Name: transient gene expression in tobacco using gibson assembly and the gene gun
Uploaded: 2014-04-18T18:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Transient Gene Expression in Tobacco using Gibson Assembly and the Gene Gun at JoVE.com

The authors would like to thank Jen Sheen of Massachusetts General Hospital for the generous donation of Nicotiana benthamiana seedlings. Jen Bush helped us greatly in advice in growing plants and setting up a growth chamber area. Tom Ferrante of the Wyss Institute offered crucial help with confocal microscopy. The authors would especially like to thank Don Ingber of Children&#8217;s Hospital Boston and the Wyss Institute for the generous donation of a Gene Gun and associated supplies. Funding for this project was provided through a cooperative agreement with the Department of Energy Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA- E Award # DE-000079) for PAS, JCW, and MdM, and through Chimerion Biotechnology, Inc. for MJV.

1. Design of Alternatively-spliced Sequences for Multiple Organelle Targeting
<ol>
	<li>Determine the sites for final protein expression. For this work, the interest is in targeting the chloroplast, peroxisome, and cytosol.</li>
	<li>Use the literature to identify protein and DNA sequences known to target proteins to organelles of interest. In this case a chloroplast targeting sequence from Arabidopsis thaliana L-isoaspartate methyltransferase6,15, and a peroxisome targeting sequenc...

<ol>
	<li>Que, Q., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trait+stacking+in+transgenic+crops:+challenges+and+opportunities.">Trait stacking in transgenic crops: challenges and opportunities.</a> GM crops. 1 (4), 220-229 (2010).</li><li>Reddy, A. S. N., Rogers, M. F., Richardson, D. N., Hamilton, M., Ben-Hur, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Deciphering+the+plant+splicing+code:+experimental+and+computational+approaches+for+predicting+alternative+splicing+and+splicing+regulatory+elements.">Deciphering the plant splicing code: experimental and computational approaches for predicting alternative splicing and splicing regulatory elements.</a> Frontiers in Plant Science. 3 (18), (2012).</li><li>Hickey, S. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transgene+regulation+in+plants+by+alternative+splicing+of+a+suicide+exon.">Transgene regulation in plants by alternative splicing of a suicide exon.</a> Nucleic Acids Research. 40 (10), 4701-4710 (2012).</li><li>Syed, N. H., Kalyna, M., Marquez, Y., Barta, A., Brown, J. W. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alternative+splicing+in+plants+-+coming+of+age.">Alternative splicing in plants - coming of age.</a> Trends in Plant Science. 17 (10), 616-623 (2012).</li><li>Black, D. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanisms+of+alternative+pre-messenger+RNA+splicing.">Mechanisms of alternative pre-messenger RNA splicing.</a> Annual Review of Biochemistry. 72, 291-336 (2003).</li><li>Dinkins, R. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Changing+transcriptional+initiation+sites+and+alternative+5'-+and+3'-splice+site+selection+of+the+first+intron+deploys+Arabidopsis+protein+isoaspartyl+methyltransferase2+variants+to+different+subcellular+compartments.">Changing transcriptional initiation sites and alternative 5'- and 3'-splice site selection of the first intron deploys Arabidopsis protein isoaspartyl methyltransferase2 variants to different subcellular compartments.</a> The Plant Journal: for Cell and Molecular Biology. 55 (1), 1-13 (2008).</li><li>Kebeish, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chloroplastic+photorespiratory+bypass+increases+photosynthesis+and+biomass+production+in+Arabidopsis+thaliana.">Chloroplastic photorespiratory bypass increases photosynthesis and biomass production in Arabidopsis thaliana.</a> Nature Biotechnology. 25 (5), 593-599 (2007).</li><li>Maier, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transgenic+Introduction+of+a+Glycolate+Oxidative+Cycle+into+A.+thaliana+Chloroplasts+Leads+to+Growth+Improvement.">Transgenic Introduction of a Glycolate Oxidative Cycle into A. thaliana Chloroplasts Leads to Growth Improvement.