Name: Author Spotlight: Quantifying Siderophores and Pyochelin for Infection Control
Uploaded: 2024-03-15T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantifying Siderophores and Pyochelin for Infection Control at JoVE.com

Authors acknowledge funding from DBT - Biotechnology Teaching Program, DBT - BUILDER Program and FIST. MR thanks fellowship received from SHODH. HP thanks fellowship received from CSIR.

All bacterial isolates of P. aeruginosa were obtained from medical microbiology laboratories from Vadodara and Jaipur, India. All selected clinical isolates were handled in Biosafety Cabinet (BSL2) and utmost care was taken while handling bacterial isolates during the experiments. The commercial details of all the reagents/solutions are provided in the Table of Materials.
1. Preparation of Chrome Azurol Sulfonate (CAS) dye and agar media
<ol>
	<li>Prepare CAS dye (1...

Assessment of Siderophore Production from &lt;em&gt;Pseudomonas aeruginosa&lt;/em&gt; Isolates

<ol>
	<li>Wang, J., Pontopolous, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+of+iron+cellulatar+metabolism.">Regulation of iron cellulatar metabolism.</a> Biochemical Journal. 434 (3), 365-381 (2011).</li><li>Schalk, I., Perraud, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+and+its+multiple+strategies+to+access+iron.">Pseudomonas aeruginosa and its multiple strategies to access iron.</a> Environmental Microbiology. 25 (4), 811-831 (2022).</li><li>Ghssein, G., Ezzeddine, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+review+of+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+metallophores:+Pyoverdine,+pyochelin+and+pseudopaline.">A review of Pseudomonas aeruginosa metallophores: Pyoverdine, pyochelin and pseudopaline.</a> Biology. 11 (12), 1711 (2022).</li><li>Sanchez-Jimenez, A., Marcos-Torres, F. J., Llamas, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanisms+of+iron+homeostasis+in+pseudomonas+aeruginosa+and+emerging+therapeutics+directed+to+disrupt+this+vital+process.">Mechanisms of iron homeostasis in pseudomonas aeruginosa and emerging therapeutics directed to disrupt this vital process.</a> Microbial Biotechnology. 16 (7), 1475-1491 (2023).</li><li>Cornelis, P., Dingemans, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+adapts+its+iron+uptake+strategies+in+function+of+the+type+of+infections.">Pseudomonas aeruginosa adapts its iron uptake strategies in function of the type of infections.</a> Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 4 (11), (2013).</li><li>Lin, J., Cheng, J., Shen, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+pseudomonas+quinolone+signal+(pqs):+Not+just+for+quorum+sensing+anymore.">The pseudomonas quinolone signal (pqs): Not just for quorum sensing anymore.</a> Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 8 (7), 1-9 (2018).</li><li>Sass, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intermicrobial+interaction:+Aspergillus+fumigatus+siderophores+protect+against+competition+by+pseudomonas+aeruginosa.">Intermicrobial interaction: Aspergillus fumigatus siderophores protect against competition by pseudomonas aeruginosa.</a> PLoS ONE. 14 (5), 1-19 (2019).</li><li>Dao, K. -. H. T., Hamer, K. E., Clark, C. L., Harshman, L. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pyoverdine+production+by+pseudomonas+aeruginosa+exposed+to+metals+or+an+oxidative+stress+agent.">Pyoverdine production by pseudomonas aeruginosa exposed to metals or an oxidative stress agent.</a> Ecological Applications. 9 (2), 441-448 (1999).</li><li>Visca, P., Imperi, F., Lamont, I. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pyoverdine+siderophores:+From+biogenesis+to+biosignificance.">Pyoverdine siderophores: From biogenesis to biosignificance.</a> Trends in Microbiology. 15 (1), 22-30 (2007).</li><li>Ackerley, D. F., Caradoc-Davies, T. T., Lamont, I. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Substrate+specificity+of+the+nonribosomal+peptide+synthetase+pvdd+from+pseudomonas+aeruginosa.">Substrate specificity of the nonribosomal peptide synthetase pvdd from pseudomonas aeruginosa.</a> Journal of Bacteriology. 185 (9), 2848-2855 (2003).</li><li>Geum-Jae-Jeong, , et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+virulence+attenuation+by+inhibiting+siderophore+functions.">Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence attenuation by inhibiting siderophore functions.</a> Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 107 (4), 1019-1038 (2023).</li><li>Dumas, Z., Ross-Gillespie, A., Kummerli, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Switching+between+apparently+redundant+iron-uptake+mechanisms+benefits+bacteria+in+changeable+environments.">Switching between apparently redundant iron-uptake mechanisms benefits bacteria in changeable environments.