Name: measuring synaptic vesicle endocytosis in cultured hippocampal neurons
Uploaded: 2017-09-04T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measuring Synaptic Vesicle Endocytosis in Cultured Hippocampal Neurons at JoVE.com

We thank Dr. Yong-Ling Zhu for providing synaptophysin-pHluorin2x construct, and Dr. James E. Rothman for providing VAMP2-phluorin. We thank Dr. Susan Cheng and Virginia Crocker of NINDS Electron Microscopy Facility for their technical support and help. This work was supported by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Intramural Research Program in USA and a grant from the KRIBB Research Initiative Program (Korean Biomedical Scientist Fellowship Program), Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Republic of Korea.

NOTE: The following protocol describes the pHluorin imaging methods and EM methods used in cultured hippocampal neurons. pHluorin monitors synaptic vesicle protein uptake in living cells and EM detects uptake of synaptic vesicle and ultrastructural changes.
Animal care and procedure followed NIH guidelines and were approved by the NIH Animal Care and Use Committee.
1. pHluorin Imaging
<ol>
	<li>Hippocampal neuron culture
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare Hippoc...

<ol>
	<li>Sankaranarayanan, S., Ryan, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Real-time+measurements+of+vesicle-SNARE+recycling+in+synapses+of+the+central+nervous+system.">Real-time measurements of vesicle-SNARE recycling in synapses of the central nervous system.</a> Nature cell biol. 2 (4), 197-204 (2000).</li><li>Sun, T., Wu, X. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+calcium/calmodulin-activated+calcineurin+in+rapid+and+slow+endocytosis+at+central+synapses.">The role of calcium/calmodulin-activated calcineurin in rapid and slow endocytosis at central synapses.</a> J Neurosci. 30 (35), 11838-11847 (2010).</li><li>Wu, X. -. S. S., Lee, S. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Actin+Is+Crucial+for+All+Kinetically+Distinguishable+Forms+of+Endocytosis+at+Synapses.">Actin Is Crucial for All Kinetically Distinguishable Forms of Endocytosis at Synapses.</a> Neuron. 92 (5), 1020-1035 (2016).</li><li>Granseth, B., Odermatt, B., Royle, S. J., Lagnado, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clathrin-mediated+endocytosis+is+the+dominant+mechanism+of+vesicle+retrieval+at+hippocampal+synapses.">Clathrin-mediated endocytosis is the dominant mechanism of vesicle retrieval at hippocampal synapses.</a> Neuron. 51 (6), 773-786 (2006).</li><li>Atluri, P. P., Ryan, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+kinetics+of+synaptic+vesicle+reacidification+at+hippocampal+nerve+terminals.">The kinetics of synaptic vesicle reacidification at hippocampal nerve terminals.</a> J Neurosci. 26 (8), 2313-2320 (2006).</li><li>Royle, S. J., Granseth, B., Odermatt, B., Derevier, A., Lagnado, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+phluorin-based+probes+at+hippocampal+synapses.">Imaging phluorin-based probes at hippocampal synapses.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 457, 293-303 (2008).</li><li>Moulder, K. L., Mennerick, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reluctant+vesicles+contribute+to+the+total+readily+releasable+pool+in+glutamatergic+hippocampal+neurons.">Reluctant vesicles contribute to the total readily releasable pool in glutamatergic hippocampal neurons.</a> J Neurosci. 25 (15), 3842-3850 (2005).</li><li>Li, Z., Burrone, J., Tyler, W. J., Hartman, K. N., Albeanu, D. F., Murthy, V. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synaptic+vesicle+recycling+studied+in+transgenic+mice+expressing+synaptopHluorin.">Synaptic vesicle recycling studied in transgenic mice expressing synaptopHluorin.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 102 (17), 6131-6136 (2005).</li><li>Morris, R. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Elements+of+a+neurobiological+theory+of+hippocampal+function:+the+role+of+synaptic+plasticity,+synaptic+tagging+and+schemas.">Elements of a neurobiological theory of hippocampal function: the role of synaptic plasticity, synaptic tagging and schemas.</a> Eur J Neurosci. 23 (11), 2829-2846 (2006).</li><li>Sankaranarayanan, S., Ryan, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calcium+accelerates+endocytosis+of+vSNAREs+at+hippocampal+synapses.">Calcium accelerates endocytosis of vSNAREs at hippocampal synapses.</a> Nat Neurosci. 4 (2), 129-136 (2001).</li><li>Balaji, J., Armbruster, M., Ryan, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calcium+control+of+endocytic+capacity+at+a+CNS+synapse.">Calcium control of endocytic capacity at a CNS synapse.</a> J Neurosci. 28 (26), 6742-6749 (2008).</li><li>Ferguson, S. M., Brasnjo, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+selective+activity-dependent+requirement+for+dynamin+1+in+synaptic+vesicle+endocytosis.">A selective activity-dependent requirement for dynamin 1 in synaptic vesicle endocytosis.</a> Science. 316 (5824), 570-574 (2007).