This work has been funded in part with federal funds from the Centers of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance (CEIRS), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, under Contract No. HHSN272201400006C.

以下数据收集中使用的所有的猪都在美国俄亥俄州立大学机构动物护理和使用委员会保护（动物使用的协议号2009A0134-R1）。 1.准备病毒传输介质和样品收集瓶<ol><li>加37个克脑心浸液的900毫升纯化水中，并用搅拌棒和磁力搅拌器充分混合，同时加热至70℃以完全溶解粉末。 </li><li>高压灭菌的肉汤在121℃下进行15分钟。酷板凳上的顶部，直至汤汁达到室温。冷藏于4℃过夜如果需要的话。 </li><li>溶解，通过用磁力搅拌棒，6.02克青霉素G钠盐和10g硫酸链霉素到50ml的纯净水中，在室温下混合。添加额外的纯化水，使总体积为100毫升。过滤通过0.22μm聚醚砜膜的溶液到无菌瓶。 </li><li>无菌添加过滤青霉素和链霉素溶液到冷却的脑心浸液肉汤调匀（搅拌棒或用手涡旋烧瓶）以使病毒运输介质。 </li><li>无菌测试病毒运输介质的pH;如果需要的话，用盐酸或氢氧化钠将pH调节至7.4±0.2。 </li><li>通过测试的A型流感病毒基质蛋白RRT-PCR检测，所描述的张某和哈蒙执行病毒传输介质的质量保证测试。22 </li><li>分配将5ml病毒运输介质的到无菌的高密度聚乙烯瓶用8ml容量。标签小瓶在现场使用。 </li><li>存储准备使用的小瓶中标准的冷冻箱在-20℃下直到样品收集。 </li></ol> 2.收集鼻湿巾从猪<ol><li>解冻小瓶样品采集前夕适当数量的;一小瓶将每头猪的采样是必要的。解冻在室温温度大约需要30-45分钟。保持解冻瓶清凉冰袋直至使用。 </li><li>唐适当的个人防护装备的情况所决定（ 如工作服，靴套，口罩，耳塞等 ）。 </li><li>进入动物区。如果需要，限制了猪的小区域，但也没有限制。不要吵醒休息的动物。 </li><li>穿上一双一次性检查手套。请注意不要触摸猪，人，或无生命的物体污染的手套。 </li><li> （在2×2英寸）从包装用戴着手套的手，除去无菌5.08厘米×5.08厘米棉花纱布垫。无菌纱布垫应尽可能使用。独立包装纱布垫比那些包裹着每个套餐二纱布垫使用起来更加方便。 </li><li>持棉花纱布垫用一只手指尖暴露尽可能多的垫尽可能进行采样。 </li><li>擦拭整个猪的口鼻部的纱布垫，以如果可能的话格外小心，输入外部鼻孔。收集可见鼻腔分泌物（约1毫升）使用相同的纱布垫。 </li><li>其自身使用相同的手，折叠纱布垫，以方便放置于含有病毒运输介质中的小瓶中。 </li><li>使用另一只手，除去从药瓶的盖和将折叠的纱布垫入小瓶中。重新盖上小瓶并摇动小瓶以确保纱布垫和病毒运输介质的混合。 </li><li>在适当的容器中取出手套和地点。更改每头猪的手套。 </li><li>验证小瓶标识符。记录猪识别号码，年龄，性别，临床症状，并认为必要的研究者其它注释。 </li><li>采集后立即冷却该样品。考虑冻结防止多个冻融循环之前使样品的等分试样。一旦收集后可能，将样品在干冰上运送到实验室。存放小瓶于-80°C，直到试验开始。 </li></ol>检测流感3.病毒核酸<ol><li>解冻在37℃的干燥珠浴样品5分钟，然后完成解冻置于工作台顶部，将样品在室温下20-30分钟。同时加入几个小瓶至珠会导致浴加热;应谨慎行事，以不过热的小瓶。 </li><li>取出100μl病毒传输介质的RNA提取。 <ol><li>使用高通量（96孔板格式）磁珠平台，用于从大量样本中提取RNA。31 </li></ol></li><li>使用实时逆转录聚合酶链反应检测的快速检测甲型流感病毒。31 </li></ol> 4.隔离流感从鼻湿巾病毒<ol><li>如第3.1节上述解冻的样本</li><li>治疗解冻样品硫酸庆大霉素（1000微克/毫升），两性霉素B（22.5微克/毫升），和硫酸卡那霉素（325微克/毫升）。 </li><li>接种入的Madin-Darby犬肾（MDCK）的上皮细胞如前所述。32 </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Ma, W., Kahn, R. E., Richt, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+pig+as+a+mixing+vessel+for+influenza+viruses:+Human+and+veterinary+implications.">The pig as a mixing vessel for influenza viruses: Human and veterinary implications.</a> J. Mol. Genet. Med. 3 (1), 158-166 (2008).</li><li>Nelson, M. I., Vincent, A. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reverse+zoonosis+of+influenza+to+swine:+new+perspectives+on+the+human-animal+interface.">Reverse zoonosis of influenza to swine: new perspectives on the human-animal interface.</a> Trends Microbiol. 23, (2015).</li><li>Zhou, N. N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+reassortment+of+avian,+swine,+and+human+influenza+A+viruses+in+American+pigs.">Genetic reassortment of avian, swine, and human influenza A viruses in American pigs.</a> J. Virol. 73 (10), 8851-8856 (1999).</li><li>Webby, R. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evolution+of+swine+H3N2+influenza+viruses+in+the+United+States.">Evolution of swine H3N2 influenza viruses in the United States.</a> J. Virol. 74 (18), 8243-8251 (2000).</li><li>Vincent, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Review+of+influenza+A+virus+in+swine+worldwide:+a+call+for+increased+surveillance+and+research.">Review of influenza A virus in swine worldwide: a call for increased surveillance and research.</a> Zoonoses Public Health. 61 (1), 4-17 (2014).</li><li>Karasin, A. I., Olsen, C. W., Anderson, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+characterization+of+an+H1N2+influenza+virus+isolated+from+a+pig+in+Indiana.">Genetic characterization of an H1N2 influenza virus isolated from a pig in Indiana.</a> J. Clin. Microbiol. 38 (6), 2453-2456 (2000).</li><li>Zhou, N. N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Emergence+of+H3N2+reassortant+influenza+A+viruses+in+North+American+pigs.">Emergence of H3N2 reassortant influenza A viruses in North American pigs.</a> Vet. Microbiol. 74 (1-2), 47-58 (2000).</li><li>Corzo, C. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Active+Surveillance+for+Influenza+A+Virus+among+Swine,+Midwestern+United+States,+2009-2011.">Active Surveillance for Influenza A Virus among Swine, Midwestern United States, 2009-2011.</a> Emerg. Infect. Dis. 19 (6), 954-960 (2013).</li><li>Lorusso, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+and+antigenic+characterization+of+H1+influenza+viruses+from+United+States+swine+from+2008.">Genetic and antigenic characterization of H1 influenza viruses from United States swine from 2008.</a> J. Gen. Virol. 92 (Pt 4), 919-930 (2011).</li><li>Loving, C. