The long-standing collaboration with Chang-Beom Eom at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, who provided the LAO/STO samples, is gratefully acknowledged. Video editing assistance from Christopher Solis is greatly appreciated. This work is supported by NSF (DMR-1104191, DMR-1124131), ARO (W911NF-08-1-0317), and AFOSR (FA9550-10-1-0524, FA9550-12-1-0268, FA9550-12-1-0057).

1. Erhalten LAO / STO Heterostrukturen <ol><li> Erhalten Oxid-Heterostruktur, bestehend aus 3,4 Einheitszellen LAO mittels gepulster Laserabscheidung auf TiO 2-terminierte STO Substraten gewachsen. Einzelheiten sind in Probe Wachstum Ref. 22 beschrieben. </li></ol> 2. Photolithographische Verarbeitung von Proben Neues elektrischen Kontakte an der LAO / STO-Schnittstelle, mit der Bond-Pads für die Verdrahtung Leinwände auf einem Chipträger. Die einzelnen Bearbeitungsschritte werden im Folgenden näher beschrieben. <ol><li> Spin Photolack <ol><li> Spin Photoresist auf die Proben bei 600 rpm für 5 Sekunden und dann bei 4.000 Upm für 30 Sekunden. Die Fotolackschicht wird etwa 2 um dick. Backen die Proben bei 95 ° C für 1 min. </li></ol></li><li> Aussetzen Photoresist unter Verwendung eines Maskenausrichter mit 320 nm-Licht für 100 Sekunden mit einer Dosis von 5 mW / cm 2. </li><li> Entwickeln der Photoresist in Photoresist-Entwickler for 1 min. </li><li> Ionenfräsen <ol><li> Verwenden Sie ein Ar +-Ionen-Mühle bis 15 nm von Material (LAO und STO) in den nicht von Photolack bedeckt entfernen. Die Proben werden in einem 22,5 °-Winkel zu der Richtung senkrecht zu der eingehenden Ar +-Ionenstrahl. Wenn der Ar + Ätzrate nicht kalibriert ist, führen Sie einen Kalibrierungslauf, um sicherzustellen, dass die richtige Menge an Material entfernt wird. Bestimmen Sie die Ätztiefe mit AFM oder gleichwertig profilmetry. </li></ol></li><li> DC-Sputtern von Ti und Au <ol><li> Hinterlegung 4 nm Ti, dann 25 nm Au auf die Proben, so daß die Au elektrischen Kontakt mit dem freiliegenden STO-Schicht. Der Sputterdruck im Bereich 2-6 × 10 -7 Torr, und das Sputtern mit der Probe bei Raumtemperatur stattfindet. Pre-Sputter-Ti für 10 min mit geschlossenem Verschluss bei 100 W, dann offener Blende und Sputter für 20 Sekunden bei 100 W. Nach der Fertigstellung sofort Pre-Sputter-Au 1 min bei 50 W dann Sputter Au für 30 Sekunden zu den Proben, die bei 50 W. CaliBråte die Zeit, um die gewünschten Ti und Au Stärken zu produzieren. </li></ol></li><li> Lift-off <ol><li> Verwenden Sie Aceton / IPA Ultraschall zu waschen, um Fotolack von der Oberfläche der Proben zu entfernen. </li></ol></li><li> Zweite Schicht <ol><li> Eine zweite lithographischen Verfahrens, ohne Schritt 4 (dh., Ohne Ionenätzen) wird verwendet, um Golddrahtverbindungen mit einzelnen Bondkontaktstellen zu schaffen. Die beiden Muster müssen gut ausgerichtet, um sicherzustellen, dass sie nicht zu elektrischen Kurzschlüssen zu erzeugen. </li></ol></li><li> Plasmareinigung. <ol><li> IPC Barrel Etcher wird die Photoresistrückstand im Grabenmuster zu entfernen. Die bei der 100 W und 1 Torr Argon für 1 min verwendete Instrument </li></ol></li></ol> 3. Draht Bond eine Probe für das Schreiben vorbereiten <ol><li> Montieren Sie die LAO / STO Probe in einem Chipträger (2A) mit 28 Pins verfügbar. </li><li> Draht-Bond-Struktur </li></ol> HINWEIS: Verwenden Sie eine Drahtverbinder für elektrische c machennschlüsse zwischen den Bondanschlußflächen auf der Probe und dem Chipträger. Befestigen 1 mil (25 Mikrometer) Golddrähte zwischen den elektrischen Kontakten und dem Chipträger. Schreiben Nanostrukturen 4. Schreiben Nanostrukturen <ol><li> Erstellen Sie eine informelle Skizze des leitfähigen Nanostruktur (Abbildung 3A). </li><li> Öffnen Sie die skalierbare Vektorgrafiken (SVG)-Editor (Abbildung 3B). <ol><li> Verwenden Sie eine Vorlage oder definieren Sie die Fenstergröße auf, dass der AFM-Bild passen. </li><li> Laden der AFM-Bild der Probe in der SVG-Editor. </li><li> Neues Nanostrukturelemente auf der AFM-Bild überlagert. </li></ol></li><li> Laden Sie die SVG-Datei in die Nanolithographie-Programm. </li><li> Führen Sie die Lithographie-Software, um eine leitende Nanostruktur erstellen. <ol><li> Verwenden V Spitze = +10 V Nanostrukturen erstellen und V Spitze = -10 V bis Nanostrukturen zu löschen. </li><li> Bewegen Sie den c-AFM-Spitze mit einer Geschwindigkeit von 200 nm / s bis 2 &amp;mgr; m / Sek. </li></ol></li></ol> 5. Cooles Gerät und Messungen <ol><li> Schalten Sie alle weißen Lichtern und roten Filter verwenden / Lichtquellen. </li><li> Extrahieren der Probe von der AFM-System. </li><li> Legen Sie die Probe in die Verdünnungs Kühlschrank (A). </li><li> Messen von Widerstand gegen Temperatur (B), während die Probe gekühlt wird. </li><li> Messen Sie Transporteigenschaften bei niedrigen Temperaturen (C). </li></ol>

