Nos gustaría dar las gracias a Yue (Pauline) Hu, Rachel Sinit por su asistencia técnica. El estudio está apoyado por el NIH subvención (PN2 EY016525) y por la financiación de Síndrome de Down y la Fundación de Investigación de Tratamiento y la Fundación Larry L. Hillblom.

Los procedimientos quirúrgicos y animales se llevan a cabo estrictamente de acuerdo con la Guía del NIH para el Cuidado y Uso de Animales de Laboratorio. Todos los experimentos que implican el uso de animales son aprobados por UCSD Institucional Cuidado de Animales y el empleo Comisión. 1. plásmido de clonación, expresión y purificación de biotina-Mono BDNF (mBtBDNF) NOTA: Construir pre-proBDNFavi y cDNA BirA en el vector pcDNA3.1 y coexpresan en células HEK293FT 10. Purificar mBtBDNF utilizando perlas de Ni-NTA según el método publicado previamente de la producción de factor de crecimiento nervioso monobiotinylated madura y biológicamente activa (mBtNGF) 10. 2 Preparación de microfluidos Cámaras Dispositivo de cultivo de neuronas de microfluidos hace que sea posible para aislar de manera fluida los axones de los cuerpos celulares de las neuronas. Montar cámaras con cubreobjetos recubiertos recién justo antes de cada disección. Cámaras de microfluidos utilizadosen este protocolo se compran en el mercado (ver materiales y la mesa del equipo). Lavado a mano y reutilizados cámaras adquiridos comercialmente hasta 5-6 veces. <ol><li> Lavar a mano cámaras de microfluidos en 1% Alconox. Enjuague tres veces con agua Milli-Q durante 30 min cada uno. Cámaras de lavado a mano de nuevo en etanol al 70%. </li><li> Coloque cámaras a secar en Parafilm en la campana de flujo laminar. Irradiar y esterilizar ambos lados de las cámaras durante 20 min bajo UV. Tienda esterilizado en un recipiente estéril cámaras 15 cm plato de sellado con Parafilm a temperatura ambiente. </li><li> Coloque 24 x 40 mm N º 1 cubreobjetos de vidrio en un recipiente de vidrio. Remojar los cubreobjetos en ácido clorhídrico al 35% durante la noche en un rotador. Al día siguiente, enjuagar los cubreobjetos tres veces durante 30 minutos cada uno con agua. </li><li> Esterilizar los cubreobjetos uno a uno por inmersión cada cubreobjetos en etanol al 100% y en llamas sobre un mechero Bunsen. Guarde cubreobjetos secos en una placa de Petri estéril y mantenerlo a temperatura ambiente hasta recubrimiento. </li><li> Coloque out los cubreobjetos en una placa de cultivo de 15 cm. Escudo cada cubreobjetos con 0,7 ml de 0,01% de poli-L-lisina (PLL) y se incuba en la campana a temperatura ambiente. </li><li> Después de 1 hora, enjuague los cubreobjetos tres veces con agua estéril. Cubreobjetos secos con vacío y el lugar cada cubreobjetos en una placa de cultivo de 6 cm. </li><li> Para montar la cámara de microfluidos, coloque la cámara con el lado microsurco en la parte inferior en el cubreobjetos recubiertos PLL con precaución de no tocar los microsurcos. Presionado suavemente la cámara con una punta de pipeta para asegurar la cámara se cerró herméticamente. </li></ol> 3. Disección de cultivos neuronales y Placa en Cámaras <ol><li> Coloque dos hipocampos E17-E18 de rata (un cerebro) disecados en un tubo cónico de 15 ml que contiene 2 ml de tampón de disección (HBSS, sin calcio, magnesio no, con 1% penicilina / estreptomicina y HEPES 10 mM. Enjuagar los tejidos 3 veces con 5 ml disección tampón cada vez. eliminar el tampón de disección tanto como sea posible y añadir 900 l de di frescatampón ssection. </li><li> Para digerir el tejido, se añaden 100 l de 10x tripsina (2,5%) en el tampón de disección para hacer concentración de trabajo 1x. Coloque el tubo cónico en un baño a 37 ° C. Después de 10 min de la digestión, añadir 100 l de 10 mg / ml de DNasa I a una concentración final de alrededor de 1 mg / ml. </li><li> Utilizando una pipeta Pasteur de vidrio pulida al fuego, se tritura suavemente los tejidos pipeteando arriba y abajo 5-10x. Justo después de la trituración, se extingue la tripsina con 2 ml chapado medio (Neurobasal con 10% de FBS, 2 mM de GlutaMax, 2% B27). </li><li> Deja la muestra en la campana durante 5 minutos para permitir que todos los residuos de los tejidos para establecerse en la parte inferior. Retire cuidadosamente 2 ml de sobrenadante en un tubo limpio y estéril 15 ml cónico y centrifugar a 200 xg durante 5 min para sedimentar las células. Resuspender el precipitado en 50 l chapado medios </li><li> Contar las células con un hemocitómetro. Load 15-20 l de suspensión de células (~ 40.000 células) en un compartimiento de la cámara de microfluidos. Coloque la cámaraen la incubadora durante 10 minutos para permitir que las células se unan a la cubreobjetos. Después de 10 minutos, agregue los medios más chapado a llenar los dos compartimentos de la cámara. </li><li> En el segundo día de la disección, reemplazar completamente los medios de comunicación de placas con medio de mantenimiento (Neurobasal con 2 mM de GlutaMax, 2% B27) tanto en el cuerpo de la célula y el compartimento del axón. Los axones de las neuronas del hipocampo empiezan a cruzar los microsurcos en el día 3 y alcanzar el compartimiento axón entre los días 5-7. Durante este período de tiempo, reemplace la mitad de los medios de cultivo con medio de mantenimiento fresco cada 24 ~ 48 hr. </li></ol> 4. Axonal Transporte de QD-BDNF <ol><li> Antes de imagen en directo de QD-BDNF transporte axonal, agotar BDNF tanto desde el cuerpo celular y el axón compartimentos de la cámara de microfluidos por enjuague a fondo ambos compartimentos con BDNF-libres, suero libre de los medios de comunicación Neurobasal cada 30 min durante 2 horas. </li><li> Durante el agotamiento de BDNF, preparar los conjugados QD-BDNF. Mezclar 50 nM de mono-biotina BDDímero NF con 50 nM conjugados de estreptavidina-QD655 en medios Neurobasal e incubar en hielo durante 60 min. </li><li> Retire el medio en el compartimiento de axón y añadir 300 l QD-BDNF con una concentración final de 0,25 nM durante 4 horas a 37 ° C. Para minimizar el difusora de QD-BDNF en el compartimento de cuerpo celular, es muy importante mantener siempre un nivel más alto de los medios en el compartimiento de cuerpo de la célula que en el compartimiento de axón. Lavar sin unir QD-BDNF después de la incubación antes de imágenes en directo. </li><li> Llevar a cabo formación de imágenes en vivo de transporte QD-BDNF usando un microscopio invertido equipado con un aceite lente objetivo 100X. Calentar el alcance y la cámara ambiental que se le atribuye a una temperatura constante (37 ° C) y CO 2 (5%). Utilice un conjunto de cubos de Texas excitación rojo / emisión de visualizar la señal QD655. </li><li> Adquirir y capturar imágenes con lapso de tiempo dentro de los axones media a la velocidad de 1 fotograma / seg para un total de 2 min usando una cámara CCD. Use microsurcos sin axones that no tienen QD y por lo tanto no hay señal como un control para la infiltración. </li><li> Analizar transporte BDNF usando cualquier software de análisis de imagen o NIH ImageJ. </li></ol>