</li><li>Baydyuk, M., Wu, X. S., He, L., Wu, L. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brain-derived+neurotrophic+factor+inhibits+calcium+channel+activation,+exocytosis,+and+endocytosis+at+a+central+nerve+terminal.">Brain-derived neurotrophic factor inhibits calcium channel activation, exocytosis, and endocytosis at a central nerve terminal.</a> J Neurosci. 35 (11), 4676-4682 (2015).</li><li>Wu, X. S., Zhang, Z., Zhao, W. D., Wang, D., Luo, F., Wu, L. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calcineurin+is+universally+involved+in+vesicle+endocytosis+at+neuronal+and+nonneuronal+secretory+cells.">Calcineurin is universally involved in vesicle endocytosis at neuronal and nonneuronal secretory cells.</a> Cell Rep. 7 (4), 982-988 (2014).</li><li>Zhang, Z., Wang, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+SNARE+proteins+SNAP25+and+synaptobrevin+are+involved+in+endocytosis+at+hippocampal+synapses.">The SNARE proteins SNAP25 and synaptobrevin are involved in endocytosis at hippocampal synapses.</a> J Neurosci. 33 (21), 9169-9175 (2013).</li><li>Wu, L. -. G. G., Hamid, E., Shin, W., Chiang, H. -. C. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exocytosis+and+endocytosis:+modes,+functions,+and+coupling+mechanisms.">Exocytosis and endocytosis: modes, functions, and coupling mechanisms.</a> Annu Rev Physiol. 76 (1), 301-331 (2014).</li><li>Daniele, F., Di Cairano, E. S., Moretti, S., Piccoli, G., Perego, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=TIRFM+and+pH-sensitive+GFP-probes+to+evaluate+neurotransmitter+vesicle+dynamics+in+SH-SY5Y+neuroblastoma+cells:+cell+imaging+and+data+analysis.">TIRFM and pH-sensitive GFP-probes to evaluate neurotransmitter vesicle dynamics in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells: cell imaging and data analysis.</a> J Vis Exp. (95), e52267 (2015).</li><li>Shaner, N. C., Lin, M. Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improving+the+photostability+of+bright+monomeric+orange+and+red+fluorescent+proteins.">Improving the photostability of bright monomeric orange and red fluorescent proteins.</a> Nat Methods. 5 (6), 545-551 (2008).</li><li>Li, Y., Tsien, R. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=pHTomato,+a+red,+genetically+encoded+indicator+that+enables+multiplex+interrogation+of+synaptic+activity.">pHTomato, a red, genetically encoded indicator that enables multiplex interrogation of synaptic activity.</a> Nat Neurosci. 15 (7), 1047-1053 (2012).</li><li>Leitz, J., Kavalali, E. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fast+retrieval+and+autonomous+regulation+of+single+spontaneously+recycling+synaptic+vesicles.">Fast retrieval and autonomous regulation of single spontaneously recycling synaptic vesicles.</a> Elife. 3, e03658 (2014).</li><li>Bisht, K., El Hajj, H., Savage, J. C., S&#225;nchez, M. G., Tremblay, M. -. &. #. 2. 0. 0. ;. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Correlative+Light+and+Electron+Microscopy+to+Study+Microglial+Interactions+with+&#946;-Amyloid+Plaques.">Correlative Light and Electron Microscopy to Study Microglial Interactions with &#946;-Amyloid Plaques.</a> J Vis Exp. (112), e54060 (2016).</li><li>Schikorski, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Monitoring+Synaptic+Vesicle+Protein+Sorting+with+Enhanced+Horseradish+Peroxidase+in+the+Electron+Microscope.">Monitoring Synaptic Vesicle Protein Sorting with Enhanced Horseradish Peroxidase in the Electron Microscope.</a> High-Resolution Imaging of Cellular Proteins: Methods and Protocols. , 327-341 (2016).</li><li>Kononenko, N. L., Puchkov, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clathrin/AP-2+mediate+synaptic+vesicle+reformation+from+endosome-like+vacuoles+but+are+not+essential+for+membrane+retrieval+at+central+synapses.">Clathrin/AP-2 mediate synaptic vesicle reformation from endosome-like vacuoles but are not essential for membrane retrieval at central synapses.</a> Neuron. 82 (5), 981-988 (2014).</li><li>Wu, Y., O'Toole, E. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+dynamin+1-,+dynamin+3-+and+clathrin-independent+pathway+of+synaptic+vesicle+recycling+mediated+by+bulk+endocytosis.">A dynamin 1-, dynamin 3- and clathrin-independent pathway of synaptic vesicle recycling mediated by bulk endocytosis.</a> eLife. 2014 (3), e01621 (2014).</li><li>Heuser, J. E., Reese, T. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evidence+for+recycling+of+synaptic+vesicle+membrane+during+transmitter+release+at+the+frog+neuromuscular+junction.">Evidence for recycling of synaptic vesicle membrane during transmitter release at the frog neuromuscular junction.</a> J Cell Biol. 57 (2), 315-344 (1973).</li><li>Ceccarelli, B., Hurlbut, W. P., Mauro, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Turnover+of+transmitter+and+synaptic+vesicles+at+the+frog+neuromuscular+junction.">Turnover of transmitter and synaptic vesicles at the frog neuromuscular junction.</a> J Cell Biol. 57 (2), 499-524 (1973).</li><li>Watanabe, S., Rost, B. