Name: dural stimulation and periorbital von frey testing in mice as a preclinical model of headache
Uploaded: 2021-07-29T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Dural Stimulation and Periorbital von Frey Testing in Mice As a Preclinical Model of Headache at JoVE.com

This study was supported by the National Institutes of Health (NS104200 and NS072204 to GD).

All procedures were conducted with prior approval of the institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at the University of Texas at Dallas. ICR (CD-1) (30-35 g) and C57/BL6 (25-30 g) mice aged 6-8 weeks were used in this study.
1. Dural infuser
<ol>
	<li>Create the mouse infusers/injectors by modifying a commercially available internal cannula and infuser for unilateral injections with a non-metallic fused silica plastic cap that is adjustable and inserts into/extends below a 28 G guide cannu...

<ol>
	<li>GBD 2016 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Global,+regional,+and+national+incidence,+prevalence,+and+years+lived+with+disability+for+328+diseases+and+injuries+for+195+countries,+1990-2016:+a+systematic+analysis+for+the+Global+Burden+of+Disease+Study+2016.">Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 328 diseases and injuries for 195 countries, 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016.</a> Lancet. 390 (10100), 1211-1259 (2017).</li><li>Woldeamanuel, Y. W., Cowan, R. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Migraine+affects+1+in+10+people+worldwide+featuring+recent+rise:+A+systematic+review+and+meta-analysis+of+community-based+studies+involving+6+million+participants.">Migraine affects 1 in 10 people worldwide featuring recent rise: A systematic review and meta-analysis of community-based studies involving 6 million participants.</a> Journal of the Neurological Sciences. 372, 307-315 (2017).</li><li>Burch, R. C., Loder, S., Loder, E., Smitherman, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+prevalence+and+burden+of+migraine+and+severe+headache+in+the+United+States:+updated+statistics+from+government+health+surveillance+studies.">The prevalence and burden of migraine and severe headache in the United States: updated statistics from government health surveillance studies.</a> Headache. 55 (1), 21-34 (2015).</li><li>Ashina, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Migraine.">Migraine.</a> New England Journal of Medicine. 383 (19), 1866-1876 (2020).</li><li>Ashina, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Migraine:+integrated+approaches+to+clinical+management+and+emerging+treatments.">Migraine: integrated approaches to clinical management and emerging treatments.</a> Lancet. 397 (10283), 1505-1518 (2021).</li><li>Jacobs, B., Dussor, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neurovascular+contributions+to+migraine:+Moving+beyond+vasodilation.">Neurovascular contributions to migraine: Moving beyond vasodilation.</a> Neuroscience. 338, 130-144 (2016).</li><li>Koyuncu Irmak, D., Kilinc, E., Tore, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Shared+Fate+of+Meningeal+Mast+Cells+and+Sensory+Neurons+in+Migraine.">Shared Fate of Meningeal Mast Cells and Sensory Neurons in Migraine.</a> Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience. 13, 136 (2019).</li><li>Levy, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Migraine+pain,+meningeal+inflammation,+and+mast+cells.">Migraine pain, meningeal inflammation, and mast cells.</a> Current Pain and Headache Reports. 13 (3), 237-240 (2009).</li><li>Levy, D., Labastida-Ramirez, A., MaassenVanDenBrink, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Current+understanding+of+meningeal+and+cerebral+vascular+function+underlying+migraine+headache.">Current understanding of meningeal and cerebral vascular function underlying migraine headache.</a> Cephalalgia. 39 (13), 1606-1622 (2019).</li><li>Phebus, L. A., Johnson, K. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dural+inflammation+model+of+migraine+pain.">Dural inflammation model of migraine pain.</a> Current Protocols in Neuroscience. , (2001).</li><li>Fried, N. T., Maxwell, C. R., Elliott, M. B., Oshinsky, M. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Region-specific+disruption+of+the+blood-brain+barrier+following+repeated+inflammatory+dural+stimulation+in+a+rat+model+of+chronic+trigeminal+allodynia.">Region-specific disruption of the blood-brain barrier following repeated inflammatory dural stimulation in a rat model of chronic trigeminal allodynia.</a> Cephalalgia. 38 (4), 674-689 (2018).