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No hay conflictos de interés declarado.

En este estudio, se presenta el desarrollo de una nueva técnica para producir biológicamente activa, monobiotinylated BDNF (mBtBDNF) que se puede utilizar para rastrear el transporte axonal de BDNF. Por la conjugación de la proteína a la estreptavidina punto cuántico, y el uso de una cámara de microfluidos, el método permite una para detectar el transporte axonal de BDNF en las neuronas primarias con sensibilidad única molécula, en tiempo real y con las resoluciones espaciales y temporales. Las herramientas uti...

Las neuronas son células altamente cuyos procesos de largo ya menudo muy elaborado, son fundamentales para el establecimiento y mantenimiento de la estructura y función de los circuitos neuronales polarizados. El axón juega un papel vital en el que transporten cargas desde y hacia las sinapsis. Las proteínas y orgánulos sintetizados en el soma celular necesitan ser transportados a través de los axones para llegar a la terminal presináptica para apoyar la función neuronal. Correspondientemente, señales recibidas en los axones distales necesitan ser transducidas y se transportan a la soma. Estos procesos son esenciales para la supervivencia neuronal, diferenciación y mantenimiento. En que el transporte axonal en algunas neuronas debe llevarse a cabo a través de distancias más de 1000 veces el diámetro del cuerpo celular, la posibilidad se prevé fácilmente que incluso pequeños déficits podrían afectar notablemente la función neuronal y el circuito. Brain-factor neurotrófico derivado (BDNF), un miembro de la familia de las neurotrofinas de factores de crecimiento, está presente en maregiones del cerebro ny, incluyendo el hipocampo, corteza cerebral, y el cerebro anterior basal. BDNF juega un papel crucial en la formación de la cognición y la memoria mediante el apoyo a la supervivencia, diferenciación y función de las neuronas que participan en circuitos cognitivos. BDNF se une a su receptor, el TrkB tirosina quinasa, en el axón terminal donde activa vías de señalización mediada por TrkB, incluyendo la proteína quinasa activada por mitógeno / regulada por señal extracelular de la proteína quinasa (MAPK / ERK), fosfatidilinositol-3-quinasa (PI3K) y la fosfolipasa C-gamma (PLCγ). Las proteínas que participan en estas vías de señalización están empaquetados en estructuras vesiculares endocítica para formar el BDNF / TrkB señalización endosoma 1-6 que luego son retrógradamente transportado al soma neuronal. La cámara de cultivo de microfluidos es una plataforma muy útil para estudiar la biología axonal en condiciones normales, así como en el ajuste de la lesión y la enfermedad 7,8. Por axones de aislamientoa partir de los cuerpos celulares, el dispositivo ha permitido uno para estudiar el transporte específicamente en los axones 8-10. Las plataformas de microfluidos PDMS base con 450 micras barreras microsurco utilizados en este estudio fueron adquiridos comercialmente (ver Tabla de Materiales). Para examinar el transporte BDNF, hemos desarrollado una nueva tecnología para producir BDNF monobiotinylated (mBtBDNF). Aprovechamos el péptido aceptor de biotina, AP (también conocido como AviTag). Es una secuencia de 15 aminoácidos que contiene un residuo de lisina que puede ligarse específicamente a una biotina por la enzima ligasa de biotina coli Escherichia, BirA. Hemos fusionado el AviTag a la C-terminal de la pre-ratón proBDNF ADNc mediante PCR (Figura 1A). La construcción se clonó en el vector de expresión de mamífero, pcDNA3.1-myc su vector. También clonado el ADN bacteriana BirA en el pcDNA3.1-myc su vector. Los dos plásmidos se co-transfectaron transitoriamente en células HEK293FT para expresar ambas proteínas. BirA catalizó la ligadura de Bioten concreto a la lisina residen dentro del AviTag en el C-terminal de BDNF en una proporción de 1: 1 para producir monómero monobiotinylated BDNF. Biotinilado, BDNF maduro con una masa molecular de ~ 18 kDa fue recuperado y purificado a partir de los medios de comunicación utilizando resina de Ni-(Figura 1C). La biotinilación de BDNF era completa, como se juzga por la incapacidad de detectar sin modificar BDNF por inmunotransferencia (Figura 1D). Puntos cuánticos conjugados con estreptavidina, QD 655, se utilizan para etiquetar mBtBDNF hacer QD-BDNF. La presencia de la AviTag no interfiera con la actividad del BDNF como la mBtBDNF fue capaz de activar TrkB fosforilado (Figura 1E) y estimular el crecimiento de neuritas (Figura 1F) en la medida de BDNF humano recombinante (rhBDNF). Inmunotinción demostró que QD-BDNF colocalized con TrkB en los axones del hipocampo, lo que indica que QD-BDNF es bioactivo (Figura 1G). Para estudiar el transporte BDNF, QD-BDNF fue añadido al compartimento de axón distalculturas de microfluidos que contienen rata E18 neuronas del hipocampo (Figura 2A). QD-BDNF transporte retrógrado dentro de los axones fue capturado por el tiempo real de imágenes en vivo de la etiqueta fluorescente de color rojo (con soporte para vídeos S1, S2). Mediante el análisis