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Efficacy+in+pigs+of+inactivated+and+live+attenuated+influenza+virus+vaccines+against+infection+and+transmission+of+an+emerging+H3N2+similar+to+the+2011-2012+H3N2v.">Efficacy in pigs of inactivated and live attenuated influenza virus vaccines against infection and transmission of an emerging H3N2 similar to the 2011-2012 H3N2v.</a> J. Virol. 87 (17), 9895-9903 (2013).</li><li>Vincent, A. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Efficacy+of+inactivated+swine+influenza+virus+vaccines+against+the+2009+A/H1N1+influenza+virus+in+pigs.">Efficacy of inactivated swine influenza virus vaccines against the 2009 A/H1N1 influenza virus in pigs.</a> Vaccine. 28 (15), 2782-2787 (2010).</li><li>Smith, G. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Origins+and+evolutionary+genomics+of+the+2009+swine-origin+H1N1+influenza+A+epidemic.">Origins and evolutionary genomics of the 2009 swine-origin H1N1 influenza A epidemic.</a> Nature. 459 (7250), 1122-1125 (2009).</li><li>Vijaykrishna, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reassortment+of+Pandemic+H1N1/2009+Influenza+A+Virus+in+Swine.">Reassortment of Pandemic H1N1/2009 Influenza A Virus in Swine.</a> Science. 328 (5985), 1529 (2010).</li><li>Ducatez, M. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiple+Reassortment+between+Pandemic+(H1N1)+2009+and+Endemic+Influenza+Viruses+in+Pigs,+United+States.">Multiple Reassortment between Pandemic (H1N1) 2009 and Endemic Influenza Viruses in Pigs, United States.</a> Emerg. Infect. Dis. 17 (9), 1624-1629 (2011).</li><li>Jhung, M. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Outbreak+of+variant+influenza+A(H3N2)+virus+in+the+United+States.">Outbreak of variant influenza A(H3N2) virus in the United States.</a> Clin. Infect. Dis. 57 (12), 1703-1712 (2013).</li><li>Vincent, A. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+an+influenza+A+virus+isolated+from+pigs+during+an+outbreak+of+respiratory+disease+in+swine+and+people+during+a+county+fair+in+the+United+States.">Characterization of an influenza A virus isolated from pigs during an outbreak of respiratory disease in swine and people during a county fair in the United States.</a> Vet. Microbiol. 137 (1-2), 51-59 (2009).</li><li>Killian, M. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simultaneous+Infection+of+Pigs+and+People+with+Triple-Reassortant+Swine+Influenza+Virus+H1N1+at+a+U.S.+County+Fair.">Simultaneous Infection of Pigs and People with Triple-Reassortant Swine Influenza Virus H1N1 at a U.S. County Fair.</a> Zoonoses Public Health. 60 (3), 196-201 (2013).</li><li>Wong, K. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Outbreak+of+influenza+A+(H3N2)+variant+virus+infection+among+attendees+of+an+agricultural+fair,+Pennsylvania,+USA,+2011.">Outbreak of influenza A (H3N2) variant virus infection among attendees of an agricultural fair, Pennsylvania, USA, 2011.</a> Emerg. Infect. Dis. 18 (12), 1937-1944 (2011).</li><li>Bowman, A. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+evidence+for+interspecies+transmission+of+H3N2pM/H3N2v+influenza+A+viruses+at+an+Ohio+agricultural+fair,+July+2012.">Molecular evidence for interspecies transmission of H3N2pM/H3N2v influenza A viruses at an Ohio agricultural fair, July 2012.</a> Emerg. Microbes. Infect. 1 (10), e33 (2012).</li><li>Wells, D. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Swine+influenza+virus+infections.+Transmission+from+ill+pigs+to+humans+at+a+Wisconsin+agricultural+fair+and+subsequent+probable+person-to-person+transmission.">Swine influenza virus infections. Transmission from ill pigs to humans at a Wisconsin agricultural fair and subsequent probable person-to-person transmission.</a> JAMA. 265 (4), 478-481 (1991).</li><li>Bowman, A. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Swine-to-human+transmission+of+influenza+A(H3N2)+virus+at+agricultural+fairs,+Ohio,+USA,+2012.">Swine-to-human transmission of influenza A(H3N2) virus at agricultural fairs, Ohio, USA, 2012.</a> Emerg. Infect. Dis. 20 (9), 1472-1480 (2012).</li><li>Bowman, A. S., Nolting, J. M., Nelson, S. W., Slemons, R. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Subclinical+influenza+virus+A+infections+in+pigs+exhibited+at+agricultural+fairs,+Ohio,+USA,+2009-2011.">Subclinical influenza virus A infections in pigs exhibited at agricultural fairs, Ohio, USA, 2009-2011.</a> Emerg. Infect. Dis. 18 (12), 1945-1950 (2012).</li><li>Gray, G. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influenza+A(H1N1)pdm09+Virus+among+Healthy+Show+Pigs,+United+States.">Influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 Virus among Healthy Show Pigs, United States.