</li><li>Avona, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dural+calcitonin+gene-related+peptide+produces+female-specific+responses+in+rodent+migraine+models.">Dural calcitonin gene-related peptide produces female-specific responses in rodent migraine models.</a> The Journal of Neuroscience. 39 (22), 4323-4331 (2019).</li><li>Burgos-Vega, C. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-invasive+dural+stimulation+in+mice:+A+novel+preclinical+model+of+migraine.">Non-invasive dural stimulation in mice: A novel preclinical model of migraine.</a> Cephalalgia. 39 (1), 123-134 (2019).</li><li>Avona, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Meningeal+CGRP-Prolactin+interaction+evokes+female-specific+migraine+behavior.">Meningeal CGRP-Prolactin interaction evokes female-specific migraine behavior.</a> Annals of Neurology. 89 (6), 1129-1144 (2021).</li><li>Deuis, J. R., Dvorakova, L. S., Vetter, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Methods+used+to+evaluate+pain+behaviors+in+rodents.">Methods used to evaluate pain behaviors in rodents.</a> Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience. 10, 284 (2017).</li><li>Lipton, R. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cutaneous+allodynia+in+the+migraine+population.">Cutaneous allodynia in the migraine population.</a> Annals of Neurology. 63 (2), 148-158 (2008).</li><li>Goadsby, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Migraine,+allodynia,+sensitisation+and+all+of+that.">Migraine, allodynia, sensitisation and all of that.</a> European Neurology. 53, 10-16 (2005).</li><li>Langford, D. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Coding+of+facial+expressions+of+pain+in+the+laboratory+mouse.">Coding of facial expressions of pain in the laboratory mouse.</a> Nature Methods. 7 (6), 447-449 (2010).</li><li>Mogil, J. S., Pang, D. S. J., Silva Dutra, G. G., Chambers, C. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+development+and+use+of+facial+grimace+scales+for+pain+measurement+in+animals.">The development and use of facial grimace scales for pain measurement in animals.</a> Neuroscience &amp; Biobehavioral Reviews. 116, 480-493 (2020).</li><li>Vuralli, D., Wattiez, A. S., Russo, A. F., Bolay, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behavioral+and+cognitive+animal+models+in+headache+research.">Behavioral and cognitive animal models in headache research.</a> The Journal of Headache and Pain. 20 (1), 11 (2019).</li><li>Mason, B. N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Induction+of+migraine-like+photophobic+behavior+in+mice+by+both+peripheral+and+central+CGRP+mechanisms.">Induction of migraine-like photophobic behavior in mice by both peripheral and central CGRP mechanisms.</a> The journal of Neuroscience. 37 (1), 204-216 (2017).</li><li>Dixon, W. J., Mood, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+method+for+obtaining+and+analyzing+sensitivity+data.">A method for obtaining and analyzing sensitivity data.</a> The Journal of the American Statistical Association. 43 (241), 109-126 (1948).</li><li>Dixon, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+up-and-down+method+for+small+samples.">The up-and-down method for small samples.</a> The Journal of the American Statistical Association. 60, (1965).</li><li>Bonin, R. 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A., Warfvinge, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Does+inflammation+have+a+role+in+migraine.">Does inflammation have a role in migraine.</a> Nature Reviews Neurology. 15 (8), 483-490 (2019).</li><li>Stokely, M. E., Orr, E. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acute+effects+of+calvarial+damage+on+dural+mast+cells,+pial+vascular+permeability,+and+cerebral+cortical+histamine+levels+in+rats+and+mice.">Acute effects of calvarial damage on dural mast cells, pial vascular permeability, and cerebral cortical histamine levels in rats and mice.</a> Journal of Neurotrauma. 25 (1), 52-61 (2008).</li><li>Theoharides, T. 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Maladaptive changes in the local nociceptive system in the dura are considered a key contributor to the headache phase of migraine attacks despite a lack of tissue injury25,26. Here the study presents a method whereby minimally invasive stimulation of the dura can induce facial tactile hypersensitivity. Elucidating the mechanisms and events involved in dural nociceptor activation without causing damage to the cranium and tissues may more accurately reflect migrai...