<ol>
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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Successful creation of nanostructures depends on several critical steps. It is important that the LAO/STO samples are grown with a thickness that is known to be at the boundary between the insulating and conductive phase. (Details of sample growth fall outside the scope of this paper, but are crucial for overall success.) Second, it is important to have relative humidity within the range 25-45% for successful c-AFM writing. Values below 25% are unlikely to produce conductive nanostructures, while too high humidity will generally produce uncontrollably large features. Also, temperature control of the AFM is important if the c-AFM tip needs to achieve precise registry over long periods of time. Once the nanostructures are created, they must be placed in a vacuum environment if experiments lasting longer than a few hours are to be performed. For the experiments described here, the structure is created and within minutes transferred to a vacuum environment.
It is recommend before writing that a &#8220;writing test&#8221; be performed on all relevant electrodes. In such a test, two virtual electrodes are first created, and a single nanowire is written while simultaneously monitoring the conductance. A similar test of erasure can be performed by &#8220;cutting&#8221; the nanowire shortly afterwards. If the nanostructure is decaying rapidly, the issue is most likely due either to the interfacial contacts or the canvas itself. To distinguish between these two effects, a four-terminal measurement of the conductance should be performed, and the two-terminal conductance should be compared with the four-terminal conductance as a function of time. If the two-terminal conductance is decaying more rapidly than the four-terminal conductance, then the issue is related to the electrical contacts to the interface. If the four-terminal conductance is decaying at a comparable rate, then most likely the canvas is not suitable and should be replaced.
There are natural limitations of the current method for creating nanostructures. Specifically, the writing speed for the smallest devices is limited to a few hundred nanometers per second. Speeds far above that value lead to unpredictable results. Use of parallel writing techniques are possible27,28, but are not highly developed and have their own drawbacks. The size of nanostructures that can be created is naturally limited by the scan range of the AFM being used. A high-quality AFM with closed-loop feedback in the two scan directions is highly recommended. Tracking of point-like objects on the sample surface should be performed to monitor temporal drift of the sample.
Once creation of conductive nanostructures at oxide interfaces has been mastered, there are a wide range of experimental directions that can be explored. Using this technique, a wide variety of nanostructures and devices have already been demonstrated, including nanowires18, tunnel barriers29, rectifying junctions30, field-effect transistors18, single-electron transistors31, superconducting nanowires32, nanoscale optical detectors33, and nanoscale THz emitters and detectors34.