</a> Frontiers in Plant Science. 3 (38), 1-12 (2012).</li><li>Kumar, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Remodeling+the+isoprenoid+pathway+in+tobacco+by+expressing+the+cytoplasmic+mevalonate+pathway+in+chloroplasts.">Remodeling the isoprenoid pathway in tobacco by expressing the cytoplasmic mevalonate pathway in chloroplasts.</a> Metabolic Engineering. 14 (1), (2012).</li><li>Sapir-Mir, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Peroxisomal+localization+of+Arabidopsis+isopentenyl+diphosphate+isomerases+suggests+that+part+of+the+plant+isoprenoid+mevalonic+acid+pathway+is+compartmentalized+to+peroxisomes.">Peroxisomal localization of Arabidopsis isopentenyl diphosphate isomerases suggests that part of the plant isoprenoid mevalonic acid pathway is compartmentalized to peroxisomes.</a> Plant Physiology. 148 (3), 1219-1228 (2008).</li><li>Voges, M. J., Silver, P. A., Way, J. C., Mattozzi, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeting+a+heterologous+protein+to+multiple+plant+organelles+via+rationally+designed+5'+mRNA+tags.">Targeting a heterologous protein to multiple plant organelles via rationally designed 5' mRNA tags.</a> Journal of Biological Engineering. 7 (20), (2013).</li><li>Gibson, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enzymatic+assembly+of+overlapping+DNA+fragments.">Enzymatic assembly of overlapping DNA fragments.</a> Methods in Enzymology. 498, 349-361 (2011).</li><li>Gibson, D. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enzymatic+assembly+of+DNA+molecules+up+to+several+hundred+kilobases.">Enzymatic assembly of DNA molecules up to several hundred kilobases.</a> Nature Methods. 6 (5), 12-16 (2009).</li><li>Gibson, D. G., Smith, H. O., Hutchison, C. A., Venter, J. C., Merryman, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemical+synthesis+of+the+mouse+mitochondrial+genome.">Chemical synthesis of the mouse mitochondrial genome.</a> Nature Methods. 7 (11), 901-903 (2010).</li><li>Lowenson, J. D., Clarke, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recognition+of+D-aspartyl+residues+in+polypeptides+by+the+erythrocyte+L-isoaspartyl/D-aspartyl+protein+methyltransferase.+Implications+for+the+repair+hypothesis.">Recognition of D-aspartyl residues in polypeptides by the erythrocyte L-isoaspartyl/D-aspartyl protein methyltransferase. Implications for the repair hypothesis.</a> The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 267 (9), 5985-5995 (1992).</li><li>Lanyon-Hogg, T., Warriner, S. L., Baker, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Getting+a+camel+through+the+eye+of+a+needle:+the+import+of+folded+proteins+by+peroxisomes.">Getting a camel through the eye of a needle: the import of folded proteins by peroxisomes.</a> Biology of the Cell / under the auspices of the European Cell Biology Organization. 102 (4), 245-263 (2010).</li><li>Reumann, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Proteome+analysis+of+Arabidopsis+leaf+peroxisomes+reveals+novel+targeting+peptides,+metabolic+pathways,+and+defense+mechanisms.">Proteome analysis of Arabidopsis leaf peroxisomes reveals novel targeting peptides, metabolic pathways, and defense mechanisms.</a> The Plant Cell. 19 (10), 3170-3193 (2007).</li><li>Woods, G., Zito, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparation+of+gene+gun+bullets+and+biolistic+transfection+of+neurons+in+slice+culture.">Preparation of gene gun bullets and biolistic transfection of neurons in slice culture.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (12), (2008).</li><li>Hollender, C. A., Liu, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bimolecular+Fluorescence+Complementation+(BiFC)+Assay+for+Protein-Protein+Interaction+in+Onion+Cells+Using+the+Helios+Gene.">Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC) Assay for Protein-Protein Interaction in Onion Cells Using the Helios Gene.</a> (40), (2010).</li><li>Li, M. Z., Elledge, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Harnessing+homologous+recombination+in+vitro+to+generate+recombinant+DNA+via+SLIC.">Harnessing homologous recombination in vitro to generate recombinant DNA via SLIC.</a> Nature Methods. 4 (3), 251-256 (2007).</li></ol>