Migraine pain remains a major public health issue worldwide. The World Health Organization ranks it as the sixth-most prevalent disease in the world, afflicting just under 15% of the Earth&#39;s population1 and causing a substantial socioeconomic burden on society2,3. Treatment options and their efficacy have been suboptimal and only provide symptomatic relief and do not significantly modify pathophysiological events that underly migraine occurrence4,5. The lack of treatment success is likely due to migraine being a multifactorial disorder whose pathology is poorly understood, leading to a limited number of therapeutic targets. Migraine is also challenging to fully capture in animal models, especially given that migraine diagnosis is made based on verbal communication with patients who describe their experience with migraine hallmarks such as aura, headache, photophobia, and allodynia. Notwithstanding, it is important to note that recent advances in migraine treatments are currently outperforming treatments for many neurological conditions that have been well validated by preclinical models. For instance, monoclonal antibodies and small molecules that target calcitonin gene-related peptide, or its receptor have been very successful in improving the quality of life of migraine sufferers and can potentially transform the clinical management of migraine. While there has been advancement in understanding this disorder, there continues to be much yet to be elucidated.
Based on preclinical animal models and human studies, it is widely accepted that migraine headaches are initiated by aberrant activation of nociceptive fibers within the meninges that signal through the trigeminal and upper cervical dorsal-root ganglia6,7,8,9,10. Despite this theory, many studies still use systemic administration of drugs to understand underlying contributing mechanisms in migraine. While systemic dosing of drugs has substantially strengthened our understanding, these findings do not directly assess whether local actions within the target tissue of interest play a role in migraine. Conversely, several studies have taken an approach to stimulate the dura; however, these experiments require cannula implantation via an invasive craniotomy and extended recovery times11,12. Because of these limitations, we developed a minimally invasive approach to locally stimulate the dura where the lack of a craniotomy eliminates post-surgical recovery and allows for immediate testing in awake animals12,13,14. These injections are performed under light isoflurane anesthesia and administered at the junction of the sagittal and lambdoid sutures in mice.
Several approaches have been developed to evaluate nociceptive behavioral responses in rodents15. Cutaneous allodynia has been reported in approximately 80% of migraine sufferers16,17 and represents a potential translational endpoint for use in rodents. In preclinical models, the application of von Frey filaments to the plantar region of the rodent paw has been used to assess pain behaviors in preclinical migraine models. The primary limitation of this approach is that it does not test the cephalic region. Facial grimace scoring has been used to capture pain behaviors in rodents by analyzing facial expressions after induction of pain stimuli18,19. However, its limitations include only capturing responses to acute stimuli and not chronic orofacial pain conditions. Facial grooming and decreased rearing are also considered outputs of behavioral responses in preclinical models of migraine20,21. Limitations of the former include difficulty in differentiating pain responses from normal routine grooming and other sensations such as itch. In the case of the latter, rearing behaviors typically decrease quickly after the introduction of rodents to novel environments. Although each of these behavioral endpoints is valuable in the understanding of various mechanisms that contribute to pain conditions, there is a critical need for preclinical models of pain disorders such as migraine to include endpoints that specifically capture cephalic hypersensitivity responses. Assessing tactile hypersensitivity of the periorbital skin following dural stimulation is a method that may provide better insight into mechanisms contributing to migraines where sensory symptoms are predominantly cephalic in nature. Here, we describe a method to administer substances onto the mouse dura as a preclinical model of migraine. Following dural application, we also present a detailed method for testing periorbital tactile hypersensitivity using calibrated von Frey filaments applied in the Dixon up-down method.