</a> Biological Sciences. 280 (1764), 20131055 (2013).</li><li>Gaille, C., Reimmann, C., Haas, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isochorismate+synthase+(pcha),+the+first+and+rate-limiting+enzyme+in+salicylate+biosynthesis+of+pseudomonas+aeruginosa.">Isochorismate synthase (pcha), the first and rate-limiting enzyme in salicylate biosynthesis of pseudomonas aeruginosa.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 278 (19), 16893-16898 (2003).</li><li>Schwyn, B., Neilands, J. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Universal+chemical+assay+for+the+detection+and+determination+of+siderophores.">Universal chemical assay for the detection and determination of siderophores.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 160 (1), 47-56 (1987).</li><li>Louden, B. C., Haarmann, D., Lynne, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+blue+agar+cas+assay+for+siderophore+detection.">Use of blue agar cas assay for siderophore detection.</a> Journal of Microbiology &amp; Biology Education. 12 (1), 51-53 (2011).</li><li>Arora, N. K., Verma, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modified+microplate+method+for+rapid+and+efficient+estimation+of+siderophore+produced+by+bacteria.">Modified microplate method for rapid and efficient estimation of siderophore produced by bacteria.</a> 3 Biotech. 7 (381), 1-9 (2017).</li><li>Frac, M., Gryta, A., Oszust, K., Kotowicz, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fast+and+accurate+microplate+method+(biolog+mt2)+for+detection+of+fusarium+fungicides+resistance/sensitivity.">Fast and accurate microplate method (biolog mt2) for detection of fusarium fungicides resistance/sensitivity.</a> Frontiers in Microbiology. 7 (4), 1-16 (2016).</li><li>Cezard, C., Farvacques, N., Sonnet, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemistry+and+biology+of+pyoverdines,+pseudomonas+primary+siderophores.">Chemistry and biology of pyoverdines, pseudomonas primary siderophores.</a> Current Medicinal Chemistry. 22 (2), 165-186 (2015).</li><li>Braud, A., Hoegy, F., Jezequel, K., Lebeau, T., Schalk, I. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=New+insights+into+the+metal+specificity+of+the+pseudomonas+aeruginosa+pyoverdine-iron+uptake+pathway.">New insights into the metal specificity of the pseudomonas aeruginosa pyoverdine-iron uptake pathway.</a> Environmental Microbiology. 11 (5), 1079-1091 (2009).</li><li>Brandel, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=a+siderophore+of+pseudomonas+aeruginosa:+Physicochemical+characterization+of+the+iron(iii),+copper+(ii)+and+zinc+(ii)+complexes.">a siderophore of pseudomonas aeruginosa: Physicochemical characterization of the iron(iii), copper (ii) and zinc (ii) complexes.</a> Dalton Transactions. 41 (9), 2820-2834 (2012).</li><li>Hoegy, F., Mislin, G. L. A., Schalk, I. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pseudomonas+methods+and+protocols.">Pseudomonas methods and protocols.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 1149, (2014).</li><li>Cunrath, O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+pathogen+pseudomonas+aeruginosa+optimizes+the+production+of+the+siderophore+pyochelin+upon+environmental+challenges.">The pathogen pseudomonas aeruginosa optimizes the production of the siderophore pyochelin upon environmental challenges.</a> Metallomics. 12 (12), 2108-2120 (2020).</li><li>Ji, A. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+and+sensitive+LC/MS/MS+method+for+quantification+of+pyochelin+in+human+sputum+samples+from+cystic+fibrosis+patients.">A novel and sensitive LC/MS/MS method for quantification of pyochelin in human sputum samples from cystic fibrosis patients.</a> Biomarkers &amp; Applications. 4 (1), 135 (2019).</li><li>Visaggio, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+highly+sensitive+luminescent+biosensor+for+the+microvolumetric+detection+of+the+pseudomonas+aeruginosa+siderophore+pyochelin.">A highly sensitive luminescent biosensor for the microvolumetric detection of the pseudomonas aeruginosa siderophore pyochelin.</a> ACS Sensors. 6 (9), 3273-3283 (2021).</li><li>Miethke, M., Marahiel, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Siderophore-bases+iron+acquisition+and+pathogen+control.">Siderophore-bases iron acquisition and pathogen control.</a> Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 71 (3), 443-451 (2007).</li><li>Il, J. M. R., Lin, Y. -. M., Lu, Y., Miller, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Studies+and+syntheses+of+siderophores,+microbial+iron+chelators,+and+analogs+as+potential+drug+delivery+agents.">Studies and syntheses of siderophores, microbial iron chelators, and analogs as potential drug delivery agents.</a> Current Medicinal Chemistry. 7 (2), 159-197 (2000).</li></ol>