Oxide Hetero 1-5 zeigen eine bemerkenswert große Auswahl an emergent physikalische Phänomene, die sowohl wissenschaftlich interessanten und potentiell nützlich für Anwendungen, 4 sind. Insbesondere kann die Schnittstelle zwischen LaAlO 3 (LAO) und SrTiO3 (STO) 6 Isolations zeigen, Dirigieren, supraleitenden 7, ferroelektrischen artigen 8 und 9 ferromagnetischen Verhalten. Im Jahr 2006, Thiel et al zeigten, dass 10 gibt es eine scharfe Isolator-Metall-Übergang als die Dicke des LAO Schicht erhöht, mit einer kritischen Dicke von 4 Elementarzellen (4uc). Es wurde anschließend gezeigt, dass 3uc-LAO/STO Strukturen weisen eine Hysterese-Übergang, der lokal mit einem leitenden Rasterkraftmikroskop (AFM-c) Fühler 11 gesteuert werden kann. Die Eigenschaften der Oxid-Schnittstellen wie LaAlO 3 / SrTiO 3 abhängig von der Abwesenheit oder Anwesenheit von leitendenElektronen an der Grenzfläche. Diese Elektronen können mit Top-Gate-Elektroden 12,13, Rücken-Tore 10 gesteuert werden, Oberflächenadsorbaten 14, ferroelektrischen Schichten 15,16 und c-AFM-Lithographie 11. Eine einzigartige Funktion von c-AFM-Lithographie ist, dass sehr kleine Nanostrukturen erstellt werden können. Elektrische Top-Gating, kombiniert mit zweidimensionalen Haft wird oft verwendet, um Quantenpunkte in III-V-Halbleitern 17 erstellen. Alternativ können quasi-eindimensionalen Halbleiter-Nanodrähte elektrisch Nähe blendet werden. Die Verfahren zur Herstellung dieser Strukturen sind zeitaufwendig und in der Regel irreversibel. Demgegenüber ist die C-AFM Lithographietechnik reversibel in dem Sinn, dass eine Nanostruktur kann aus einem Experiment erzeugt werden, und dann &quot;gelöscht&quot; (ähnlich einer Tafel). Im Allgemeinen wird c-AFM Schreiben mit an die AFM Spitze angelegt positive Spannungen durchgeführt, während das Löschenwird unter Verwendung von negativen Spannungen. Die erforderlich ist, um eine bestimmte Struktur zu schaffen Zeit hängt von der Komplexität der Vorrichtung ist jedoch in der Regel weniger als 30 min; die meiste Zeit verbracht Löschen der Leinwand. Die typische räumliche Auflösung ist etwa 10 Nanometern, aber mit der richtigen Abstimmung bietet so klein wie 2 Nanometer erzeugt werden 18. Eine detaillierte Beschreibung der Herstellung der nanoskaligen Verfahren folgt. Das Detail hier bereitgestellten sollte ausreichen, damit ähnliche Experimente von interessierten Forschern durchgeführt werden können. Die hier beschriebene Methode hat viele Vorteile gegenüber herkömmlichen lithographischen Methoden verwendet, um elektronische Nanostrukturen in Halbleitern zu schaffen. Die hier beschriebene c-AFM Lithographieverfahren ist Teil eines viel umfassenderen Klasse von Rastersondenlithographie-basierte Bemühungen, einschließlich Scannen anodische Oxidation 19, Dip-Pen-Nanolithographie 20, piezoelektrische Muster21, und so weiter. Die c-AFM-Technik hier beschrieben, verbunden mit der Verwendung von neuen Oxid-Schnittstellen können einige der höchsten präzise elektronische Strukturen mit einer beispiellosen Vielfalt von physikalischen Eigenschaften herzustellen.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="889">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:165px;">Name</td>
			<td style="width:169px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:447px;">Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Contact Aligner</td>
			<td>Karl-Suss</td>
			<td>MA6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Spinner</td>
			<td>Solitec</td>
			<td>5110C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Ion Mill</td>
			<td>Commonwealth Scientific</td>
			<td>8C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Sputtering System</td>
			<td>Leybold-Heraeus</td>
			<td>Z-650</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Barrel Etcher</td>
			<td>Branson/IPC</td>
			<td>3000C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Wire Bonder</td>
			<td>Westbond</td>
			<td>7700E</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">AFM</td>
			<td>Asylum Research</td>
			<td>MFP-3D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Dilution Refrigerator</td>
			<td>Quantum Design</td>
			<td>P850</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Ultrasonic Wash Machine</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>15-335-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Current Amplifier</td>
			<td>Femto</td>
			<td>DLPCA-200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Materials</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">LaAlO3/SrTiO3</td>
			<td>Prof. Chang-Beom Eom</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>5mm x 1mm with ~3.4 unit cells of LAO (See Reference 18)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Photoresist</td>
			<td>AZ Electronic Materials</td>
			<td>P4210</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Developer</td>
			<td>AZ Electronic Materials</td>
			<td>400K</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Acetone</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A929SK-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Isopropyl Alcohol</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A459-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Deionized Water</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>23-290-065</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Gold Wire</td>
			<td>DuPont</td>
			<td>5771</td>
			<td>1 mil diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Chip Carrier</td>
			<td>NTK Technologies</td>
			<td>IRK28F1-5451D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

writing and low-temperature characterization of oxide nanostructures

Oxide nanoelectronics is a rapidly growing field which seeks to develop novel materials with multifunctional behavior at nanoscale dimensions. Oxide interfaces exhibit a wide range of properties that can be controlled include conduction, piezoelectric behavior, ferromagnetism, superconductivity and nonlinear optical properties. Recently, methods for controlling these properties at extreme nanoscale dimensions have been discovered and developed. Here are described explicit step-by-step procedures for creating LaAlO3/SrTiO3 nanostructures using a reversible conductive atomic force microscopy technique. The processing steps for creating electrical contacts to the LaAlO3/SrTiO3 interface are first described. Conductive nanostructures are created by applying voltages to a conductive atomic force microscope tip and locally switching the LaAlO3/SrTiO3 interface to a conductive state. A versatile nanolithography toolkit has been developed expressly for the purpose of controlling the atomic force microscope (AFM) tip path and voltage. Then, these nanostructures are placed in a cryostat and transport measurements are performed. The procedures described here should be useful to others wishing to conduct research in oxide nanoelectronics.