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrafast+endocytosis+at+mouse+hippocampal+synapses.">Ultrafast endocytosis at mouse hippocampal synapses.</a> Nature. 504 (7479), 242-247 (2013).</li><li>Watanabe, S., Trimbuch, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clathrin+regenerates+synaptic+vesicles+from+endosomes.">Clathrin regenerates synaptic vesicles from endosomes.</a> Nature. 515 (7526), 228-233 (2014).</li><li>Sankaranarayanan, S., Atluri, P. P., Ryan, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Actin+has+a+molecular+scaffolding,+not+propulsive,+role+in+presynaptic+function.">Actin has a molecular scaffolding, not propulsive, role in presynaptic function.</a> Nat Neurosci. 6 (2), 127-135 (2003).</li><li>Zhu, Y., Xu, J., Heinemann, S. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two+pathways+of+synaptic+vesicle+retrieval+revealed+by+single-vesicle+imaging.">Two pathways of synaptic vesicle retrieval revealed by single-vesicle imaging.</a> Neuron. 61 (3), 397-411 (2009).</li><li>Miesenbock, G., De Angelis, D. A., Rothman, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualizing+secretion+and+synaptic+transmission+with+pH-sensitive+green+fluorescent+proteins.">Visualizing secretion and synaptic transmission with pH-sensitive green fluorescent proteins.</a> Nature. 394 (6689), 192-195 (1998).</li><li>Arnao, M. B. B., Acosta, M., del Rio, J. A. A., Garc&#237;a-C&#225;novas, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inactivation+of+peroxidase+by+hydrogen+peroxide+and+its+protection+by+a+reductant+agent.">Inactivation of peroxidase by hydrogen peroxide and its protection by a reductant agent.</a> Biochim Biophys Acta. 1038 (1), 85-89 (1990).</li><li>De&#225;k, F., Schoch, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synaptobrevin+is+essential+for+fast+synaptic-vesicle+endocytosis.">Synaptobrevin is essential for fast synaptic-vesicle endocytosis.</a> Nat Cell Biol. 6 (11), 1102-1108 (2004).</li><li>Clayton, E. L., Evans, G. J. O., Cousin, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bulk+synaptic+vesicle+endocytosis+is+rapidly+triggered+during+strong+stimulation.">Bulk synaptic vesicle endocytosis is rapidly triggered during strong stimulation.</a> J Neurosci. 28 (26), 6627-6632 (2008).</li><li>Kavalali, E. T., Jorgensen, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualizing+presynaptic+function.">Visualizing presynaptic function.</a> Nat Neurosci. 17 (1), 10-16 (2014).</li><li>Wienisch, M., Klingauf, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vesicular+proteins+exocytosed+and+subsequently+retrieved+by+compensatory+endocytosis+are+nonidentical.">Vesicular proteins exocytosed and subsequently retrieved by compensatory endocytosis are nonidentical.</a> Nat Neurosci. 9 (8), 1019-1027 (2006).</li><li>Fern&#225;ndez-Alfonso, T., Kwan, R., Ryan, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synaptic+vesicles+interchange+their+membrane+proteins+with+a+large+surface+reservoir+during+recycling.">Synaptic vesicles interchange their membrane proteins with a large surface reservoir during recycling.</a> Neuron. 51 (2), 179-186 (2006).</li><li>Gimber, N., Tadeus, G., Maritzen, T., Schmoranzer, J., Haucke, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diffusional+spread+and+confinement+of+newly+exocytosed+synaptic+vesicle+proteins.">Diffusional spread and confinement of newly exocytosed synaptic vesicle proteins.</a> Nat Commun. 6, 8392 (2015).</li><li>Nicholson-Fish, J. C., Smillie, K. J., Cousin, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Monitoring+activity-dependent+bulk+endocytosis+with+the+genetically-encoded+reporter+VAMP4-pHluorin.">Monitoring activity-dependent bulk endocytosis with the genetically-encoded reporter VAMP4-pHluorin.</a> J Neurosci Methods. 266, 1-10 (2016).</li><li>Burrone, J., Li, Z., Murthy, V. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Studying+vesicle+cycling+in+presynaptic+terminals+using+the+genetically+encoded+probe+synaptopHluorin.">Studying vesicle cycling in presynaptic terminals using the genetically encoded probe synaptopHluorin.</a> Nat Protoc. 1 (6), 2970-2978 (2006).</li><li>Wisse, E., Braet, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fixation+methods+for+electron+microscopy+of+human+and+other+liver.">Fixation methods for electron microscopy of human and other liver.</a> World journal of gastroenterology. 16 (23), 2851-2866 (2010).</li><li>Magidson, V., Khodjakov, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Circumventing+Photodamage+in+Live-Cell+Microscopy.">Circumventing Photodamage in Live-Cell Microscopy.</a> Methods in Cell Biology. 114, 545-560 (2013).</li><li>S&#248;ndergaard, C. R., Garrett, A. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+artifacts+in+protein-ligand+X-ray+structures:+implications+for+the+development+of+docking+scoring+functions.">Structural artifacts in protein-ligand X-ray structures: implications for the development of docking scoring functions.</a> J Med Chem. 52 (18), 5673-5684 (2009).</li></ol>

