愿食物奖励的效果概念研究的证明结果。为方便内科目比较，每个主题的标书由他们的最高出价除以归一化。它可以看出，参与者愿意在第一轮中付出更多的食物。这减少了饱食与600卡路里的食物测试所反映的在第二轮较低的出价。似乎有饱食带咸味的食物更强的效果相比，甜的食物，但这并不显著。 <img alt="图6" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281fig6highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51281/51281fig6.jpg" /> 图6。饱腹感的影响意愿支付（WTP），10名健康志愿者在这个研究的一部分。可以看出，该归一化的平均出价减少以下饱食与研究膳食。作为一个具体的感觉饱腹感操控使用的业绩，第二次拍卖分别提出了从吃饱和nonsated类食物。而似乎是从吃饱类食物的影响更大，这没有统计学显著。

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Studying Food Reward and Motivation in Humans

本文介绍了一套用于食品相关的动机和人类食品相关目标值的测量方法。

研究食品奖赏和动机在人类

A key challenge in studying reward processing in humans is to go beyond subjective self-report measures and quantify different aspects of reward such as ...

studying-food-reward-and-motivation-in-humans

Research

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Introduction to Psychology

Behavior

Unit 1

Motivation and Emotion

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

22.5K 次观看.  University of Cambridge. 本文介绍了一套用于食品相关的动机和人类食品相关目标值的测量方法。 

视频: Studying Food Reward and Motivation in Humans

A Procedure to Study the Effect of Prolonged Food Restriction on Heroin Seeking in Abstinent Rats

In human drug addicts, exposure to drug-associated cues or environments that were previously associated with drug taking can trigger relapse during abstinence. Moreover, various environmental challenges can exacerbate this effect, as well as increase ongoing drug intake.
The procedure we describe here highlights the impact of a common environmental challenge, food restriction, on drug craving that is expressed as an augmentation of drug seeking in abstinent rats.
Rats are implanted with chronic intravenous i.v. catheters, and then trained to press a lever for i.v. heroin over a period of 10-12 days. Following the heroin self-administration phase the rats are removed from the operant conditioning chambers and housed in the animal care facility for a period of at least 14 days. While one group is maintained under unrestricted access to food (sated group), a second group (FDR group) is exposed to a mild food restriction regimen that results in their body weights maintained at 90% of their nonrestricted body weight. On day 14 of food restriction the rats are transferred back to the drug-training environment, and a drug-seeking test is run under extinction conditions (i.e.&#160;lever presses do not result in heroin delivery).
The procedure presented here results in a highly robust augmentation of heroin seeking on test day in the food restricted rats. In addition, compared to the acute food deprivation manipulations we have used before, the current procedure is a more clinically relevant model for the impact of caloric restriction on drug seeking. Moreover, it might be closer to the human condition as the rats are not required to go through an extinction-training phase before the drug-seeking test, which is an integral component of the popular reinstatement procedure.

A procedure that allows a demonstration of robust augmentation of drug seeking in food-restricted rats is described. Following heroin self-administration training, rats go through an abstinence period, in a drug-free environment, during which they are mildly food restricted. Drug seeking is then tested in the drug-associated environment.

一个过程来研究延长食品的限制对海洛因寻求戒断大鼠的影响

In human drug addicts, exposure to drug-associated cues or environments that were previously associated with drug taking can trigger relapse during ...

科研

行为学

Disrupting Reconsolidation of Fear Memory in Humans by a Noradrenergic &#946;-Blocker

The basic design used in our human fear-conditioning studies on disrupting reconsolidation includes testing over different phases across three consecutive days. On day 1 - the fear acquisition phase, healthy participants are exposed to a series of picture presentations. One picture stimulus (CS1+) is repeatedly paired with an aversive electric stimulus (US), resulting in the acquisition of a fear association, whereas another picture stimulus (CS2-) is never followed by an US. On day 2 - the memory reactivation phase, the participants are re-exposed to the conditioned stimulus without the US (CS1-), which typically triggers a conditioned fear response. After the memory reactivation we administer an oral dose of 40 mg of propranolol HCl, a &#946;-adrenergic receptor antagonist that indirectly targets the protein synthesis required for reconsolidation by inhibiting the noradrenaline-stimulated CREB phosphorylation. On day 3 - the test phase, the participants are again exposed to the unreinforced conditioned stimuli (CS1- and CS2-) in order to measure the fear-reducing effect of the manipulation. This retention test is followed by an extinction procedure and the presentation of situational triggers to test for the return of fear. Potentiation of the eye blink startle reflex is measured as an index for conditioned fear responding. Declarative knowledge of the fear association is measured through online US expectancy ratings during each CS presentation. In contrast to extinction learning, disrupting reconsolidation targets the original fear memory thereby preventing the return of fear. Although the clinical applications are still in their infancy, disrupting reconsolidation of fear memory seems to be a promising new technique with the prospect to persistently dampen the expression of fear memory in patients suffering from anxiety disorders and other psychiatric disorders.