Die hier gezeigten Ergebnisse sind repräsentativ für das Transportverhalten, das von dieser Klasse von Nanostrukturen ausgestellt werden können, und an anderer Stelle im Detail 23-26 beschrieben. In diesem Beispiel wurde ein Nanodraht-Hohlraum ist von einem 3.3 Einheitszelle LAO / STO-Heterostruktur ausgebildet (Fig. 4). Leitfähige Wegen (grün dargestellt) sind in der Regel 10 nm breit, wie von Nanodraht bestimmt &quot;cutting&quot;-Experimente 11. Die Spitzengeschwindigkeit und die Spannung für jedes Segment unabhängig einstellbar von Lithographie Vorderseite (4B), so ist die Spitze Schreibgeschwindigkeit. &quot;Virtuelle Elektroden&quot;, die Schnittstelle mit den Grenzflächen der Kontakte zu gewährleisten, dass es eine gut leitende elektrische Verbindung zu den Nanostrukturen. Nachdem die Nanostruktur geschrieben wird, wird es dem Verdünnungskühler überführt. Lichtexposition bei oder unter 550 nm unerwünschte Photoleitung erzeugen, so ist es important, um das Gerät bei Dunkelheit oder mit Hilfe von einem roten &quot;Dunkelkammer&quot; Licht (5A) zu übertragen. Elektrische Verbindungen sollten bei RT hergestellt werden, und wie bei den meisten Halbleiternanostrukturen, sollte darauf geachtet werden, beim Wechsel elektrischen Verbindungen bei kryogenen Temperaturen. Wenn die Geräte elektrostatischer Entladung ausgesetzt ist, wird es wahrscheinlich geworden isolierend. Bemerkenswert ist, kann das Gerät die Funktionalität von &quot;Radfahren&quot; der Temperatur auf 300 K und Abkühlen wieder zurückgewonnen werden. Während des Abkühlens ist es Routine, um die Zweianschlusswiderstand zu überwachen, und auch die Vier-Anschluß-Widerstand als Funktion der Temperatur. Aus diesen Messungen wird eine Wechselspannung (typischerweise ~ 1 mV) bei einer niedrigen Frequenz (&lt;10 Hz) an eine der Elektroden angelegt wird, während der Netzstrom wird unter Verwendung eines Transimpedanzverstärkers gemessen. Lock-In-Demodulation und Filterung mit einem Heim-entwickelten Lock-In-Verstärker durchgeführt. Die Wechsel current wird als eine Funktion der Temperatur (5B) beobachtet. Sobald das Gerät an die Basistemperatur des Mischungskühlers (50 mK) abgekühlt ist, werden vier-terminale Transportmessungen durchgeführt (5C). Für diese Messungen wird der Strom durch den Hauptkanal der Vorrichtung bezogen, während die Spannung über der Vorrichtung wird gleichzeitig gemessen. Anstelle der Messung mit einem Lock-in-Verstärker, einem vollen Strom-Spannungs-(IV)-Kurve wird gemessen. Diese Methode enthält mehr Informationen und die Differentialleitung kann über numerische Differentiation berechnet werden. Für die besondere Vorrichtung wird der Differenzleitungs als Funktion der Seitengatespannung V SG gemessen. Dieses Gatter kann das chemische Potential des Gerätes geändert werden. Der Transport durch das Gerät zeigt eine starke nicht-monotonen Abhängigkeit, was auf Regionen, in denen Coulomb-Blockade für kleinere Werte stattfindet, und strong Supraleitung für größere Werte von V sg. Einzelheiten über das physikalische Interpretation für diese Geräteklasse wird an anderer Stelle beschrieben werden. <img alt="Figur 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/51886/51886fig1highres.jpg" /> .. Abbildung 1 Photolithographische Verarbeitungsschritte Schritt 1: Spin Photolack. Schritt 2: aussetzen Photolack mit Mask Aligner. Schritt 3: Photolack zu entwickeln. Schritt 4: Ionenfräsen. Schritt 5: DC-Sputtern Ti und Au zu hinterlegen. Schritt 6: Lift-Off. Schritt 7: die Hinterlegung der zweiten Schicht. Schritt 8: Plasmareinigung. <img alt="Figur 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/51886/51886fig2highres.jpg" /> Abbildung 2. Bilder von lithographisch LAO / STO-Heterostrukturen. (A) Bild zeigt 5mm x 5mm Probe Draht zu einem Chipträger verbunden. (B)<html> Optische Bild zeigt Bond-Pads und einer der Leinwände. (C) Close-up von einer einzigen Leinwand. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/51886/51886fig2highres.jpg" target="_blank">Bitte klicken Sie hier, um eine größere Version dieser Figur zu sehen.</a> <img alt="Fig. 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/51886/51886fig3highres.jpg" /> Abbildung 3. (A) Informelle Design der LAO / STO Nanostruktur. (B) Präzise Layout der Nanostruktur unter Verwendung eines Open-Source-skalierbare Vektorgrafiken (SVG)-Editor. <img alt="Fig. 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/51886/51886fig4highres.jpg" /> Abbildung 4. (A) Lithographie Frontplatte für c-AFM-Strukturierung. (B) Screenshot von 3D-Simulator, die Position und die Spannung der c-AFM-Spitze.w.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52058/52058fig4large.jpg &quot;target =&quot; _blank &quot;&gt; Bitte klicken Sie hier, um eine größere Version dieser Figur zu sehen. <img alt="Figur 5" src="/files/ftp_upload/51886/51886fig5highres.jpg" /> 5. (A) LAO / STO Nanostruktur ist in Verdünnungskühlers in Abhängigkeit von der einge. (B) Überwachung des Messwiderstand, wenn es von 300 K auf 50 mK gekühlt. (C) Überwachen von vier Anschlüssen der differentiellen Leitfähigkeit der Vorrichtung Seiten-Gate-Spannung Vsg und Spannung an der Vorrichtung (V4t). Intensity Graph in Einheiten von Siemens (S), und Spannungen angezeigt werden in Einheiten von Volt (V) angezeigt.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Writing and Low-Temperature Characterization of Oxide Nanostructures at JoVE.com

Writing and Low-Temperature Characterization of Oxide Nanostructures

Oxide nanostructures provide new opportunities for science and technology. The interfacial conductivity between LaAlO3 and SrTiO3 can be controlled with near-atomic precision using a conductive atomic force microscopy technique. The protocol for creating and measuring conductive nanostructures at LaAlO3/SrTiO3 interfaces is demonstrated.