Here we demonstrate two methods for monitoring synaptic vesicle endocytosis. In the first method, we monitored pHluorin fused with a synaptic vesicle protein in transfected neurons and subsequently electrically stimulated. Secondly, we used EM imaging of HRP uptake as induced by KCl. We used different stimuli for two reasons. First, high potassium application induces depolarization of all neurons in the culture. This facilitates EM examination, given that our EM methodology could not distinguish between non-stimulated an...

Neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic vesicles and released by exocytosis. The synaptic vesicle membrane and protein are then internalized by endocytosis, and reused in the next round of exocytosis. Endocytosis of synaptic vesicles is important for maintaining synaptic vesicle pools and removes protruding vesicles from the plasma membrane. The pH-sensitive green fluorescent protein pHluorin, which is quenched in acidic circumstances and dequenched in neutral pH, has been used to measure endocytosis time courses in live cells1,2,3. The pHluorin protein is typically attached to the lumenal side of synaptic vesicle proteins, such as synaptophysin or VAMP2/synaptobrevin. At rest, pHluorin is quenched in the 5.5 pH lumen of synaptic vesicles. Vesicle fusion to the plasma membrane exposes the vesicular lumen to the extracellular solution where the pH is ~7.3, resulting in an increase in pHluorin fluorescence. After exocytosis, the increased fluorescence decays, due to endocytosis of synaptic vesicle proteins followed by vesicle re-acidification within those recovered vesicles. Although the decay reflects both endocytosis and vesicular re-acidification, it mostly reflects endocytosis, because re-acidification is faster than endocytosis in most conditions1,4. The time constant of re-acidification is 3-4 s or less5,6, which is generally faster than the 10 s or more required for vesicle endocytosis4,5. If experiments are needed to distinguish endocytosis from re-acidification, acid quenching experiments using the 4-Morpholineethanesulfonic acid (MES) solution (25 mM) with a pH of 5.5 can be used to determine whether synaptic vesicle proteins are retrieved from the plasma membrane via endocytosis1,3,4. Thus, the pHluorin fluorescence intensity increase reflects a balance of exo- and endocytosis, and the decrease after nerve stimulation specifically reflects endocytosis.
pHluorin imaging may be used not only to measure the time course of endocytosis, but also the size of synaptic vesicle pools7,8, and the probability of evoked release and spontaneous release9. Many factors and proteins involved in regulating endocytosis, such as calcium, soluble NSF-attachment protein receptor (SNARE) proteins, brain-derived neurotrophic factor(BDNF), and calcineurin have been identified using pHluorin imaging1,2,10,11,12,13,14,15,16. Moreover, release of neurotransmitter could be detected in not only primary neurons but in neuroblastoma cells with TIRFM17. Recently, pHluorin variants, dsRed, mOrange and pHTomato were developed for monitoring simultaneous recordings of multiple factors in a single synapse18,19. For example, pHTomato has been fused with synaptophysin and used with a genetically encoded calcium indicator (GCaMP5K) to monitor presynaptic vesicle fusion and Ca2+ influx in the postsynaptic compartment20. Therefore, pHluorin attached to synaptic proteins provides a useful method to analyze the relationship between endocytosis and exocytosis.
EM is another method commonly used to study endocytosis, due to the high spatial resolution that shows ultrastructural changes during endocytosis. Two general areas are the ability to visualize pathological changes within neuronal cells21 and track vesicle proteins22. In particular, the observation of synaptic vesicle uptake, membrane curvature coated by clathrin in the periactive zone, and endosomal structures are possible with EM3,23,24,25,26,27,28. While EM involves potential artifacts, such as fixative-induced malformations, that may affect endocytosis, and data analysis is labor intensive, the resolution provides an attractive opportunity to visualize cellular structure. Potential fixative problems and the limitation in EM temporal resolution can be overcome by high pressure freezing, providing a fast and non-chemical method of stabilizing the delicate structures present during endocytosis27.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Lipofectamine LTX with Plus</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>15338-100</td>
			<td>Transfection of plasmid DNA including synaptophysin or VAMP2-pHluorin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>neurobasal medium</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>21103-049</td>
			<td>Growth medium for neuron, Warm up to 37&#176;C before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B27</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>17504-044</td>
			<td>Gradient for neuronal differentiation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutamax</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>35050-061</td>