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	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>4 oz Hot Paper Cups</td>
			<td>Choice Paper Company</td>
			<td>5004W</td>
			<td>https://www.webstaurantstore.com/choice-4-oz-white-poly-paper-hot-cup-case/5004W.html</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Absorbent Underpads</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>14-206-65</td>
			<td>https://www.fishersci.com/shop/products/fisherbrand-absorbent-underpads-8/p-306048</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C313I/SPC Internal 28 G cannula</td>
			<td>P1 Technologies (formerly Plastics One)</td>
			<td>8IC313ISPCXC</td>
			<td>I.D. 18 mm, O.D. 35 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gastight Model 1701 SN Syringes</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td>80008</td>
			<td>https://www.hamiltoncompany.com/laboratory-products/syringes/80008</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ismatec Pump Tubing, 0.19 mm</td>
			<td>Cole-Palmer</td>
			<td>EW-96460-10</td>
			<td>https://www.coleparmer.com/i/ismatec-pump-tubing-2-stop-tygon-s3-e-lab-0-19-mm-id-12-pk/9646010</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stand with chicken wire</td>
			<td>Custom</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>The galvanized steel chicken wire dimensions are 0.25 in. x 19-gauge</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Testing Rack with individual&#160; Chambers</td>
			<td>Custom</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Each chamber should have a division between each mouse and lids to contain the mouse. The chambers should also be large enough to hold a 4 oz. paper cup.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>von Frey Filaments</td>
			<td>Touch test/Stoelting</td>
			<td>58011</td>
			<td>https://www.stoeltingco.com/touch-test.html</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

dural stimulation and periorbital von frey testing in mice as a preclinical model of headache

The cranial meninges, comprised of the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater, are thought to primarily serve structural functions for the nervous system. For example, they protect the brain from the skull and anchor/organize the vascular and neuronal supply of the cortex. However, the meninges are also implicated in nervous system disorders such as migraine, where the pain experienced during a migraine is attributed to local sterile inflammation and subsequent activation of local nociceptive afferents. Of the layers in the meninges, the dura mater is of particular interest in the pathophysiology of migraines. It is highly vascularized, harbors local nociceptive neurons, and is home to a diverse array of resident cells such as immune cells. Subtle changes in the local meningeal microenvironment may lead to activation and sensitization of dural perivascular nociceptors, thus leading to migraine pain. Studies have sought to address how dural afferents become activated/sensitized by using either in vivo electrophysiology, imaging techniques, or behavioral models, but these commonly require very invasive surgeries. This protocol presents a method for comparatively non-invasive application of compounds on the dura mater in mice and a suitable method for measuring headache-like tactile sensitivity using periorbital von Frey testing following dural stimulation. This method maintains the integrity of the dura and skull and reduces confounding effects from invasive techniques by injecting substances through a 0.65 mm modified cannula at the junction of unfused sagittal and lambdoid sutures. This preclinical model will allow researchers to investigate a wide range of dural stimuli and their role in the pathological progression of migraine, such as nociceptor activation, immune cell activation, vascular changes, and pain behaviors, all while maintaining injury-free conditions to the skull and meninges.

This injection method is used to administer stimuli onto the dura of mice so that subsequent behavioral testing may occur. The most common behavioral output measured with this model is cutaneous facial hypersensitivity assessed via von Frey12,13,14. Here we show how this model can be used to assess potential sex-specific contributions to migraine pathology (Figure 3).
Thi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Dural Stimulation and Periorbital von Frey Testing in Mice As a Preclinical Model of Headache at JoVE.com

Dural Stimulation and Periorbital von Frey Testing in Mice As a Preclinical Model of Headache

The most notable symptom of migraine is severe head pain, and it is hypothesized that this is mediated by sensory neurons innervating the meninges. Here, we present a method to locally apply substances to the dura in a minimally invasive manner while using facial hypersensitivity as an output.

The cranial meninges, comprised of the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater, are thought to primarily serve structural functions for the nervous system.  ...