Disrupting Reconsolidation of Fear Memory in Humans by a Noradrenergic &amp;#946;-Blocker

Disrupting reconsolidation is a promising approach to dampen the behavioral expression of fear memory in patients with anxiety disorders or posttraumatic stress disorder. In a series of human fear conditioning studies we showed that disrupting reconsolidation by the noradrenergic &#946;-blocker propranolol is very effective in erasing conditioned fear responding.

由去甲肾上腺素能β受体阻滞剂破坏恐惧记忆在人类再固结

The basic design used in our human fear-conditioning studies on disrupting reconsolidation includes testing over different phases across three consecutive ...

A Treatment Package without Escape Extinction to Address Food Selectivity

Feeding difficulties and feeding disorders are a commonly occurring problem for young children, particularly children with developmental delays including autism. Behavior analytic interventions for the treatment of feeding difficulties oftentimes include escape extinction as a primary component of treatment. The use of escape extinction, while effective, may be problematic as it is also associated with the emergence of challenging behavior (e.g., extinction burst). Such challenging behavior may be an acceptable side effect in treatment cases where feeding problems are severe and chronic (e.g., failure to thrive). However, in more acute cases (e.g., selective eating), the negative side effect may be unwarranted and undesired. More recent research on the behavioral treatment of food selectivity has begun to evaluate treatments for feeding difficulties that do not include escape extinction (e.g., demand fading, behavioral momentum), with some success. However, research to date reveals individual differences in responsiveness to such treatments and no clear preferable treatment has emerged. This manuscript describes a multi-component treatment package that includes shaping, sequential presentation and simultaneous presentation, for the treatment of food selectivity in four young children with developmental delays. This treatment package extends the literature on the behavioral treatment for food selectivity and offers a multi-component treatment protocol that may be clinically applicable across a range of treatment scenarios and settings.

Feeding difficulties are a common problem for children with developmental disorders, including autism, and behavioral interventions often include escape extinction. Recent research has begun to evaluate treatments that do not include escape extinction. This manuscript describes a multicomponent treatment package that does not use escape extinction to treat feeding difficulties.

一个疗程装没有逃脱灭绝解决粮食选择性

Feeding difficulties and feeding disorders are a commonly occurring problem for young children, particularly children with developmental delays including ...

Quantifying Social Motivation in Mice Using Operant Conditioning

In this protocol, social motivation is measured in mice through a pair of operant conditioning paradigms. To conduct the experiments, two-chambered shuttle boxes were equipped with two operant levers (left and right) and a food receptacle in one chamber, which was then divided from the second chamber by an automated guillotine door covered by a wire grid. Different stimulus mice, rotated across testing days, served as a social stimulus behind the wire grid, and were only visible following the opening of the guillotine door. Test mice were trained to lever press in order to open the door and gain access to the stimulus partner for 15 sec. The number of lever presses required to obtain the social reward progressively increased on a fixed schedule of 3. Testing sessions ended after test mice stopped lever pressing for 5 consecutive minutes. The last reinforced ratio or breakpoint can be used as a quantitative measure of social motivation. For the second paradigm, test mice were trained to discriminate between left and right lever presses in order to obtain either a food reward or the social reward. Mice were rewarded for every 3 presses of each respective lever. The number of food and social rewards can be compared as a measurement of the value placed upon each reward. The ratio of each reward type can also be compared between mouse strains and the change in this ratio can be monitored within testing sessions to measure satiation with a given reward type. Both of these operant conditioning paradigms are highly useful for the quantification of social motivation in mouse models of autism and other disorders of social behavior.

This article describes a new protocol for the quantitative measurement of social motivation in mice using operant conditioning for a social reward. The protocol is useful for the measurement of social motivation in mouse models of autism and other disorders of social behavior.

量化的社会动机小鼠使用操作条件反射

In this protocol, social motivation is measured in mice through a pair of operant conditioning paradigms. To conduct the experiments, two-chambered ...