</a> Emerg. Infect. Dis. 18 (9), 1519-1521 (2012).</li><li>Van Reeth, K., Brown, I. H., Olsen, C. W., Zimmerman, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ch.+40,+Influenza+virus.">Ch. 40, Influenza virus.</a> Diseases of Swine. , 557-571 (2012).</li><li>Culhane, M. R., Detmer, S. E., Spackman, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ch.+21,+Sample+types,+collection,+and+transport+for+influenza+A+viruses+of+swine.">Ch. 21, Sample types, collection, and transport for influenza A viruses of swine.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. Animal Influenza Virus, 259-263 (2014).</li><li>Sheldon, C. C., Sonsthagen, T., Topel, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Animal Restraint for Veterinary Professionals. , (2006).</li><li>Detmer, S. E., Patnayak, D. P., Jiang, Y., Gramer, M. R., Goyal, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detection+of+Influenza+A+virus+in+porcine+oral+fluid+samples.">Detection of Influenza A virus in porcine oral fluid samples.</a> J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 23 (2), 241-247 (2011).</li><li>Goodell, C. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Probability+of+detecting+influenza+A+virus+subtypes+H1N1+and+H3N2+in+individual+pig+nasal+swabs+and+pen-based+oral+fluid+specimens+over+time.">Probability of detecting influenza A virus subtypes H1N1 and H3N2 in individual pig nasal swabs and pen-based oral fluid specimens over time.</a> Vet. Microbiol. 166 (3-4), 3-4 (2013).</li><li>Romagosa, A., Gramer, M., Joo, H. S., Torremorell, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sensitivity+of+oral+fluids+for+detecting+influenza+A+virus+in+populations+of+vaccinated+and+non-vaccinated+pigs.">Sensitivity of oral fluids for detecting influenza A virus in populations of vaccinated and non-vaccinated pigs.</a> Influenza Other Respir. Viruses. 6 (2), 110-118 (2012).</li><li>Edwards, J. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Utility+of+snout+wipe+samples+for+influenza+A+virus+surveillance+in+exhibition+swine+populations.">Utility of snout wipe samples for influenza A virus surveillance in exhibition swine populations.</a> Influenza Other Respir. Viruses. 8 (5), 574-579 (2014).</li><li>Zhang, J., Harmon, K. M., Spackman, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ch.+23,+RNA+extraction+from+swine+samples+and+detection+of+influenza+A+virus+in+swine+by+real-time+RT-PCR.">Ch. 23, RNA extraction from swine samples and detection of influenza A virus in swine by real-time RT-PCR.</a> Animal Influenza Virus. , 277-293 (2014).</li><li>Zhang, J., Gauger, P. C., Spackman, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ch.+22,+Isolation+of+swine+influenza+virus+in+cell+cultures+and+embryonated+chicken+eggs.">Ch. 22, Isolation of swine influenza virus in cell cultures and embryonated chicken eggs.</a> Animal Influenza Virus. , 265-276 (2014).</li><li>Bowman, A. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Inability+to+Screen+Exhibition+Swine+for+Influenza+A+Virus+Using+Body+Temperature.">The Inability to Screen Exhibition Swine for Influenza A Virus Using Body Temperature.</a> Zoonoses Public Health. , (2015).</li><li>Prickett, J. R., Kim, W., Simer, R., Yoon, K. J., Zimmerman, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oral-fluid+samples+for+surveillance+of+commercial+growing+pigs+for+porcine+reproductive+and+respiratory+syndrome+virus+and+porcine+circovirus+type+2+infections.">Oral-fluid samples for surveillance of commercial growing pigs for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus and porcine circovirus type 2 infections.</a> J. Swine Health Prod. 16 (2), 86-91 (2008).</li><li>Prickett, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detection+of+Porcine+reproductive+and+respiratory+syndrome+virus+infection+in+porcine+oral+fluid+samples:+a+longitudinal+study+under+experimental+conditions.">Detection of Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection in porcine oral fluid samples: a longitudinal study under experimental conditions.</a> J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 20 (2), 156-163 (2008).</li><li>Pepin, B., Liu, F. F., Main, R., Ramirez, A., Zimmerman, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Collection+of+oral+fluid+from+individually+housed+sows.">Collection of oral fluid from individually housed sows.</a> J. Swine Health Prod. 23 (1), 35-37 (2015).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