de la quimógrafo generado, QD-BDNF se observó para ser transportado retrógradamente a una velocidad de movimiento de alrededor de 1,06 m / seg (Figura 3A). GFP o marcado con mCherry BDNF se han utilizado para seguir el movimiento axonal de BDNF. Los principales inconvenientes son que no son lo suficientemente brillantes para los estudios de una sola molécula. Además, la presencia de tanto anterógrada y retrógrada movimientos de BDNF hace que sea difícil evaluar si o no el BDNF retrógradamente transportado estaba en un complejo neurotrofina / receptor. En este video, nos demuestran las técnicas que se utilizan para examinar el tráfico directo de QD-BDNF en las cámaras de microfluidos que utilizan las neuronas primarias. El ultrabrightness y excelente fotoestabilidad de los puntos cuánticos MAKes posible realizar el seguimiento a largo plazo del transporte BDNF. Estas técnicas pueden ser explotados para mejorar estudios de la función axonal en AD, HD, y otros trastornos neurodegenerativos.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="641">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:261px;">Name</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">Catalog Number</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Platinum pfx DNA polymerase&#160;</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>11708021</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">EcoRI&#160;</td>
			<td>Fermentas</td>
			<td>FD0274</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">BamHI&#160;</td>
			<td>Fermentas</td>
			<td>FD0054</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HEK293FT cells</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>R70007</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">DMEM-high glucose media</td>
			<td>Mediatech</td>
			<td>10-013-CV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">d-biotin&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>B4639</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">TurboFect&#160;</td>
			<td>Fermentas</td>
			<td>R0531</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">PMSF&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P7626</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">aprotinin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A6279</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Ni-NTA resins</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>30250</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">protease inhibitors cocktail</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>&#160;S8820</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">silver staining kit&#160;</td>
			<td>G-Biosciences</td>
			<td>786-30</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">human recombinant BDNF</td>
			<td>Genentech</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Microfluidic chambers</td>
			<td>Xona</td>
			<td>SND450</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">24x40 mm No. 1 glass coverslips&#160;</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>48393-060</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">poly-L-Lysine&#160;</td>
			<td>Cultrex</td>
			<td>3438-100-01</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HBSS</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>14185-052</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">DNase I</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>10104159001</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Trypsin</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15090-046</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Neurobasal&#160;</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>21103-049</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">FBS&#160;</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>16000-044</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">GlutaMax&#160;</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>35050-061</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">B27&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>17504-044</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">QD655-streptavidin conjugates</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>&#160;Q10121MP</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">anti-Avi tag antibody</td>
			<td>GenScript</td>
			<td>A00674</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">streptavidin-agarose beads&#160;</td>
			<td>Life Technology</td>
			<td>&#160;SA100-04</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">trichloroacetic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T6399</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HRP-streptavidin&#160;</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>N100</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">anti-pTrkB antibody</td>
			<td colspan="2">a generous gift from Dr M. Chao of NYU</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">anti-TrkB antibody</td>
			<td>BD Science</td>
			<td>610101</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