What events occur within the meninges that contribute to headache in the absence of tissue injury? Unlike prior use of dural stimulation models in rats, it allows the use of the extensive catalog of genetically modified mice. The primary struggle would be locating the intersection of the lambdoidal and sagittal sutures by palpating the skull with the injector.To begin, create the mouse infusers by modifying a commercially available internal cannula and infuser with a fused silica plastic cap which is adjustable and inserts into a 28-gauge guide cannula. Use a caliper to adjust the fused silica plastic cap on the infuser without bending the infuser. Adjust the infuser to a length of 6 millimeters measured from the tip of the infuser to the edge of the silica plastic cap.Perform pilot injections for other mouse strains and adjust the length to precisely inject in dura mater. Then, attach the long end of the infuser to plastic tubing of eight inches or more to hold five microliters volume. Insert the tube while ensuring full coverage of the metal part and the top of the plastic stopper located on the infuser to prevent air bubbles from accumulating in the line.Next, fill the microsyringe and attach the other end of the tubing to a 10-microliter glass microsyringe, ensuring tight sealing over the metal part of the syringe. Then, backfill the syringe with five microliters of PBS or synthetic interstitial fluid or other vehicles of choice to prevent air bubble formation. If needed, flood the line with the vehicle to dissipate preformed bubbles.Alternatively, pre-fill the syringe, and after connecting, push the fluid through the connected line. Once the vehicle-filled line is working efficiently, load five microliters of the solution into the Hamilton syringe. Once the mouse is completely anesthetized, apply sterile ophthalmic ointment to the eyes and shave the head of the animal, then disinfect the skin with povidone iodine and ethanol.Steady the head of the animal with one hand and hold the infuser with the drug-loaded syringe in the other. Then, using an infuser, carefully probe, locate, and verify the junction of the sagittal and lambdoidal sutures on the skull of the mouse. Once the suture is located and the infuser is in place, slowly and gently wiggle the in infuser back and forth until the in infuser pierces through the skin and drops down into the junction all the way up to the plastic stopper, ensuring the insertion of the entire 6-millimeter infuser tip into the junction.Then, slowly push the plunger of the syringe to expel the five microliters of fluid into the dura mater. On the testing day, post-acclimation to the room, remove one mouse along with the cup from the respective chamber. Maintain the cup in the horizontal position for evenly distributed body weight, as the unequal weight distribution may alter or prevent animals'response.Place the cup with the mouse on an absorbent pad kept on the table below the testing rack. Then, for periorbital von Frey testing, place the 07-gram von Frey filament at the center of the face in between the eyes and apply enough pressure on the filament to cause the von Frey hair to bend into a C-shaped formation. Maintain filament contact for about three to five seconds or until the mouse swipes away the filament using the head or paws.To follow the Dixon up-down method, apply the next lower-weight filament if the mouse responds to the filament, otherwise, apply higher-weight filament. The procedure was used to examine the effects of dural prolactin on mechanically evoked facial hypersensitivity. The results of the study demonstrated significantly reduced facial withdrawal thresholds in female ICR mice in response to five micrograms of dural prolactin.A ten-fold lower dose of 5 micrograms of prolactin also showed reduced facial withdrawal thresholds, similar to a high dose of prolactin. The prolactin injections produced spontaneous pain-related behaviors, which were assessed via grimace. Dural 5 micrograms of prolactin caused significant grimacing in female mice and further demonstrated a clear role for dural prolactin in female migraine-like behaviors Behavioral testing using von Frey filaments or facial grimace to determine whether the stimulus, in the absence of injury, causes a headache response.This technique can now be used to investigate inflammatory based mechanisms in the meninges without concern over caveats that are caused by craniotomies and the subsequent inflammation.

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An In Ovo Model for Testing Insulin-mimetic Compounds

Elevated blood glucose levels in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), a complex and multifactorial metabolic disease, are caused by insulin resistance and ...

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) in Mice

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation tDCS in Mice

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive neuromodulation technique proposed as an alternative or complementary treatment for ...

A Preclinical Model to Assess Brain Recovery After Acute Stroke in Rats

The purpose of this study was to establish and validate an animal brain ischemia model in the recovery and sequela stages. A middle cerebral artery ...