收集使用聚酯嘴鼻拭子样品的猪在开展IAV监控已经证明是有益的;然而，使用鼻拭子过程的阻碍，由于所需使用圈套克制的监测工作。鼻湿巾代表目前的猪采样技术的细化，旨在样品采集过程中减少压力对人和猪。而该方法已被开发用于和验证展猪设置，它可以很容易地应用于其它情形宰前检测IAV的猪是必要的（ 即商业猪，活的动物中的市场，生物医学研究等 ） <p class="jove_content"...

<html> A型流感病毒（IAV）引起的呼吸系统疾病在许多物种，包括家禽，猪和人类。由于分段IAV基因组快速病毒进化的重配可发生新IAV株频频出现。猪是可以作为从多个宿主物种重配IAVs的混合容器中的物质。1目前IAV三个主要亚型间的北美猪（H1N1，H1N2，H3N2）通常循环，但来自人多IAV引入有导致大量IAV多样性的亚型内。IAVs感染猪2快速发展自1998年以来，当含有来自人类，禽流感和猪的病毒基因片段一个三重配IAV 3成为普遍在美国猪群中已可见一斑。4，内部基因从三重配IAV段保持IAVs目前感染猪中非常普遍。5 "&gt;在世界范围内，IAV是显著造成呼吸系统疾病的猪其典型的临床症状包括发烧，厌食，嗜睡，咳嗽，呼吸困难，打喷嚏，流鼻涕和体重不增。IAV可以是特别昂贵的母猪养殖场，其中生殖失败是由于IAV引起发热和弱仔猪已被记录在案，6,7在美国，IAV是常用的商业猪群和广泛的抗原和基因组多样性与持续发展之间的IAV感染猪检测阻碍了该控制病毒8-11 关于大流行IAV株来自重配导致猪分别实现在2009年时包含从三重配的北美猪血统和欧亚禽样猪的血统基因片段猪谱系IAV引起了世界范围内大流行的出现公共健康问题在人类12大流行性流感病毒（A型（H1N1）pdm09）具有自重配地方性猪IAV株13,14和一些新的重配株已传回人类。15重配事件和新IAV株可能引起大流行的出现，使循环IAV病毒在猪势在必行的主动监测的频率，特别是在猪的人机界面。 猪 - 人接口是IAV的双向种间传播的重要。人到猪的商业化养猪生产产生的传输是负责大量当前存在于猪群IAV多样性。农产品展销会是在美国人民和猪的comingling最大的设置和已知位点IAV的动物传播。15-21在2012年，一个变种H3N2 IAV爆发期间，案件93％的受访出席农业博览会在未来的日子发病前15基因组分析21展猪感染IAV从展猪病毒分离株与人分离株相比，证实人畜共患传输。常常不显示疾病，21-23指示需要直接诊断测试的临床症状。 对明显的病猪采样本身并不能成功地识别IAV流行的猪，不能依赖于识别IAV新毒株出现的猪之一。主动监测为检测IAV的猪，并评估其对两个猪和公共卫生威胁新兴菌株的绝对必要的。大多数IAV侦察活动是自愿的，因此需要最低限度的破坏性的方法。为IAV感染猪三大生前样本收集程序是:鼻拭子，唾液，鼻腔擦拭。对于个别采样猪检测IAV名单合成纤维插入当前建议拭子插入鼻孔的首选方法收集鼻分泌物和上皮细胞。24,25由于猪可能尽量避免此过程中，一组训练有素的人员必须手动或使用圈套根据动物的大小抑制猪26的限制处理是费力的人员，和紧张的猪。此外，展览猪经常参与多个比赛在一个公平的这样增加的压力对比赛的动物的感受可以让车主耐监测工作。 随着IAV检测的概率感染牛群从80-100％的IAV，口服液体已经成为一种流行的替代鼻拭子在猪群体的分子检测IAV的。27,28此外，口服液体可以提供更广泛的窗口IAV检测不是遵循最初的感染鼻拭子。然而，从唾液IAV隔离一直是个问题，只有50％的病毒分离的尝试导致IAV恢复。29 代替期间在猪IAV监视鼻拭子的使用鼻腔擦拭物克服了上述限制。鼻腔擦拭物不需要使用限制圈套的，可以在不强调过程的动物或证人来执行。最少的技术培训是需要收集鼻腔擦拭，这使得非兽医专业人士，包括猪的业主，收集监测样本。鼻腔擦拭物以前相比鼻拭子对甲病毒30和对于这种非侵入性采样的方法的详细的协议下面描述的检测和流感的隔离。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1051">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">BBL Brain Heart Infusion</td>
			<td style="width:360px;">Becton, Dickinson and Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">211059</td>
			<td style="width:356px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Penicillin G Sodium Salt</td>
			<td style="width:360px;">MP Biomedicals, LLC</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">021194537</td>
			<td>1500 u/mg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Streptomycin Sulfate</td>
			<td style="width:360px;">AMRESCO LLC</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">0382</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Gentamicin Solution</td>
			<td style="width:360px;">Mediatech, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">30-005-CR</td>
			<td>50 mg/ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Amphotericin B Solution</td>
			<td style="width:360px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S 24 25</td>
			<td>250 ug/ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Kanamycin Sulfate</td>
			<td style="width:360px;">Teknova</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">K2105</td>
			<td>5000 ug/ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">TPP Rapid Filtermax System</td>
			<td style="width:360px;">TPP Techno Plastic Products AG&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">99150</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Nalgen Diagnostic Bottles</td>
			<td style="width:360px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">342002-9025</td>
			<td>HDPE with white PP closure</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;width:216px;">Dermacea Gauze Sponge, 8 ply</td>
			<td style="width:360px;">Covidien</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">441211</td>
			<td>5.08 cm &#215; 5.08 cm (2 in. &#215; 2 in)&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Nitrile Exam Gloves</td>
			<td style="width:360px;">Saftey Choice</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">19-170-010 (A-D)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

nasal wipes for influenza a virus detection and isolation from swine

在监测猪流感A型病毒对人类和动物的健康至关重要，因为A型流感病毒迅速演变的猪群和新品种不断涌现。猪能够被感染甲型流感病毒的使得它们的出现和维持的新的流感病毒株重要主机多样谱系。抽样猪在不同的设置，如商业猪场，农产品集贸市场和活禽交易市场是非常重要的，提供当前流行IAV株的全面视图。目前的黄金标准宰前抽样技术（鼻拭子的，即集合）是劳动密集型的，因为它需要猪的物理限制。鼻抹布擦涉及在尽量减少猪的口鼻部一块布来节制的动物。鼻腔擦拭过程简单进行，并不需要专业的兽医或动物处理人员培训。 W¯¯往往微不足道略高于鼻拭子不太敏感，病毒检测和​​隔离率足以使鼻湿巾抽检个别猪在低应力抽样方法都需要一个可行的选择。该诉讼协议概述了需要收集一个可行鼻的步骤从个体猪擦拭。