real-time imaging of axonal transport of quantum dot-labeled bdnf in primary neurons

BDNF juega un papel importante en varias facetas de la supervivencia neuronal, la diferenciación, y la función. Déficits estructurales y funcionales en los axones se consideran cada vez más como una característica temprana de enfermedades neurodegenerativas, incluyendo la enfermedad de Alzheimer (AD) y la enfermedad de Huntington (HD). Hasta el momento no está claro es el mecanismo (s) por el cual se induce lesión axonal. Se presenta el desarrollo de una nueva técnica para producir biológicamente activo, monobiotinylated BDNF (mBtBDNF) que se puede utilizar para rastrear el transporte axonal de BDNF. BDNF marcado con puntos cuánticos (QD-BDNF) fue producido por la conjugación de punto cuántico 655 a mBtBDNF. Un dispositivo de microfluidos se utilizó para aislar los axones de los cuerpos celulares de las neuronas. La adición de QD-BDNF al compartimiento axonal permite imágenes en vivo de transporte BDNF en los axones. Hemos demostrado que QD-BDNF movido esencialmente exclusivamente retrógradamente, con muy pocas pausas, a una velocidad de movimiento de alrededor de 1,06 m / seg. Este sistema se puede utilizar para investigar memecanis- de la función axonal alterada en la EA o HD, así como otros trastornos degenerativos.