Force and Position Control in Humans - The Role of Augmented Feedback

During motor behaviour, humans interact with the environment by for example manipulating objects and this is only possible because sensory feedback is constantly integrated into the central nervous system and these sensory inputs need to be weighted in order meet the task specific goals. Additional feedback presented as augmented feedback was shown to have an impact on motor control and motor learning. A number of studies investigated whether force or position feedback has an influence on motor control and neural activation. However, as in the previous studies the presentation of the force and position feedback was always identical, a recent study assessed whether not only the content but also the interpretation of the feedback has an influence on the time to fatigue of a sustained submaximal contraction and the (inhibitory) activity of the primary motor cortex using subthreshold transcranial magnetic stimulation. This paper describes one possible way to investigate the influence of the interpretation of feedback on motor behaviour by investigating the time to fatigue of submaximal sustained contractions together with the neuromuscular adaptations that can be investigated using surface EMG. Furthermore, the current protocol also describes how motor cortical (inhibitory) activity can be investigated using subthreshold TMS, a method known to act solely on the cortical level. The results show that when participants interpret the feedback as position feedback, they display a significantly shorter time to fatigue of a submaximal sustained contraction. Furthermore, subjects also displayed an increased inhibitory activity of the primary cortex when they believed to receive position feedback compared when they believed to receive force feedback. Accordingly, the results show that interpretation of feedback results in differences on a behavioural level (time to fatigue) that is also reflected in interpretation-specific differences in the amount of inhibitory M1 activity.

Controlling an identical movement with position or force feedback results in different neural activation and motor behavior. This protocol describes how to investigate behavioral changes by looking at neuromuscular fatigue and how to evaluate motor cortical (inhibitory) activity using subthreshold TMS with respect to the interpretation of augmented feedback.

力和位置控制人类 - 增强反馈的作用

During motor behaviour, humans interact with the environment by for example manipulating objects and this is only possible because sensory feedback is ...

Measuring Delay Discounting in Humans Using an Adjusting Amount Task

Delay discounting refers to a decline in the value of a reward when it is delayed relative to when it is immediately available. Delay discounting tasks are used to identify indifference points, which reflect equal preference for two dichotomous reward alternatives differing in both delay and magnitude. Indifference points are key to assessing the shape of a delay-discounting gradient because they allow us to isolate the effect of delay on value. For example, if at a 1 week delay and a maximum of $1,000, the indifference point is at $700 we know that, for that participant, a 1-week delay corresponds to a 30% reduction in value. This video outlines an adjusting amount delay-discounting task that identifies indifference points relatively quickly and is inexpensive and easy to administer. Once data have been collected, non-linear regression techniques are typically used to generate discounting curves. The steepness of the discounting curve reflects the degree of impulsive choice of a group or individual. These techniques have been used with a wide range of commodities and have identified populations that are relatively impulsive. For example, people with substance abuse problems discount delayed rewards more steeply than control participants. Although degree of discounting varies as a function of the commodity examined, discounting of one commodity correlates with discounting of other commodities, which suggests that discounting may be a persistent pattern of behavior1.

Delay discounting refers to a decline in the value of a reward when it is delayed relative to when it is immediately available. We outline a computer-based delay discounting task that is easy to implement and allows for the quantification of the degree of delay discounting in human participants.

测量延迟贴现在人类使用的调量任务

Delay discounting refers to a decline in the value of a reward when it is delayed relative to when it is immediately available. Delay discounting tasks ...

A Protocol of Manual Tests to Measure Sensation and Pain in Humans

Numerous qualitative and quantitative techniques can be used to test sensory nerves and pain in both research and clinical settings. The current study demonstrates a quantitative sensory testing protocol using techniques to measure tactile sensation and pain threshold for pressure and heat using portable and easily accessed equipment. These techniques and equipment are ideal for new laboratories and clinics where cost is a concern or a limiting factor. We demonstrate measurement techniques for the following: cutaneous mechanical sensitivity on the arms and legs (von-Frey filaments), radiant and contact heat sensitivity (with both threshold and qualitative assessments using the Visual Analog Scale (VAS)), and mechanical pressure sensitivity (algometer, with both threshold and the VAS). The techniques and equipment described and demonstrated here can be easily purchased, stored, and transported by most clinics and research laboratories around the world. A limitation of this approach is a lack of automation or computer control. Thus, these processes can be more labor intensive in terms of personnel training and data recording than the more sophisticated equipment. We provide a set of reliability data for the demonstrated techniques. From our description, a new laboratory should be able to set up and run these tests and to develop their own internal reliability data.