In this study, simple strategies are described for localizing a single transgenic protein to multiple cellular compartments in plants. The goal was to design construct that would express a single gene in more than one organelle in Nicotiana benthamiana. Strategies include rational design of GFP-based DNA constructs, Gibson assembly, delivery of the plasmids to leaf cells with the Gene Gun, and observation of the results with confocal microscopy.
Three different short, N-terminal tags ...

This work is a metabolic engineering / synthetic biology project wherein plant cells are engineered to express a reporter protein in multiple organelles but with only a single DNA construct.
One approach to target proteins to more than one location involves cloning multiple genetic copies, each containing a different localization peptide. Each copy must be introduced by successive retransformation, or alternatively, by backcrossing single transforms1. This involves additional cloning, and is limited by one localization tag per terminus.
Another way to localize a protein to multiple locations is through alternative splicing2&#8211;5. RNA is transcribed from a single gene, but different copies of the transcript are processed differently, often in more than one way per cell. This can result in more than one messenger RNA in the cell transcribed from a single gene. These different messenger RNAs can encode for different isoforms of the same protein, or in the case of a frameshift, a different protein altogether. Although alternative splicing has been described in the literature for many years, the mechanisms of action and conserved donor and receptor splice sites are only being elucidated more recently6. As these sites are being better described, they open up opportunities for engineering.
Plant metabolic engineers are faced with a challenge when expressing a protein in multiple organelles. For a protein that is to be localized to more than one organelle, the engineer must clone the same gene multiple times, each with a separate signal sequence directing it to the organelle of interest. For a single gene in three organelles, this is simply three genes. But for a six-gene metabolic pathway, this expands to 18 genes, a significant cloning effort. Combining multiple localization sequences into a single, alternatively-spliced gene significantly reduces this effort. For example, re-engineering photorespiration7,8 and isoprenoid synthesis9,10 involves both the chloroplasts and peroxisomes. In our case we took advantage of splice sites as observed in a natural Arabidopsis thaliana system described previously6. We rationally redesigned the mRNA sequence leaving the natural splice sites alone, but placed sequences that would encode chloroplast- or peroxisome- targeting tags within the alternatively-spliced introns (Figure 1). The expressed protein may or may not have a tag, depending on whether the pre-mRNA that encoded it was excised as an intron (Figures 1g and 1h). For more information on the design of the constructs presented in this work, please see the companion article11.
Because this is still a significant cloning effort, Gibson assembly, a new method for cloning DNA constructs, is used in construction. The Gibson method may be used for any sequence, regardless of restriction sites (Figure 2)12&#8211;14. The specific mix of enzymes allows for a one-step, isothermal assembly. In this method, several double-stranded linear DNA parts are designed such that they have overlapping sequences of ~50 bp. The Gibson assembly enzyme mix partially digests the linear DNA parts, exposing single strands of homologous sequences. These partial single-stranded sequences are re-annealed in the reaction mixture, resulting in a rapid, one-step, sequence-independent, ligation-free subcloning reaction.
This work describes 1) rational design alternatively spliced constructs for expression in plant chloroplasts, peroxisomes, and cytosols, 2) their cloning using the new ligation-free method of Gibson assembly, 3) their delivery into tobacco leaf cells with the Gene Gun, and 4) results showing organelle targeting, as observed with GFP and confocal microscopy.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="693">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Oligonucleotide primers</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">IDT</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">(custom)</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Design specifically for construct</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">GeneBlocks</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">IDT</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">(custom)</td>
			<td>500 bp oligonucleotides</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">ApE software</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">U Utah</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">(download)</td>
			<td>http://biologylabs.utah.edu/jorgensen/wayned/ape/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">MinElute kit</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">28004</td>
			<td>Used to purify PCR products</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">QIAprep spin miniprep kit</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">27104</td>
			<td>Used to prepare cloning-appropriate amounts of plasmid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Phusion Master Mix with GC Buffer</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">NEB</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M0532S</td>
			<td>Used to PCR-amplify gene of interest</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Gibson assembly reaction mix</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">NEB</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">E2611L</td>
			<td>Master mix of the following 9 ingredients</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">1 M Tris-HCl pH7.5</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Teknova</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">T1075</td>
			<td>Gibson assembly mix</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">1 M MgCl2</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">G Biosiences</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">82023-086</td>
			<td>Gibson assembly mix</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">dNTP mix</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Fermentas</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">R0192</td>
			<td>Gibson assembly mix</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">1 M DTT</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Fermentas</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">R0861</td>
			<td>Gibson assembly mix</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">PEG-8000</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Affymetrix</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">19966</td>
			<td>Gibson assembly mix</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">NAD</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Applichem</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A1124,0005</td>
			<td>Gibson assembly mix</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">T5 exonuclease</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Epicentre</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">T5E4111K</td>
			<td>Gibson assembly mix</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Phusion polymerase</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">NEB</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">F530S</td>
			<td>Gibson assembly mix</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Taq DNA ligase</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">NEB</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M0208L</td>
			<td>Gibson assembly mix</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Gibthon.org</td>
			<td style="width:191px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Website to simplify calculations</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Plasmid PLUS Maxi kit</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">12963</td>
			<td>Used to prepare DNA for gene gun bullets</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Gene Gun system</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">BioRad</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">165-2451</td>
			<td>Includes all parts necessary</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Nicotania benthamiana</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">(n/a)</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">(n/a)</td>
			<td>Gift of Jen Sheen, MGH</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Confocal microscope</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Leica</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SP5 X MP</td>
			<td>Imaging of resultant cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Deep well slides</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">71561-01</td>
			<td>Used for confocal imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">A Plasmid Editor (ApE) </td>
			<td style="width:191px;">University of Utah </td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>http://biologylabs.utah.edu/jorgensen/wayned/ape</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Gibthon:Ligation calculator</td>
			<td style="width:191px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>http://django.gibthon.org/tools/ligcalc/</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