Producción y purificación de biológicamente activos BDNF Mono-biotina El vector de expresión de BDNF fusionado con una secuencia de AviTag (GGGLNDIFEAQKIEWHE) fue creado de acuerdo con un protocolo previamente publicado 10. La masa molecular de la proteína de fusión de longitud completa se predijo a ser ~ 32 kDa ( <a href="http://ca.expasy.org/tools/pi_tool.html" target="_blank">http://ca.expasy.org/tools/pi_tool.html</a> ) fue producido Monobiotinylated BDNF maduro con una ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Real-time Imaging of Axonal Transport of Quantum Dot-labeled BDNF in Primary Neurons at JoVE.com

Real-time Imaging of Axonal Transport of Quantum Dot-labeled BDNF in Primary Neurons

El transporte axonal de BDNF, un factor neurotrófico, es crítico para la supervivencia y la función de varias poblaciones neuronales. Algunos trastornos degenerativos están marcadas por disrupción de la estructura y la función axonal. Hemos demostrado las técnicas utilizadas para examinar el tráfico directo de QD-BDNF en las cámaras de microfluidos que utilizan las neuronas primarias.

Imágenes en tiempo real de Axonal Transporte de Quantum Dot-etiquetado BDNF en las neuronas primarias

BDNF plays an important role in several facets of neuronal survival, differentiation, and function. Structural and functional deficits in axons are ...

real-time-imaging-axonal-transport-quantum-dot-labeled-bdnf-primary

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

15.0K vistas.  University of California, San Diego.  El transporte axonal de BDNF, un factor neurotrófico, es crítico para la supervivencia y la función de varias poblaciones neuronales. Algunos trastornos degenerativos están marcadas por disrupción de la estructura y la función axonal. Hemos demostrado las técnicas utilizadas para examinar el tráfico directo de QD-BDNF en las cámaras de microfluidos que utilizan las neuronas primarias. 

Video: Real-time Imaging of Axonal Transport of Quantum Dot-labeled BDNF in Primary Neurons

Mechanical Manipulation of Neurons to Control Axonal Development

Cell manipulations and extension of neuronal axons can be accomplished with calibrated glass micro-fibers capable of measuring and applying forces in the 10-1000 &mu;dyne range1,2. Force measurements are obtained through observation of the Hookean bending of the glass needles, which are calibrated by a direct and empirical method3. Equipment requirements and procedures for fabricating, calibrating, treating, and using the needles on cells are fully described. The force regimes previously used and different cell types to which these techniques have been applied demonstrate the flexibility of the methodology and are given as examples for future investigation4-6. The technical advantages are the continuous 'visualization' of the forces produced by the manipulations and the ability to directly intervene in a variety of cellular events. These include direct stimulation and regulation of axonal growth and retraction7; as well as detachment and mechanical measurements on any type of cultured cell8.

Application and direct measurements of forces on neurons in the 2-1000 microdyne range are achieved with high precision using calibrated glass needles. This methodology can be used to control and measure several aspects of axonal development, including axonal initiation, axonal tension, velocity of axonal elongation, and force vectors.

La manipulación mecánica de las neuronas para controlar el desarrollo axonal

Cell manipulations and extension of neuronal axons can be accomplished with calibrated glass micro-fibers capable of measuring and applying forces in the ...

Investigación

Neurociencias

Neuromodulation and Mitochondrial Transport: Live Imaging in Hippocampal Neurons over Long Durations