			<td>Gradient for neuronal culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly-D-Lysine coated coverslip</td>
			<td>Neuvitro</td>
			<td>GG-25-pdl</td>
			<td>Substrate for neuronal growth and imaging of pHluorin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin XI from bovine pancrease</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T1005</td>
			<td>Neuronal culture-digest hippocampal tissues</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deoxyribonuclease I from bovine pancreas</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>D5025</td>
			<td>Neuronal culture-inhibits viscous cell suspension</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pulse stimulator</td>
			<td>A-M systems</td>
			<td>model 2100</td>
			<td>Apply electrical stimulation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Slotted bath with field stimulation</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>RC-21BRFS</td>
			<td>Apply electrical stimulation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>stimulus isolation unit</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>SIU102</td>
			<td>Apply electrical stimulation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>lubricant</td>
			<td>Dow corning</td>
			<td>111</td>
			<td>pHluorin imaging-seal with coverslip and imaging chamber, avoid leak from chamber</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AP5</td>
			<td>Tocris</td>
			<td>3693</td>
			<td>Gradient for normal saline, selective NMDA receptor antagonist, inhibit postsynaptic activity which have potential for recurrent activity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CNQX</td>
			<td>Tocris</td>
			<td>190</td>
			<td>Gradient for normal saline, competitive AMPA/kainate receptor antagonist, inhibit postsynaptic activity which have potential for recurrent activity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Illuminator</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>C-HGFI</td>
			<td>Metal halide light source for pHluorin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EMCCD camera</td>
			<td>Andor</td>
			<td>iXon3</td>
			<td>pHluorin imaging, detect pHluorin fluorescence intensity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted microscopy</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>Ti-E</td>
			<td>Imaging for synaptophysin or VAMP2 pHluorin transfected cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NIS-Elements AR</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>NIS-Elements Advanced Research</td>
			<td>Software for imaging acquisition and analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Igor Pro</td>
			<td>WaveMetrics</td>
			<td>Igor pro</td>
			<td>Software for imaging analysis and data presentation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>imaging chamber</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>RC21B</td>
			<td>pHluorin imaging, apply field stimulation on living cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>poly-l-lysine</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P4832</td>
			<td>Electron microscopy, substrate for neuronal growth, apply on multiwell plate for 1 h at room temperature then wash with sterilized water 3 times</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Horseradish peroxidase(HRP)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P6782</td>
			<td>Electron microscopy, labeling of endocytosed synaptic vesicles by catalyzing DAB in presence hydrogen peroxide, final concentration is 5 mg/mL in normal saline, make fresh before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na cacodylate</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>12300</td>
			<td>Electron microscopy, buffer for fixatives and washing, final concentration is 0.1 N</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3,3&#8242;-Diaminobenzidine(DAB)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>D8001</td>
			<td>Electron microscopy, labeling of endocytosed synaptic vesicles, substrate for HRP, final concentration is 0.5 mg/mL in DDW and filtered, make fresh before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrogen peroxide solution</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>H1009</td>
			<td>Electron microscopy, labeling of endocytosed synaptic vesicles by inducing HRP-DAB reaction, final concentration is 0.3% in DDW, make fresh before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>glutaraldehyde</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>16365</td>
			<td>Electron microscopy, fixatives, final concentration is 4% in Na-cacodylate buffer, make fresh before use, shake well before to use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TEM</td>
			<td>JEOL</td>
			<td>200CX</td>
			<td>Electron microscopy, imaging of endocytosed vesicles and ultrastructural changes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CCD digital camera</td>
			<td>AMT</td>
			<td>XR-100</td>
			<td>Electron microscopy, capturing images</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lead citrate</td>
			<td>Leica microsystems</td>
			<td>16707235</td>
			<td>Electron microscopy, grid staining</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