成功使用这种方法产生RRT-PCR结果是，伴随着RNA提取和RRT-PCR过程中使用的内部控制，显示样本不含有PCR抑制剂从任何环境碎片捡起取样过程。样品在接种后，分离病毒井应不受样品可见环境碎屑。有与PCR通常产生更高IAV阳性率较病毒分离因为PCR检测病毒核酸，不一定可行病毒的理解RRT-PCR结果和病毒分离结果之间吻合。 结果表明，鼻抹布是一个有用的替代鼻拭子，这对于IAV目?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Nasal Wipes for Influenza A Virus Detection and Isolation from Swine at JoVE.com

Nasal Wipes for Influenza A Virus Detection and Isolation from Swine

The authors present a protocol to collect swine nasal wipes to detect and isolate influenza A viruses.

鼻湿巾从猪流感病毒检测和​​隔离

Surveillance for influenza A viruses in swine is critical to human and animal health because influenza A virus rapidly evolves in swine populations and ...

nasal-wipes-for-influenza-a-virus-detection-and-isolation-from-swine

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

9.3K 次观看.  The Ohio State University. The authors present a protocol to collect swine nasal wipes to detect and isolate influenza A viruses. 

视频: Nasal Wipes for Influenza A Virus Detection and Isolation from Swine

Generation of Recombinant Influenza Virus from Plasmid DNA

Efforts by a number of influenza research groups have been pivotal in the development and improvement of influenza A virus reverse genetics. Originally established in 1999 1,2 plasmid-based reverse genetic techniques to generate recombinant viruses have revolutionized the influenza research field because specific questions have been answered by genetically engineered, infectious, recombinant influenza viruses. Such studies include virus replication, function of viral proteins, the contribution of specific mutations in viral proteins in viral replication and/or pathogenesis and, also, viral vectors using recombinant influenza viruses expressing foreign proteins 3.

Rescue of influenza A viruses from plasmid DNA is a basic and essential experimental technique that allows influenza researchers to generate recombinant viruses to study multiple aspects in the biology of influenza virus, and to be used as potential vectors or vaccines.

质粒DNA重组流感病毒的一代

Efforts by a number of influenza research groups have been pivotal in the development and improvement of influenza A virus reverse genetics. Originally ...

科研

免疫与感染

Using Bioluminescent Imaging to Investigate Synergism Between Streptococcus pneumoniae and Influenza A Virus in Infant Mice

During the 1918 influenza virus pandemic, which killed approximately 50 million people worldwide, the majority of fatalities were not the result of infection with influenza virus alone. Instead, most individuals are thought to have succumbed to a secondary bacterial infection, predominately caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus). The synergistic relationship between infections caused by influenza virus and the pneumococcus has subsequently been observed during the 1957 Asian influenza virus pandemic, as well as during seasonal outbreaks of the virus (reviewed in 1, 2). Here, we describe a protocol used to investigate the mechanism(s) that may be involved in increased morbidity as a result of concurrent influenza A virus and S. pneumoniae infection. We have developed an infant murine model to reliably and reproducibly demonstrate the effects of influenza virus infection of mice colonised with S. pneumoniae. Using this protocol, we have provided the first insight into the kinetics of pneumococcal transmission between co-housed, neonatal mice using in vivo imaging 3.

Using Bioluminescent Imaging to Investigate Synergism Between Streptococcus pneumoniae and Influenza A Virus in Infant Mice

A concurrent infection with influenza A virus is one of the factors implicated in the induction of invasive pneumococcal disease during asymptomatic Streptococcus pneumoniae carriage. Here we describe a mixed infection method using infant mice to investigate the synergism between these two respiratory pathogens.

利用生物发光成像之间调查的协同作用肺炎链球菌 A型流感病毒的婴儿小鼠

During the 1918 influenza virus pandemic, which killed approximately 50 million people worldwide, the majority of fatalities were not the result of ...

ampliPHOX Colorimetric Detection on a DNA Microarray for Influenza

DNA microarrays have emerged as a powerful tool for pathogen detection.1-5 For instance, many examples of the ability to type and subtype influenza virus have been demonstrated.6-11 The identification and subtyping of influenza on DNA microarrays has applications in both public health and the clinic for early detection, rapid intervention, and minimizing the impact of an influenza pandemic. Traditional fluorescence is currently the most commonly used microarray detection method. However, as microarray technology progresses towards clinical use,1 replacing expensive instrumentation with low cost detection technology exhibiting similar performance characteristics to fluorescence will make microarray assays more attractive and cost-effective.
The ampliPHOX colorimetric detection technology is intended for research applications, and has a limit of detection within one order of magnitude of traditional fluorescence11, with a main advantage being an approximate ten-fold lower instrument cost compared to the confocal microarray scanners required for fluorescence microarray detection. Another advantage is the compact size of the instrument which allows for portability and flexibility, unlike traditional fluorescence instruments. Because the polymerization technology is not as inherently linear as fluorescence detection, however, it is best suited for lower density microarray applications in which a yes/no answer for the presence of a certain sequence is desired, such as for pathogen detection arrays. Currently the maximum spot density compatible with ampliPHOX detection is &tilde;1800 spots/array. Because of the spot density limitations, higher density microarrays are not suitable for ampliPHOX detection.
Here, we present ampliPHOX colorimetric detection technology as a method of signal amplification on a low density microarray developed for the detection and characterization of influenza viruses (FluChip). Although this protocol uses the FluChip (a DNA microarray) as one specific application of ampliPHOX detection, any microarray incorporating biotinylated target can be labeled and detected in a similar manner. The microarray design and biotinylation of the target to be captured are the responsibility of the user. Once the biotinylated target has been captured on the array, ampliPHOX detection can be performed by first tagging the array with a streptavidin-label conjugate (ampliTAG). Upon light exposure using the ampliPHOX Reader instrument, polymerization of a monomer solution (ampliPHY) occurs only in regions containing ampliTAG-labeled targets. The polymer formed can be subsequently stained with a non-toxic solution to improve visual contrast, followed by imaging and analysis using a simple software package (ampliVIEW). The entire FluChip assay from un-extracted sample to result can be performed in about 6 hours, and the ampliPHOX detection steps described above can be completed in about 30 min.