Schreiben und Niedertemperatur-Charakterisierung von Nanostrukturen

Oxide nanoelectronics is a rapidly growing field which seeks to develop novel materials with multifunctional behavior at nanoscale dimensions.  Oxide ...

writing-and-low-temperature-characterization-of-oxide-nanostructures

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

9.9K Aufrufe.  University of Pittsburgh. Oxide nanostructures provide new opportunities for science and technology. The interfacial conductivity between LaAlO3 and SrTiO3 can be controlled with near-atomic precision using a conductive atomic force microscopy technique. The protocol for creating and measuring conductive nanostructures at LaAlO3/SrTiO3 interfaces is demonstrated.

Serie: Writing and Low-Temperature Characterization of Oxide Nanostructures

A Method to Fabricate Disconnected Silver Nanostructures in 3D

The standard nanofabrication toolkit includes techniques primarily aimed at creating 2D patterns in dielectric media. Creating metal patterns on a submicron scale requires a combination of nanofabrication tools and several material processing steps. For example, steps to create planar metal structures using ultraviolet photolithography and electron-beam lithography can include sample exposure, sample development, metal deposition, and metal liftoff. To create 3D metal structures, the sequence is repeated multiple times. The complexity and difficulty of stacking and aligning multiple layers limits practical implementations of 3D metal structuring using standard nanofabrication tools. Femtosecond-laser direct-writing has emerged as a pre-eminent technique for 3D nanofabrication.1,2 Femtosecond lasers are frequently used to create 3D patterns in polymers and glasses.3-7 However, 3D metal direct-writing remains a challenge. Here, we describe a method to fabricate silver nanostructures embedded inside a polymer matrix using a femtosecond laser centered at 800 nm. The method enables the fabrication of patterns not feasible using other techniques, such as 3D arrays of disconnected silver voxels.8 Disconnected 3D metal patterns are useful for metamaterials where unit cells are not in contact with each other,9 such as coupled metal dot10,11or coupled metal rod12,13 resonators. Potential applications include negative index metamaterials, invisibility cloaks, and perfect lenses.
In femtosecond-laser direct-writing, the laser wavelength is chosen such that photons are not linearly absorbed in the target medium. When the laser pulse duration is compressed to the femtosecond time scale and the radiation is tightly focused inside the target, the extremely high intensity induces nonlinear absorption. Multiple photons are absorbed simultaneously to cause electronic transitions that lead to material modification within the focused region. Using this approach, one can form structures in the bulk of a material rather than on its surface.
Most work on 3D direct metal writing has focused on creating self-supported metal structures.14-16 The method described here yields sub-micrometer silver structures that do not need to be self-supported because they are embedded inside a matrix. A doped polymer matrix is prepared using a mixture of silver nitrate (AgNO3), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and water (H2O). Samples are then patterned by irradiation with an 11-MHz femtosecond laser producing 50-fs pulses. During irradiation, photoreduction of silver ions is induced through nonlinear absorption, creating an aggregate of silver nanoparticles in the focal region. Using this approach we create silver patterns embedded in a doped PVP matrix. Adding 3D translation of the sample extends the patterning to three dimensions.

Femtosecond-laser direct-writing is frequently used to create three-dimensional (3D) patterns in polymers and glasses. However, patterning metals in 3D remains a challenge. We describe a method for fabricating silver nanostructures embedded inside a polymer matrix using a femtosecond laser centered at 800 nm.

Ein Verfahren zur Getrennt Silber Nanostrukturen in 3D Fabricate

The standard nanofabrication toolkit includes  techniques primarily aimed at creating 2D patterns in dielectric media. Creating  metal patterns on a ...