measuring synaptic vesicle endocytosis in cultured hippocampal neurons

During endocytosis, fused synaptic vesicles are retrieved at nerve terminals, allowing for vesicle recycling and thus the maintenance of synaptic transmission during repetitive nerve firing. Impaired endocytosis in pathological conditions leads to decreases in synaptic strength and brain functions. Here, we describe methods used to measure synaptic vesicle endocytosis at the mammalian hippocampal synapse in neuronal culture. We monitored synaptic vesicle protein endocytosis by fusing a synaptic vesicular membrane protein, including synaptophysin and VAMP2/synaptobrevin, at the vesicular lumenal side, with pHluorin, a pH-sensitive green fluorescent protein that increases its fluorescence intensity as the pH increases. During exocytosis, vesicular lumen pH increases, whereas during endocytosis vesicular lumen pH is re-acidified. Thus, an increase of pHluorin fluorescence intensity indicates fusion, whereas a decrease indicates endocytosis of the labelled synaptic vesicle protein. In addition to using the pHluorin imaging method to record endocytosis, we monitored vesicular membrane endocytosis by electron microscopy (EM) measurements of Horseradish peroxidase (HRP) uptake by vesicles. Finally, we monitored the formation of nerve terminal membrane pits at various times after high potassium-induced depolarization. The time course of HRP uptake and membrane pit formation indicates the time course of endocytosis.