transient gene expression in tobacco using gibson assembly and the gene gun

In order to target a single protein to multiple subcellular organelles, plants typically duplicate the relevant genes, and express each gene separately using complex regulatory strategies including differential promoters and/or signal sequences. Metabolic engineers and synthetic biologists interested in targeting enzymes to a particular organelle are faced with a challenge: For a protein that is to be localized to more than one organelle, the engineer must clone the same gene multiple times. This work presents a solution to this strategy: harnessing alternative splicing of mRNA. This technology takes advantage of established chloroplast and peroxisome targeting sequences and combines them into a single mRNA that is alternatively spliced. Some splice variants are sent to the chloroplast, some to the peroxisome, and some to the cytosol. Here the system is designed for multiple-organelle targeting with alternative splicing. In this work, GFP was expected to be expressed in the chloroplast, cytosol, and peroxisome by a series of rationally designed 5&#8217; mRNA tags. These tags have the potential to reduce the amount of cloning required when heterologous genes need to be expressed in multiple subcellular organelles. The constructs were designed in previous work11, and were cloned using Gibson assembly, a ligation independent cloning method that does not require restriction enzymes. The resultant plasmids were introduced into Nicotiana benthamiana epidermal leaf cells with a modified Gene Gun protocol. Finally, transformed leaves were observed with confocal microscopy.

The design effort was a result of significant planning. Novel to this project is the use of alternative splicing to create a pre-mRNA that is translated into differentially expressed proteins. These proteins are expressed in different organelles, in this case the chloroplast, peroxisome and/or cytosol. We adapted natural Arabidopsis gene that is alternatively spliced6, and placed known chloroplast6 and peroxisome17 targeting sequences in alternate exons (TriTag-1 and TriTag-2). T...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Transient Gene Expression in Tobacco using Gibson Assembly and the Gene Gun at JoVE.com

Transient Gene Expression in Tobacco using Gibson Assembly and the Gene Gun

This work describes a novel method for selectively targeting subcellular organelles in plants, assayed using the BioRad Gene Gun.

In order to target a single protein to multiple subcellular organelles, plants typically duplicate the relevant genes, and express each gene separately ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Environment

Determination of Microbial Extracellular Enzyme Activity in Waters, Soils, and Sediments using High Throughput Microplate Assays

Much of the nutrient cycling and carbon  processing in natural environments occurs through the activity of extracellular  enzymes released by ...

Transcript and Metabolite Profiling for the Evaluation of Tobacco Tree and Poplar as Feedstock for the Bio-based Industry

The global demand for food, feed, energy, and water poses extraordinary challenges for future generations. It is evident that robust platforms for the ...

Tracking Microbial Contamination in Retail Environments Using Fluorescent Powder - A Retail Delicatessen Environment Example

Cross contamination of foodborne pathogens in the retail environment is a significant public health issue contributing to an increased risk for foodborne ...

Expression of Recombinant Cellulase Cel5A from Trichoderma reesei in Tobacco Plants

Expression of Recombinant Cellulase Cel5A from Trichoderma reesei in Tobacco Plants

Cellulose degrading enzymes, cellulases, are targets of both research and industrial interests. The preponderance of these enzymes in difficult-to-culture ...

Screening Foodstuffs for Class 1 Integrons and Gene Cassettes

Antibiotic resistance is one of the greatest threats to health in the 21st century. Acquisition of resistance genes via lateral gene transfer is a major ...

RNAi-mediated Control of Aflatoxins in Peanut: Method to Analyze Mycotoxin Production and Transgene Expression in the Peanut/Aspergillus Pathosystem

RNAi-mediated Control of Aflatoxins in Peanut: Method to Analyze Mycotoxin Production and Transgene Expression in the Peanut/Aspergillus Pathosystem

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates that 25% of the food crops in the world are contaminated with aflatoxins. That ...

The Barnacle Balanus improvisus as a Marine Model - Culturing and Gene Expression

The Barnacle Balanus improvisus as a Marine Model - Culturing and Gene Expression

Barnacles are marine crustaceans with a sessile adult and free-swimming, planktonic larvae. The barnacle Balanus (Amphibalanus) improvisus is particularly ...

Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Agrobacterium rhizogenes-Mediated Transformation of Potato and the Promoter Activity of a Suberin Gene by GUS Staining

Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Agrobacterium rhizogenes-Mediated Transformation of Potato and the Promoter Activity of a Suberin Gene by GUS Staining

Agrobacterium sp. is one of the most widely used methods to obtain transgenic plants as it has the ability to transfer and integrate its own T-DNA into ...

Detached Leaf Assays to Simplify Gene Expression Studies in Potato During Infestation by Chewing Insect Manduca sexta

The multitrophic nature of gene expression studies of insect herbivory demands large numbers of biological replicates, creating the need for simpler, more ...

Leaf Area Index Estimation Using Three Distinct Methods in Pure Deciduous Stands

Accurate estimations of leaf area index (LAI), defined as half of the total leaf surface area per unit of horizontal ground surface area, are crucial for ...