ampliPHOX colorimetric detection technology is presented as an inexpensive alternative to fluorescence detection for microarrays. Based on photopolymerization, ampliPHOX produces solid polymer spots visible to the naked eye in just a few minutes. Results are then imaged and automatically interpreted with a simple yet powerful software package.

ampliPHOX比色法检测为流感的DNA芯片

DNA microarrays have emerged as a powerful tool for pathogen detection.1-5  For instance, many examples of the ability to type and subtype influenza virus ...

High-throughput Detection Method for Influenza Virus

Influenza virus is a respiratory pathogen that causes a high degree of morbidity and mortality every year in multiple parts of the world. Therefore, precise diagnosis of the infecting strain and rapid high-throughput screening of vast numbers of clinical samples is paramount to control the spread of pandemic infections. Current clinical diagnoses of influenza infections are based on serologic testing, polymerase chain reaction, direct specimen immunofluorescence and cell culture 1,2.
Here, we report the development of a novel diagnostic technique used to detect live influenza viruses. We used the mouse-adapted human A/PR/8/34 (PR8, H1N1) virus 3 to test the efficacy of this technique using MDCK cells 4. MDCK cells (104 or 5 x 103 per well) were cultured in 96- or 384-well plates, infected with PR8 and viral proteins were detected using anti-M2 followed by an IR dye-conjugated secondary antibody. M2 5 and hemagglutinin 1 are two major marker proteins used in many different diagnostic assays. Employing IR-dye-conjugated secondary antibodies minimized the autofluorescence associated with other fluorescent dyes. The use of anti-M2 antibody allowed us to use the antigen-specific fluorescence intensity as a direct metric of viral quantity. To enumerate the fluorescence intensity, we used the LI-COR Odyssey-based IR scanner. This system uses two channel laser-based IR detections to identify fluorophores and differentiate them from background noise. The first channel excites at 680 nm and emits at 700 nm to help quantify the background. The second channel detects fluorophores that excite at 780 nm and emit at 800 nm. Scanning of PR8-infected MDCK cells in the IR scanner indicated a viral titer-dependent bright fluorescence. A positive correlation of fluorescence intensity to virus titer starting from 102-105 PFU could be consistently observed. Minimal but detectable positivity consistently seen with 102-103 PFU PR8 viral titers demonstrated the high sensitivity of the near-IR dyes. The signal-to-noise ratio was determined by comparing the mock-infected or isotype antibody-treated MDCK cells.
Using the fluorescence intensities from 96- or 384-well plate formats, we constructed standard titration curves. In these calculations, the first variable is the viral titer while the second variable is the fluorescence intensity. Therefore, we used the exponential distribution to generate a curve-fit to determine the polynomial relationship between the viral titers and fluorescence intensities. Collectively, we conclude that IR dye-based protein detection system can help diagnose infecting viral strains and precisely enumerate the titer of the infecting pathogens.

This method describes the use of Infrared dye based imaging system for detection of H1N1 in bronchioalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid of infected mice at a high sensitivity. This methodology can be performed in a 96- or 384-well plate, requires &lt;10 &mu;l volume of test material and has the potential for concurrent screening of multiple pathogens.

流感病毒的高通量检测方法

Influenza virus is a respiratory pathogen that causes a high degree of morbidity and mortality every year in multiple parts of the world. Therefore, ...

Affinity Purification of Influenza Virus Ribonucleoprotein Complexes from the Chromatin of Infected Cells

Like all negative-strand RNA viruses, the genome of influenza viruses is packaged in the form of viral ribonucleoprotein complexes (vRNP), in which the single-stranded genome is encapsidated by the nucleoprotein (NP), and associated with the trimeric polymerase complex consisting of the PA, PB1, and PB2 subunits. However, in contrast to most RNA viruses, influenza viruses perform viral RNA synthesis in the nuclei of infected cells. Interestingly, viral mRNA synthesis uses cellular pre-mRNAs as primers, and it has been proposed that this process takes place on chromatin1. Interactions between the viral polymerase and the host RNA polymerase II, as well as between NP and host nucleosomes have also been characterized1,2.
Recently, the generation of recombinant influenza viruses encoding a One-Strep-Tag genetically fused to the C-terminus of the PB2 subunit of the viral polymerase (rWSN-PB2-Strep3) has been described. These recombinant viruses allow the purification of PB2-containing complexes, including vRNPs, from infected cells. To obtain purified vRNPs, cell cultures are infected, and vRNPs are affinity purified from lysates derived from these cells. However, the lysis procedures used to date have been based on one-step detergent lysis, which, despite the presence of a general nuclease, often extract chromatin-bound material only inefficiently. 
Our preliminary work suggested that a large portion of nuclear vRNPs were not extracted during traditional cell lysis, and therefore could not be affinity purified. To increase this extraction efficiency, and to separate chromatin-bound from non-chromatin-bound nuclear vRNPs, we adapted a step-wise subcellular extraction protocol to influenza virus-infected cells. Briefly, this procedure first separates the nuclei from the cell and then extracts soluble nuclear proteins (here termed the "nucleoplasmic" fraction). The remaining insoluble nuclear material is then digested with Benzonase, an unspecific DNA/RNA nuclease, followed by two salt extraction steps: first using 150 mM NaCl (termed "ch150"), then 500 mM NaCl ("ch500") (Fig. 1). These salt extraction steps were chosen based on our observation that 500 mM NaCl was sufficient to solubilize over 85% of nuclear vRNPs yet still allow binding of tagged vRNPs to the affinity matrix.
After subcellular fractionation of infected cells, it is possible to affinity purify PB2-tagged vRNPs from each individual fraction and analyze their protein and RNA components using Western Blot and primer extension, respectively. Recently, we utilized this method to discover that vRNP export complexes form during late points after infection on the chromatin fraction extracted with 500 mM NaCl (ch500)3.