Using the lipid carrier method, SpH was expressed in hippocampal neurons, allowing for the identification of boutons (Figure 1a). Electrical stimulation of the cells induced exocytosis, and a corresponding increase in fluorescence intensity. The increase in fluorescence (&#916;F) was stopped by ending the stimulus (Figure 1b). The increased fluorescence was followed by a slow decrease, due to endocytosis. In the case of VAMP2-pHl...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measuring Synaptic Vesicle Endocytosis in Cultured Hippocampal Neurons at JoVE.com

Measuring Synaptic Vesicle Endocytosis in Cultured Hippocampal Neurons

Synaptic vesicle endocytosis is detected by light microscopy of pHluorin fused with synaptic vesicle protein and by electron microscopy of vesicle uptake.

During endocytosis, fused synaptic vesicles are retrieved at nerve terminals, allowing for vesicle recycling and thus the maintenance of synaptic ...

The overall goal of this labeling methodology is to measure synaptic vesicle endocytosis. This method can help answer key questions in the neuroscience field such as the dispersion of formed endocytic vesicles. The main advantage of this technique is the resolution during imaging and the visualization of changes by examining the complete structure of a cell.Generally, individuals new to this method will struggle because they fail to remove tiny air bubbles while preparing the epoxy or dry out the sample during the ethanol washes. To begin this procedure, prepare a poly-d-lysine coated six-well plate by applying 1.5 milliliters of 0.01%sterile filtered poly-d-lysine solution to each well for one hour at room temperature, then washing it three times with sterilized water. Next, prepare a high potassium stimulation solution with horse radish peroxidase and adjust the solution to pH 7.4 with five molar sodium hydroxide.After that, stimulate the hippocampal neuron culture by adding 1.5 milliliters of high potassium stimulation solution to each well at room temperature for 90 seconds. In this step, prepare a 0.1 molar sodium cacodylate buffer at pH 7.4. Fix the cells with 4%glutaraldehyde in 0.1 molar sodium cacodylate buffer for at least one hour at room temperature, then wash the cells three times with 0.1 molar sodium cacodylate buffer each time for seven minutes.Following that, prepare DAB solution and filter it with a 0.22 micrometer filter. Next, apply 1.5 milliliters of DAB solution to the cells for 30 minutes at 37 degrees Celsius, then wash the cells three times with 0.1 molar sodium cacodylate buffer each time for seven minutes. As post-fixation, incubate the neurons with 1.5 milliliters of 1%osmium tetroxide in 0.1 molar sodium cacodylate buffer for one hour at four degrees Celsius.Afterward, wash the neurons three times with 1.5 milliliters of 0.1 molar sodium cacodylate buffer each time for seven minutes. Subsequently, prepare 0.1 molar sodium acetate buffer with sodium acetate and glacial acetic acid. Wash the cells three times with 1.5 milliliters of 0.1 molar acetate buffer each time for seven minutes.After that, incubate the cells with 1.5 milliliters of 1%uranyl acetate in 0.1 molar acetate buffer for one hour at four degrees Celsius, then wash the cells three times with 1.5 milliliters of 0.1 molar acetate buffer for seven minutes each time. In a fume hood, dehydrate the neuronal culture with single 1.5 milliliter washes with 50%70%and 90%ethanol for seven minutes each wash, followed by three washes with 1.5 milliliters of 100%ethanol for seven minutes each time. Next, create the epoxy resin and mix thoroughly and store it under vacuum to remove air bubbles.Infiltrate the sample by replacing the ethanol with 50%epoxy resin in ethanol on a shaker for 30 minutes at room temperature, then 70%epoxy resin in ethanol for 30 minutes at room temperature on a shaker. Switch the epoxy resin solution with 100%epoxy resin and incubate for 10 minutes at 50 degrees Celsius. Perform two exchanges of fresh 100%epoxy resin, each exchange is incubated for one hour at 50 degrees Celsius.Then add fresh 100%epoxy resin and allow it to harden at 50 degrees Celsius overnight and then at 60 degrees Celsius for over 36 hours. Afterward, remove each sample from the multi-well plate with a driller's handsaw. Using an inverted light microscope, select the regions of interest that have dense concentrations of cells, then cut the blocks of four by five by eight millimeters cube for sectioning.Afterward, counterstain the sections by submersion with 1%aqueous uranyl acetate for 15 minutes and then 3%aqueous lead citrate for five minutes to improve the contrast of the samples. In this study, electron microscopy was performed in cultured neuron and the clathrin-coated vesicles were examined in comparison to the control samples which were incubated with five milligrams per milliliter of HRP for 90 seconds in the absence of stimulus. The clathrin-coated pits were observed at a probability of 0.05 per bouton in the absence of stimulus.In these images, stimulation with high potassium induced bulk endosome and synaptic vesicles uptake were identified by HRP labeling. Synaptic vesicles were defined as vesicles with a diameter less than 50 nanometers and bulk endosomes were defined as having a diameter over 80 nanometers or with a cross-sectional area of more than an 80-nanometer vesicle. Induced bulk endosome uptake was decreased by recovery with normal saline.Once mastered, this technique can be done in 8-1/2 hours with three additional days to harden the epoxy if it is performed properly. Following this procedure, other methods such as immunogold labeling can be performed in order to answer additional questions like distribution of a target protein at various points in stimulation recovery. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to stabilize and stain samples in preparation for imaging by electron microscopy.