This protocol enables researchers to quantitate total siderophores and two different siderophores of P. aeruginosa, namely pyoverdine and pyochelin, from the bacterial cell-free supernatant. In the CAS agar plates assay, CAS dye and Fe3+ ions form a complex. When bacteria produce siderophores, they quench Fe3+ ions from the CAS-Fe3+ complex, leading to a color change around the bacterial growth. This change results in a clear orange halo around the bacterial growth<sup class="xre...

Organisms require iron to perform various vital functions, such as electron transport and DNA replication1. Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a Gram-negative opportunistic pathogen, is known to possess a variety of virulence factors to establish infection in the host, among which one mechanism is siderophore formation2. During iron-depleting conditions, P. aeruginosa releases specialized molecules called siderophores, which quench iron from the surrounding environment. Siderophores chelate iron extracellularly, and the resulting ferric-siderophore complex is actively transported back to the cell3.
P. aeruginosa is known to produce two siderophores, pyoverdine and pyochelin. Pyoverdine is known to have a higher iron chelating affinity (1:1), whereas pyochelin is known to have a lesser iron chelating affinity (2:1)4. Pyochelin is also called a secondary siderophore because it has a lower iron chelating affinity5. The production and regulation of siderophores are actively controlled by Quorum Sensing (QS) systems in P. aeruginosa6.
Besides iron quenching, siderophores are also involved in regulating virulence factors and play an active role in biofilm formation7. Siderophores serve additional crucial roles, including involvement in cell signaling, defense against oxidative stress, and facilitation of interactions between microbial communities8. Siderophores are typically categorized based on the specific functional groups through which they chelate iron. The three primary bidentate ligands in this classification are catecholate, hydroxamate, and &#945;-hydroxycarboxylate3. Pyoverdines are hallmarks of fluorescent Pseudomonas species such as P. aeruginosa and P. fluorescens5. They consist of a mixed green fluorescent chromophore coupled to an oligopeptide containing 6-12 amino acids. Several non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPs) are involved in their synthesis9. Four genes involved in pyoverdine production and regulation are pvdL, pvdI, pvdJ, and pvdD10. Pyoverdine is also responsible for infection and virulence in mammals11. P. aeruginosa is noted to produce pyochelin in moderate iron-limiting conditions, while pyoverdine is produced during severe iron-limiting environments12. Two operons involved in pyochelin production are pchDCBA and pchEFGHI13. It is noted that in the presence of pyocyanin, pyochelin (catecholate) induces oxidative damage and inflammation and generates hydroxyl radicals, which are harmful to host tissues11.
The Chrome Azurol Sulfonate (CAS) assay is widely adopted due to its comprehensiveness, high sensitivity, and greater convenience compared to microbiological assays, which, although sensitive, can be overly specific14. The CAS assay can be conducted on agar surfaces or in a solution. It relies on the color change that occurs when the ferric ion transitions from its intense blue complex to orange. The CAS colorimetric assay quantifies the depletion of iron from a Fe-CAS-surfactant ternary complex. This particular complex, consisting of metal, organic dye, and surfactant, has a blue color and exhibits an absorption peak at 630 nm.
This report presents a method for the qualitative detection of siderophore production, where one can detect the production of siderophores on an agar plate. A method for the quantitative estimation of total siderophore production in a microtiter plate and the detection and quantitative analysis of two siderophores, pyoverdine and pyochelin, from P. aeruginosa, is also provided.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar Agar, Type I</td>
			<td>HIMEDIA</td>
			<td>GRM666</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>8-Hydroxyquinoline</td>
			<td>Loba Chemie</td>
			<td>4151</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Casamino Acid</td>
			<td>SRL Chemicals</td>
			<td>68806</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cetyltrimethyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB)</td>
			<td>HIMEDIA</td>
			<td>RM4867-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloroform</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>1070242521</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chrome azurol sulfonate</td>
			<td>HIMEDIA</td>
			<td>RM336-10G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Citric acid</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>100241</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dextrose monohydrate</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>108342</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dichloromethane</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>107020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ferric chloride hexahydrate</td>
			<td>HIMEDIA</td>
			<td>GRM6353</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Flasks</td>
			<td>Borosil</td>
			<td>5100021</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Test-tubes</td>
			<td>Borosil</td>
			<td>9820U05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid</td>
			<td>SDFCL</td>
			<td>20125</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>King&#39;s medium B base</td>
			<td>HIMEDIA</td>
			<td>M1544-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M9 Minimal Medium Salts</td>
			<td>HIMEDIA</td>
			<td>G013-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Sulphate&#160;</td>
			<td>Qualigens</td>
			<td>10034</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MultiskanGO UV Spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>51119200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peptone Type I, Bacteriological</td>
			<td>HIMEDIA</td>
			<td>RM667-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PIPES free acid</td>
			<td>MP Biomedicals</td>
			<td>190257</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium dihydrogen phosphate</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>1048731000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Proteose peptone</td>
			<td>HIMEDIA</td>
			<td>RM005-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shimadzu UV-Vis Spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>Shimadzu</td>
			<td>2072310058</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sigma Laborzentrifuge</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>3-18K</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>Qualigens</td>
			<td>15915</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