Influenza viruses replicate their RNA genome in association with host-cell chromatin. Here, we present a method to purify intact viral ribonucleoprotein complexes from the chromatin of infected cells. Purified viral complexes can be analyzed by both Western blot and primer extension of protein and RNA content, respectively.

流感病毒从感染细胞的染色质的核糖核蛋白复合物的亲和纯化

Like all negative-strand RNA viruses, the genome of influenza viruses is packaged in the form of viral ribonucleoprotein complexes (vRNP), in which the ...

Influenza Virus Propagation in Embryonated Chicken Eggs

Influenza infection is associated with about 36,000 deaths and more than 200,000 hospitalizations every year in the United States. The continuous emergence of new influenza virus strains due to mutation and re-assortment complicates the control of the virus and necessitates the permanent development of novel drugs and vaccines. The laboratory-based study of influenza requires a reliable and cost-effective method for the propagation of the virus. Here, a comprehensive protocol is provided for influenza A virus propagation in fertile chicken eggs, which consistently yields high titer viral stocks. In brief, serum pathogen-free (SPF) fertilized chicken eggs are incubated at 37 &#176;C and 55-60% humidity for 10 &#8211; 11 days. Over this period, embryo development can be easily monitored using an egg candler. Virus inoculation is carried out by injection of virus stock into the allantoic cavity using a needle. After 2 days of incubation at 37 &#176;C, the eggs are chilled for at least 4 hr at 4 &#176;C. The eggshell above the air sac and the chorioallantoic membrane are then carefully opened, and the allantoic fluid containing the virus is harvested. The fluid is cleared from debris by centrifugation, aliquoted and transferred to -80 &#176;C for long-term storage. The large amount (5-10 ml of virus-containing fluid per egg) and high virus titer which is usually achieved with this protocol has made the usage of eggs for virus preparation our favorable method, in particular for in vitro studies which require large quantities of virus in which high dosages of the same virus stock are needed.

Fertile chicken eggs are widely used to produce large amounts of human influenza A virus as they provide a convenient and cost-effective system to prove high yields of virus.

在鸡胚的流感病毒传播

Influenza infection is associated with about 36,000 deaths and more than 200,000 hospitalizations every year in the United States. The continuous ...

Neutrophil Isolation and Analysis to Determine their Role in Lymphoma Cell Sensitivity to Therapeutic Agents

Neutrophils are the most abundant (40% to 75%) type of white blood cells and among the first inflammatory cells to migrate towards the site of inflammation. They are key players in the innate immune system and play major roles in cancer biology. Neutrophils have been proposed as key mediators of malignant transformation, tumor progression, angiogenesis and in the modulation of the antitumor immunity; through their release of soluble factors or their interaction with tumor cells. To characterize the specific functions of neutrophils, a fast and reliable method is coveted for in vitro isolation of neutrophils from human blood. Here, a density gradient separation method is demonstrated to isolate neutrophils as well as mononuclear cells from the blood. The procedure consists of layering the density gradient solution such as Ficoll carefully above the diluted blood obtained from patients diagnosed with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), followed by centrifugation, isolation of mononuclear layer, separation of neutrophils from RBCsby dextran then lysis of residual erythrocytes. This method has been shown to isolate neutrophils &#8805; 90 % pure. To mimic the tumor microenvironment, 3-dimensional (3D) experiments were performed using basement membrane matrix such as Matrigel. Given the short half-life of neutrophils in vitro, 3D experiments with fresh human neutrophils cannot be performed. For this reason promyelocytic HL60 cells are differentiated along the granulocytic pathway using the differentiation inducers dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and retinoic acid (RA). The aim of our experiments is to study the role of neutrophils on the sensitivity of lymphoma cells to anti-lymphoma agents. However these methods can be generalized to study the interactions of neutrophils or neutrophil-like cells with a large range of cell types in different situations.

Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cells. The isolation of neutrophils from human blood by density gradient separation method and the differentiation of human promyelocytic (HL60) cells along the granulocytic pathway are described here; to test their role on sensitivity of lymphoma cells to anti-lymphoma agents.

中性粒细胞分离和分析，以确定他们的淋巴瘤细胞的敏感性对治疗药物的作用

Neutrophils are the most abundant (40% to 75%) type of white blood cells and among the first inflammatory cells to migrate towards the site of ...