The goal of this procedure is to demonstrate a battery of quantitative techniques for sensory and pain measurement in humans. The equipment and techniques described are commonly found in pain clinics or are easy to obtain.

手动测试的协议来衡量感觉和疼痛人类

Numerous qualitative and quantitative techniques can be used to test sensory nerves and pain in both research and clinical settings. The current study ...

Combining Quantitative Food-intake Assays and Forcibly Activating Neurons to Study Appetite in Drosophila

Food consumption is under the tight control of the brain, which integrates the physiological status, palatability, and nutritional contents of the food, and issues commands to start or stop feeding. Deciphering the processes underlying the decision-making of timely and moderate feeding carries major implications in our understanding of physiological and psychological disorders related to feeding control. Simple, quantitative, and robust methods are required to measure the food ingestion of animals after experimental manipulation, such as forcibly increasing the activities of certain target neurons. Here, we introduced dye-labeling-based feeding assays to facilitate the neurogenetic study of feeding control in adult fruit flies. We review available feeding assays, and then describe our methods step-by-step from setup to analysis, which combine thermogenetic and optogenetic manipulation of neurons controlling feeding motivation with dye-labeled food intake assay. We also discuss the advantages and limitations of our methods, compared with other feeding assays, to help readers choose an appropriate assay.

Combining Quantitative Food-intake Assays and Forcibly Activating Neurons to Study Appetite in Drosophila

Quantitative food-intake assays with dyed food provide a robust and high-throughput means to evaluate feeding motivation. Combining the food consumption assay with thermogenetic and optogenetic screens is a powerful approach to investigate the neural circuits underlying appetite in adult Drosophila melanogaster.

在果蝇中结合定量食物摄入量测定和强迫激活神经元研究食欲

Food consumption is under the tight control of the brain, which integrates the physiological status, palatability, and nutritional contents of the food, ...

An Electrophysiology Protocol to Measure Reward Anticipation and Processing in Children

We present a protocol designed to measure the neural correlates of reward in children. The protocol allows researchers to measure both reward anticipation and processing. Its purpose is to create a reward task that is appropriate for young children with and without autism while controlling reward properties between two conditions: social and nonsocial. The current protocol allows for comparisons of brain activity between social and nonsocial reward conditions while keeping the reward itself identical between conditions. Using this protocol, we found evidence that neurotypical children demonstrate enhanced anticipatory brain activity during the social condition. Furthermore, we found that neurotypical children anticipate social reward more robustly than children with autism diagnoses. As the task uses snacks as a reward, it is most appropriate for young children. However, the protocol may be adapted for use with adolescent or adult populations if snacks are replaced by monetary incentives. The protocol is designed to measure electrophysiological events (event-related potentials), but it may be customized for use with eye-tracking or fMRI.

This protocol is designed to measure reward anticipation and processing in young children with and without autism. Specifically, the protocol is designed to study the neural correlates of reward during social and nonsocial conditions while controlling for reward between conditions.

儿童奖励预期与处理的电生理学协议

We present a protocol designed to measure the neural correlates of reward in children. The protocol allows researchers to measure both reward anticipation ...

A Conflict Model of Reward-seeking Behavior in Male Rats

The present protocol describes a novel conflict task as a model of inhibitory control in rats. In this model, a natural rewarding stimulus (sexual stimulus) that represents a high-value reward, and the aversive stimuli (pins), are concurrently presented. The male rats have to climb or jump over the obstacle full of pins to approach and investigate the sexual partner. If the animal persists in their approaching behavior regardless of the aversive stimuli, it is considered as a maladaptive or risky reward-seeking behavior. The conflict task permits the evaluation of deficit in inhibitory control resulting from exposure to abused drug, such as morphine, or a stressful event. 
The main advantage of this model is that it provides a simple and quick way to discover the deficit in inhibitory control after exposure to opiate drugs or other stressful events. In addition to opiates, this behavioral model would also be useful for quickly discovering the inhibitory control deficits induced by other addictive drugs. However, the limitation is that the male rats' performance may be subject to exercising effects with repeated testing under this conflict task. In the future, one can hope that the individuals with the compulsive phenotype of reward-seeking behavior after exposure to opiates will be identified based on modifying this conflict model.

This conflict model is used to measure the impairment of inhibitory control after exposure to addictive drugs, or other factors that may influence inhibitory control. A sexual stimulus and an aversive obstacle are concurrently presented, thus male rats have to conquer the obstacle to approach the sexual reward.