qualitative and quantitative analysis of siderophore production from pseudomonas aeruginosa

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) is known for its production of a diverse range of virulence factors to establish infections in the host. One such mechanism is the scavenging of iron through siderophore production. P. aeruginosa produces two different siderophores: pyochelin, which has lower iron-chelating affinity, and pyoverdine, which has higher iron-chelating affinity. This report demonstrates that pyoverdine can be directly quantified from bacterial supernatants, while pyochelin needs to be extracted from supernatants before quantification.
The primary method for qualitatively analyzing siderophore production is the Chrome Azurol Sulfonate (CAS) agar plate assay. In this assay, the release of CAS dye from the Fe3+-Dye complex leads to a color change from blue to orange, indicating siderophore production. For the quantification of total siderophores, bacterial supernatants were mixed in equal proportions with CAS dye in a microtiter plate, followed by spectrophotometric analysis at 630 nm. Pyoverdine was directly quantified from the bacterial supernatant by mixing it in equal proportions with 50 mM Tris-HCl, followed by spectrophotometric analysis. A peak at 380 nm confirmed the presence of pyoverdine. As for Pyochelin, direct quantification from the bacterial supernatant was not possible, so it had to be extracted first. Subsequent spectrophotometric analysis revealed the presence of pyochelin, with a peak at 313 nm.

Author Spotlight: Quantifying Siderophores and Pyochelin for Infection Control 

Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Siderophore Production from Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Siderophores form complexes with iron and transport it into the cell during iron-limiting conditions. Siderophores are potent virulence factors which help in establishing severe infection in the host, and are known to play a role in regulating quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Our research aims to quantitatively estimate siderophore production in Pseudomonas.Siderophores are extracellular molecules, so total siderophores, along with pyoverdine and pyochelin are quantified using cell-free supernatant. As pyochelin is not detected in small volume, extraction is performed from a large volume of cell-free supernatant. Recently, LCMS and biosensors have been developed for quantification of pyochelin.LCMS is a costly setup for small laboratories, whereas biosensors are capable of quantification of pyochelin only. This simple and illustrated protocol uses minimum laboratory reagents and instrumentation, and allows siderophore's estimation from cell-free supernatant using less time.

Before quantification of siderophores from clinical isolates, a qualitative screening for siderophore production was carried out to ensure siderophores production. Qualitative detection of siderophores from clinical isolates was observed by streaking bacteria on CAS agar plates. Three clinical isolates, namely MR1, TL7, J3, along with PAO1 (the reference strain), were selected for the study. All three clinical isolates and PAO1 showed positive results for siderophore production, where a c...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantifying Siderophores and Pyochelin for Infection Control at JoVE.com

This protocol provides both qualitative and quantitative analyses of total siderophores, pyoverdine, and pyochelin from Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) is known for its production of a diverse range of virulence factors to establish infections in the host. One such ...

qualitative-quantitative-analysis-siderophore-production-from