A Miniaturized Glycan Microarray Assay for Assessing Avidity and Specificity of Influenza A Virus Hemagglutinins

Influenza A virus (IAV) hemagglutinins recognize sialic acids on the cell surface as functional receptors to gain entry into cells. Wild waterfowl are the natural reservoir for IAV, but IAV can cross the species barrier to poultry, swine, horses and humans. Avian viruses recognize sialic acid attached to a penultimate galactose by a &#945;2-3 linkage (avian-type receptors) whereas human viruses preferentially recognize sialic acid with a &#945;2-6 linkage (human-type receptors). To monitor if avian viruses are adapting to human type receptors, several methods can be used. Glycan microarrays with diverse libraries of synthetic sialosides are increasingly used to evaluate receptor specificity. However, this technique is not used for measuring avidities. Measurement of avidity is typically achieved by evaluating the binding of serially diluted hemagglutinin or virus to glycans adsorbed to conventional polypropylene 96-well plates. In this assay, glycans with &#945;2-3 or &#945;2-6 sialic acids are coupled to biotin and adsorbed to streptavidin plates, or are coupled to polyacrylamide (PAA) which directly adsorb to the plastic. We have significantly miniaturized this assay by directly printing PAA-linked sialosides and their non PAA-linked counterparts on micro-well glass slides. This set-up, with 48 arrays on a single slide, enables simultaneous assays of 6 glycan binding proteins at 8 dilutions, interrogating 6 different glycans, including two non-sialylated controls. This is equivalent to 18x 96-well plates in the traditional plate assay. The glycan array format decreases consumption of compounds and biologicals and thus greatly enhances efficiency.

Using a printed glycan microarray strategy, a conventional 96-well plate assay was miniaturized for analysis of influenza A virus hemagglutinin avidity and specificity for sialic acid containing receptors.

小型化聚糖微阵列测定评定A型流感病毒血凝素的亲和力和特异性

Influenza A virus (IAV) hemagglutinins recognize sialic acids on the cell surface as functional receptors to gain entry into cells. Wild waterfowl are the ...

In Vitro Disassembly of Influenza A Virus Capsids by Gradient Centrifugation

Acid-triggered molecular processes closely control cell entry of many viruses that enter through the endocytic system. In the case of influenza A virus (IAV), virus fusion with the endosomal membrane as well as the subsequent disassembly of the viral capsid, called uncoating, is governed by the ionic conditions inside endocytic vesicles. The early steps in the virus life cycle are hard to study because endosomes cannot be directly accessed experimentally, creating the need for an in vitro approach. Here, we describe a method based on velocity gradient centrifugation of purified virions through a two-layer glycerol gradient, which enables analysis of the IAV core and its stability. The gradient contains a non-ionic detergent (NP-40) in its lower layer to remove the viral membrane by solubilization as the virus sediments toward the bottom. At neutral pH, viral cores are pelleted as stable structures. The major core components, matrix protein (M1) and the viral ribonucleoproteins (vRNPs), can be clearly identified in the pellet fraction by SDS-PAGE. Decreasing the pH to 6.0 or lower in the bottom layer selectively removes M1 from the pellet followed by release of vRNPs at more acidic conditions. Viral protein bands on Coomassie-stained gels can be subjected to densitometric quantification to monitor intermediate states of IAV disassembly. Besides pH, other factors that influence viral core stability can be assessed, such as salt concentration and putative viral uncoating factors, simply by modifying the detergent-containing glycerol layer accordingly. Taken together, the presented technique allows highly reproducible and quantitative analysis of viral uncoating in vitro. It can be applied to other enveloped viruses that undergo complex uncoating processes.

In Vitro Disassembly of Influenza A Virus Capsids by Gradient Centrifugation

Disassembly of influenza A virus cores during virus entry into host cells is a multistep process. We describe an in vitro method to analyze the early stages of viral uncoating. In this approach, velocity gradient centrifugation is used to biochemically dissect the steps that initiate uncoating under defined conditions.

在甲型流感病毒的衣壳的体外拆卸梯度离心

Acid-triggered molecular processes closely control cell entry of many viruses that enter through the endocytic system. In the case of influenza A virus ...

Influenza A Virus Studies in a Mouse Model of Infection

Influenza viruses cause over 500,000 deaths worldwide1 and are associated with an annual cost of 12 - 14 billion USD in the United States alone considering direct medical and hospitalization expenses and work absenteeism2. Animal models are crucial in Influenza A virus (IAV) studies to evaluate viral pathogenesis, host-pathogen interactions, immune responses, and the efficacy of current and/or novel vaccine approaches as well as antivirals. Mice are an advantageous small animal model because their immune system is evolutionarily similar to that found in humans, they are available from commercial vendors as genetically identical subjects, there are multiple strains that can be exploited to evaluate the genetic basis of infections, and they are relatively inexpensive and easy to manipulate. To recapitulate IAV infection in humans via the airways, mice are first anesthetized prior to intranasal inoculation with infectious IAVs under proper biosafety containment. After infection, the pathogenesis of IAVs is determined by monitoring daily the morbidity (body weight loss) and mortality (survival) rate. In addition, viral pathogenesis can also be evaluated by assessing virus replication in the upper (nasal mucosa) or lower (lungs) respiratory tract of infected mice. Humoral responses upon IAV infection can be rapidly evaluated by non-invasive bleeding and secondary antibody detection assays aimed at detecting the presence of total or neutralizing antibodies. Here, we describe the common methods used to infect mice intranasally (i.n) with IAV and evaluate pathogenesis, humoral immune responses and protection efficacy.

Influenza A viruses (IAVs) are important human respiratory pathogens. To understand the pathogenicity of IAVs and to perform preclinical testing of novel vaccine approaches, animal models mimicking human physiology are required. Here, we describe techniques to evaluate IAV pathogenesis, humoral responses and vaccine efficacy using a mouse model of infection.

鼻湿巾从猪流感病毒检测和​​隔离

鼻湿巾从猪流感病毒检测和隔离