Forschung

Ingenieurwesen

Probing and Mapping Electrode Surfaces in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are potentially the most efficient and cost-effective solution to utilization of a wide variety of fuels beyond hydrogen 1-7. The performance of SOFCs and the rates of many chemical and energy transformation processes in energy storage and conversion devices in general are limited primarily by charge and mass transfer along electrode surfaces and across interfaces. Unfortunately, the mechanistic understanding of these processes is still lacking, due largely to the difficulty of characterizing these processes under in situ conditions. This knowledge gap is a chief obstacle to SOFC commercialization. The development of tools for probing and mapping surface chemistries relevant to electrode reactions is vital to unraveling the mechanisms of surface processes and to achieving rational design of new electrode materials for more efficient energy storage and conversion2. Among the relatively few in situ surface analysis methods, Raman spectroscopy can be performed even with high temperatures and harsh atmospheres, making it ideal for characterizing chemical processes relevant to SOFC anode performance and degradation8-12. It can also be used alongside electrochemical measurements, potentially allowing direct correlation of electrochemistry to surface chemistry in an operating cell. Proper in situ Raman mapping measurements would be useful for pin-pointing important anode reaction mechanisms because of its sensitivity to the relevant species, including anode performance degradation through carbon deposition8, 10, 13, 14 ("coking") and sulfur poisoning11, 15 and the manner in which surface modifications stave off this degradation16. The current work demonstrates significant progress towards this capability. In addition, the family of scanning probe microscopy (SPM) techniques provides a special approach to interrogate the electrode surface with nanoscale resolution. Besides the surface topography that is routinely collected by AFM and STM, other properties such as local electronic states, ion diffusion coefficient and surface potential can also be investigated17-22. In this work, electrochemical measurements, Raman spectroscopy, and SPM were used in conjunction with a novel test electrode platform that consists of a Ni mesh electrode embedded in an yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) electrolyte. Cell performance testing and impedance spectroscopy under fuel containing H2S was characterized, and Raman mapping was used to further elucidate the nature of sulfur poisoning. In situ Raman monitoring was used to investigate coking behavior. Finally, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and electrostatic force microscopy (EFM) were used to further visualize carbon deposition on the nanoscale. From this research, we desire to produce a more complete picture of the SOFC anode.

We present a unique platform for characterizing electrode surfaces in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) that allows simultaneous performance of multiple characterization techniques (e.g. in situ Raman spectroscopy and scanning probe microscopy alongside electrochemical measurements). Complementary information from these analyses may help to advance toward a more profound understanding of electrode reaction and degradation mechanisms, providing insights into rational design of better materials for SOFCs.

Sondieren und Mapping-Elektrode Oberflächen in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are potentially the most efficient and cost-effective solution to utilization of a wide variety of fuels beyond hydrogen ...

Visible-light Induced Reduction of Graphene Oxide Using Plasmonic Nanoparticle

Present work demonstrates the simple, chemical free, fast, and energy efficient method to produce reduced graphene oxide (r-GO) solution at RT using visible light irradiation with plasmonic nanoparticles. The plasmonic nanoparticle is used to improve the reduction efficiency of GO. It only takes 30 min&#160;at RT by illuminating the solutions with Xe-lamp, the r-GO solutions can be obtained by completely removing gold nanoparticles through simple centrifugation step. The spherical gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) as compared to the other nanostructures is the most suitable plasmonic nanostructure for r-GO preparation. The reduced graphene oxide prepared using visible light and AuNPs was equally qualitative as chemically reduced graphene oxide, which was supported by various analytical techniques such as UV-Vis spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, powder XRD and XPS. The reduced graphene oxide prepared with visible light shows excellent quenching properties over the fluorescent molecules modified on ssDNA and excellent fluorescence recovery for target DNA detection. The r-GO prepared by recycled AuNPs is found to be of same quality with that of chemically reduced r-GO. The use of visible light with plasmonic nanoparticle demonstrates the good alternative method for r-GO synthesis.

A simple protocol for the preparation of reduced graphene oxide using visible light and plasmonic nanoparticle is described.

Sichtbares Licht induzierte Reduktion von Graphenoxid Mit Plasmonische Nanopartikel

Present work demonstrates the simple, chemical free, fast, and energy efficient method to produce reduced graphene oxide (r-GO) solution at RT using ...

Ohmic Contact Fabrication Using a Focused-ion Beam Technique and Electrical Characterization for Layer Semiconductor Nanostructures

Layer semiconductors with easily processed two-dimensional (2D) structures exhibit indirect-to-direct bandgap transitions and superior transistor performance, which suggest a new direction for the development of next-generation ultrathin and flexible photonic and electronic devices. Enhanced luminescence quantum efficiency has been widely observed in these atomically thin 2D crystals. However, dimension effects beyond quantum confinement thicknesses or even at the micrometer scale are not expected and have rarely been observed. In this study, molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2) layer crystals with a thickness range of 6-2,700 nm were fabricated as two- or four-terminal devices. Ohmic contact formation was successfully achieved by the focused-ion beam (FIB) deposition method using platinum (Pt) as a contact metal. Layer crystals with various thicknesses were prepared through simple mechanical exfoliation by using dicing tape. Current-voltage curve measurements were performed to determine the conductivity value of the layer nanocrystals. In addition, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, selected-area electron diffractometry, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy were used to characterize the interface of the metal&#8211;semiconductor contact of the FIB-fabricated MoSe2 devices. After applying the approaches, the substantial thickness-dependent electrical conductivity in a wide thickness range for the MoSe2-layer semiconductor was observed. The conductivity increased by over two orders of magnitude from 4.6 to 1,500 &#937;&#8722;1 cm&#8722;1, with a decrease in the thickness from 2,700 to 6 nm. In addition, the temperature-dependent conductivity indicated that the thin MoSe2 multilayers exhibited considerably weak semiconducting behavior with activation energies of 3.5-8.5 meV, which are considerably smaller than those (36-38 meV) of the bulk. Probable surface-dominant transport properties and the presence of a high surface electron concentration in MoSe2 are proposed. Similar results can be obtained for other layer semiconductor materials such as MoS2 and WS2.