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Studying Synaptic Vesicle Pools using Photoconversion of Styryl Dyes

The fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane (exocytosis) is a required step in neurotransmitter release and neuronal communication. The ...

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) of Fluorescence Tagged Proteins in Dendritic Spines of Cultured Hippocampal Neurons

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching FRAP of Fluorescence Tagged Proteins in Dendritic Spines of Cultured Hippocampal Neurons

FRAP has been used to quantify the mobility of GFP-tagged proteins. Using a strong excitation laser, the fluorescence of a GFP-tagged protein is bleached ...

Analysis of Dendritic Spine Morphology in Cultured CNS Neurons

Dendritic spines are the sites of the majority of excitatory connections within the brain, and form the post-synaptic 
compartment of synapses. These ...

Quantitative Analysis of Synaptic Vesicle Pool Replenishment in Cultured Cerebellar Granule Neurons using FM Dyes

After neurotransmitter release in central nerve terminals, SVs are rapidly retrieved by endocytosis.  Retrieved SVs are then refilled with ...

Inducing Dendritic Growth in Cultured Sympathetic Neurons

The shape of the dendritic arbor determines the total synaptic input a neuron can receive 1-3, and influences the types and distribution of these inputs ...

Lateral Diffusion and Exocytosis of Membrane Proteins in Cultured Neurons Assessed using Fluorescence Recovery and Fluorescence-loss Photobleaching

Membrane proteins such as receptors and ion channels undergo active trafficking in neurons, which are highly polarised and morphologically complex. This ...

Detection of Protein Palmitoylation in Cultured Hippocampal Neurons by Immunoprecipitation and Acyl-Biotin Exchange (ABE)

Detection of Protein Palmitoylation in Cultured Hippocampal Neurons by Immunoprecipitation and Acyl-Biotin Exchange ABE

Palmitoylation is a post-translational lipid  modification involving the attachment of a 16-carbon saturated fatty acid,  palmitate, to cysteine residues ...

Assaying DNA Damage in Hippocampal Neurons Using the Comet Assay

A number of drugs target the DNA repair pathways and induce cell kill by creating DNA damage. Thus, processes to directly measure DNA damage have been ...

Post-embedding Immunogold Labeling of Synaptic Proteins in Hippocampal Slice Cultures

Immunoelectron microscopy is a powerful tool to study biological molecules at the subcellular level. Antibodies coupled to electron-dense markers such as ...

Examination of Synaptic Vesicle Recycling Using FM Dyes During Evoked, Spontaneous, and Miniature Synaptic Activities

Synaptic vesicles in functional nerve terminals undergo exocytosis and endocytosis. This synaptic vesicle recycling can be effectively analyzed using ...