We describe the approaches for the device fabrication and electrical characterization of molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2) layer semiconductor nanostructures with different thicknesses. In addition, the fabrication of ohmic contacts for MoSe2-layer nanocrystals by the focused-ion beam deposition method using platinum (Pt) as a contact metal is described.

Ohmsche Kontakt Fabrication unter Verwendung eines fokussierten Ionenstrahl-Technik und Elektrische Charakterisierung für Layer-Halbleiter-Nanostrukturen

Layer semiconductors with easily processed two-dimensional (2D) structures exhibit indirect-to-direct bandgap transitions and superior transistor ...

Fabrication of Low Temperature Carbon Nanotube Vertical Interconnects Compatible with Semiconductor Technology

We demonstrate a method for the low temperature growth (350 &#176;C) of vertically-aligned carbon nanotubes (CNT) bundles on electrically conductive thin-films. Due to the low growth temperature, the process allows integration with modern low-&#954; dielectrics and some flexible substrates. The process is compatible with standard semiconductor fabrication, and a method for the fabrication of electrical 4-point probe test structures for vertical interconnect test structures is presented. Using scanning electron microscopy the morphology of the CNT bundles is investigated, which demonstrates vertical alignment of the CNT and can be used to tune the CNT growth time. With Raman spectroscopy the crystallinity of the CNT is investigated. It was found that the CNT have many defects, due to the low growth temperature. The electrical current-voltage measurements of the test vertical interconnects displays a linear response, indicating good ohmic contact was achieved between the CNT bundle and the top and bottom metal electrodes. The obtained resistivities of the CNT bundle are among the average values in the literature, while a record-low CNT growth temperature was used.

A method for the growth of low temperature vertically-aligned carbon nanotubes, and the subsequent fabrication of vertical interconnect electrical test structures using semiconductor fabrication is presented.

Herstellung von Niedertemperatur-Carbon Nanotube Vertikale Verbindungen Kompatibel mit Halbleitertechnik

We demonstrate a method for the low temperature growth (350 &#176;C) of vertically-aligned carbon nanotubes (CNT) bundles on electrically conductive ...

Integration of Light Trapping Silver Nanostructures in Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon Solar Cells by Transfer Printing

One of the potential applications of metal nanostructures is light trapping in solar cells, where unique optical properties of nanosized metals, commonly known as plasmonic effects, play an important role. Research in this field has, however, been impeded owing to the difficulty of fabricating devices containing the desired functional metal nanostructures. In order to provide a viable strategy to this issue, we herein show a transfer printing-based approach that allows the quick and low-cost integration of designed metal nanostructures with a variety of device architectures, including solar cells. Nanopillar poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) stamps were fabricated from a commercially available nanohole plastic film as a master mold. On this nanopatterned PDMS stamps, Ag films were deposited, which were then transfer-printed onto block copolymer (binding layer)-coated hydrogenated microcrystalline Si (&#181;c-Si:H) surface to afford ordered Ag nanodisk structures. It was confirmed that the resulting Ag nanodisk-incorporated &#181;c-Si:H solar cells show higher performances compared to a cell without the transfer-printed Ag nanodisks, thanks to plasmonic light trapping effect derived from the Ag nanodisks. Because of the simplicity and versatility, further device application would also be feasible thorough this approach.

A viable transfer printing-based methodology to introduce plasmonic metal nanostructures in solar cells is described. Using nanopillar poly(dimethylsiloxane) stamps, an Ag-based ordered nanodisk array was integrated with standard hydrogenated microcrystalline Si solar cells, which led to improved device performances due to plasmonic light trapping.

Integration of Light Trapping Silber-Nanostrukturen in Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon Solar Cells durch Transferdruck

One of the potential applications of metal nanostructures is light trapping in solar cells, where unique optical properties of nanosized metals, commonly ...

Writing Bragg Gratings in Multicore Fibers

Fiber Bragg gratings in multicore fibers can be used as compact and robust filters in astronomical and other research and commercial applications. Strong suppression at a single wavelength requires that all cores have matching transmission profiles. These gratings cannot be inscribed using the same method as for single-core fibers because the curved surface of the cladding acts as a lens, focusing the incoming UV laser beam and causing variations in exposure between cores. Therefore we use an additional optical element to ensure that the beam shape does not change while passing through the cross-section of the multicore fiber. This consists of a glass capillary tube which has been polished flat on one side, which is then placed over the section of the fiber to be inscribed. The laser beam enters the fiber through the flat surface of the capillary tube and hence maintains its original dimensions. This paper demonstrates the improvements in core-to-core uniformity for a 7-core fiber using this method. The technique can be generalized to larger multicore fibers.

We describe a technique for inscribing identical fiber Bragg gratings into each core of a multicore fiber. This is achieved by introducing an additional surface into the optical path to mitigate lensing by the curved surface of the fiber cladding.

Schreiben-Bragg-Gitter in Multicore- Fibers

Fiber Bragg gratings in multicore fibers can be used as compact and robust filters in astronomical and other research and commercial applications. Strong ...

Iridium Oxide-reduced Graphene Oxide Nanohybrid Thin Film Modified Screen-printed Electrodes as Disposable Electrochemical Paper Microfluidic pH Sensors

A facile, controllable, inexpensive and green electrochemical synthesis of IrO2-graphene nanohybrid thin films is developed to fabricate an easy-to-use integrated paper microfluidic electrochemical pH sensor for resource-limited settings. Taking advantages from both pH meters and strips, the pH sensing platform is composed of hydrophobic barrier-patterned paper micropad (&#181;PAD) using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), screen-printed electrode (SPE) modified with IrO2-graphene films and molded acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic holder. Repetitive cathodic potential cycling was employed for graphene oxide (GO) reduction which can completely remove electrochemically unstable oxygenated groups and generate a 2D defect-free homogeneous graphene thin film with excellent stability and electronic properties. A uniform and smooth IrO2 film in nanoscale grain size is anodically electrodeposited onto the graphene film, without any observable cracks. The resulting IrO2-RGO electrode showed slightly super-Nernstian responses from pH 2-12 in Britton-Robinson (B-R) buffers with good linearity, small hysteresis, low response time and reproducibility in different buffers, as well as low sensitivities to different interfering ionic species and dissolved oxygen. A simple portable digital pH meter is fabricated, whose signal is measured with a multimeter, using high input-impedance operational amplifier and consumer batteries. The pH values measured with the portable electrochemical paper-microfluidic pH sensors were consistent with those measured using a commercial laboratory pH meter with a glass electrode.

The study demonstrates the growth of iridium oxide-reduced graphene oxide (IrO2-RGO) nanohybrid thin films on irregular and rough screen-printed carbon substrate through a green electrochemical synthesis, and their implementation as a pH sensor with a patterned paper-fluidic platform.

Iridium-Oxid-reduziertem Graphenoxid Nanohybrid- Thin Film Modified Siebdruck Elektroden als Einweg-Elektro Papier Mikrofluidik pH-Sensoren

A facile, controllable, inexpensive and green electrochemical synthesis of IrO2-graphene nanohybrid thin films is developed to fabricate an easy-to-use ...

Advanced Experimental Methods for Low-temperature Magnetotransport Measurement of Novel Materials

Novel electronic materials are often produced for the first time by synthesis processes that yield bulk crystals (in contrast to single crystal thin film synthesis) for the purpose of exploratory materials research. Certain materials pose a challenge wherein the traditional bulk Hall bar device fabrication method is insufficient to produce a measureable device for sample transport measurement, principally because the single crystal size is too small to attach wire leads to the sample in a Hall bar configuration. This can be, for example, because the first batch of a new material synthesized yields very small single crystals or because flakes of samples of one to very few monolayers are desired. In order to enable rapid characterization of materials that may be carried out in parallel with improvements to their growth methodology, a method of device fabrication for very small samples has been devised to permit the characterization of novel materials as soon as a preliminary batch has been produced. A slight variation of this methodology is applicable to producing devices using exfoliated samples of two-dimensional materials such as graphene, hexagonal boron nitride (hBN), and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), as well as multilayer heterostructures of such materials. Here we present detailed protocols for the experimental device fabrication of fragments and flakes of novel materials with micron-sized dimensions onto substrate and subsequent measurement in a commercial superconducting magnet, dry helium close-cycle cryostat magnetotransport system at temperatures down to 0.300 K and magnetic fields up to 12 T.

We describe the methodology of mechanical exfoliation and deposition of flakes of novel materials with micron-sized dimensions onto substrate, fabrication of experimental device structures for transport experimentation, and the magnetotransport measurement in a dry helium close-cycle cryostat at temperatures down to 0.300 K and magnetic fields up to 12 T.

Erweiterte Experimentelle Methoden für Niedertemperatur-Magneto Messung der Novel Materials

Novel electronic materials are often produced for the first time by synthesis processes that yield bulk crystals (in contrast to single crystal thin film ...

Method Development for Contactless Resonant Cavity Dielectric Spectroscopic Studies of Cellulosic Paper

The current analytical techniques for characterizing printing and graphic arts substrates are largely ex situ and destructive. This limits the amount of data that can be obtained from an individual sample and renders it difficult to produce statistically relevant data for unique and rare materials. Resonant cavity dielectric spectroscopy is a non-destructive, contactless technique which can simultaneously interrogate both sides of a sheeted material and provide measurements which are suitable for statistical interpretations. This offers analysts the ability to quickly discriminate between sheeted materials based on composition and storage history. In this methodology article, we demonstrate how contactless resonant cavity dielectric spectroscopy may be used to differentiate between paper analytes of varying fiber species compositions, to determine the relative age of the paper, and to detect and quantify the amount of post-consumer waste (PCW) recycled fiber content in manufactured office paper.

A protocol for the non-destructive analysis of the fiber content and relative age of paper.

Methodenentwicklung für kontaktlose Resonanzhöhlen dielektrische spektroskopische Studien von Cellulosic Paper

The current analytical techniques for characterizing printing and graphic arts substrates are largely ex situ and destructive. This limits the amount of ...