To understand the relationship between mitochondrial transport and neuronal function, it is critical to observe mitochondrial behavior in live cultured neurons for extended durations1-3. This is now possible through the use of vital dyes and fluorescent proteins with which cytoskeletal components, organelles, and other structures in living cells can be labeled and then visualized via dynamic fluorescence microscopy. For example, in embryonic chicken sympathetic neurons, mitochondrial movement was characterized using the vital dye rhodamine 1234. In another study, mitochondria were visualized in rat forebrain neurons by transfection of mitochondrially targeted eYFP5. However, imaging of primary neurons over minutes, hours, or even days presents a number of issues. Foremost among these are: 1) maintenance of culture conditions such as temperature, humidity, and pH during long imaging sessions; 2) a strong, stable fluorescent signal to assure both the quality of acquired images and accurate measurement of signal intensity during image analysis; and 3) limiting exposure times during image acquisition to minimize photobleaching and avoid phototoxicity.
Here, we describe a protocol that permits the observation, visualization, and analysis of mitochondrial movement in cultured hippocampal neurons with high temporal resolution and under optimal life support conditions. We have constructed an affordable stage-top incubator that provides good temperature regulation and atmospheric gas flow, and also limits the degree of media evaporation, assuring stable pH and osmolarity. This incubator is connected, via inlet and outlet hoses, to a standard tissue culture incubator, which provides constant humidity levels and an atmosphere of 5-10% CO2/air. This design offers a cost-effective alternative to significantly more expensive microscope incubators that don't necessarily assure the viability of cells over many hours or even days. To visualize mitochondria, we infect cells with a lentivirus encoding a red fluorescent protein that is targeted to the mitochondrion. This assures a strong and persistent signal, which, in conjunction with the use of a stable xenon light source, allows us to limit exposure times during image acquisition and all but precludes photobleaching and phototoxicity. Two injection ports on the top of the stage-top incubator allow the acute administration of neurotransmitters and other reagents intended to modulate mitochondrial movement. In sum, lentivirus-mediated expression of an organelle-targeted red fluorescent protein and the combination of our stage-top incubator, a conventional inverted fluorescence microscope, CCD camera, and xenon light source allow us to acquire time-lapse images of mitochondrial transport in living neurons over longer durations than those possible in studies deploying conventional vital dyes and off-the-shelf life support systems.

We describe a protocol that allows imaging of mitochondria in living neurons via fluorescence microscopy over long durations. Imaging over extended periods is accomplished through lentivirus-mediated expression of a mitochondrially targeted fluorescent protein and use of an inexpensive stage-top incubator that was designed and built in our laboratory.

La neuromodulación y mitocondrial de transporte: Imágenes en vivo en las neuronas del hipocampo durante largos períodos de tiempo

To understand the relationship between mitochondrial transport and neuronal function, it is critical to observe mitochondrial behavior in live cultured ...

An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time

Injured CNS axons fail to regenerate and often retract away from the injury site. Axons spared from the initial injury may later undergo secondary axonal degeneration. Lack of growth cone formation, regeneration, and loss of additional myelinated axonal projections within the spinal cord greatly limits neurological recovery following injury. To assess how central myelinated axons of the spinal cord respond to injury, we developed an ex vivo living spinal cord model utilizing transgenic mice that express yellow fluorescent protein in axons and a focal and highly reproducible laser-induced spinal cord injury to document the fate of axons and myelin (lipophilic fluorescent dye Nile Red) over time using two-photon excitation time-lapse microscopy. Dynamic processes such as acute axonal injury, axonal retraction, and myelin degeneration are best studied in real-time. However, the non-focal nature of contusion-based injuries and movement artifacts encountered during in vivo spinal cord imaging make differentiating primary and secondary axonal injury responses using high resolution microscopy challenging. The ex vivo spinal cord model described here mimics several aspects of clinically relevant contusion/compression-induced axonal pathologies including axonal swelling, spheroid formation, axonal transection, and peri-axonal swelling providing a useful model to study these dynamic processes in real-time. Major advantages of this model are excellent spatiotemporal resolution that allows differentiation between the primary insult that directly injures axons and secondary injury mechanisms; controlled infusion of reagents directly to the perfusate bathing the cord; precise alterations of the environmental milieu (e.g., calcium, sodium ions, known contributors to axonal injury, but near impossible to manipulate in vivo); and murine models also offer an advantage as they provide an opportunity to visualize and manipulate genetically identified cell populations and subcellular structures. Here, we describe how to isolate and image the living spinal cord from mice to capture dynamics of acute axonal injury.

An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time

We present a protocol utilizing two-photon excitation time-lapse microscopy to simultaneously visualize the dynamics of axon and myelin injuries in real time. This proposed protocol permits studies of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors which can influence central myelinated axon fate after injury and contribute to permanent clinical disability.

Una<em&gt; Ex Vivo</em&gt; Médula espinal inducida por láser Lesiones modelo para evaluar los mecanismos de degeneración axonal en tiempo real

Injured CNS axons fail to regenerate and often retract away from the injury site. Axons spared from the initial injury may later undergo secondary axonal ...

A Protocol for the Administration of Real-Time fMRI Neurofeedback Training

Neurologic disorders are characterized by abnormal cellular-, molecular-, and circuit-level functions in the brain. New methods to induce and control neuroplastic processes and correct abnormal function, or even shift functions from damaged tissue to physiologically healthy brain regions, hold the potential to dramatically improve overall health. Of the current neuroplastic interventions in development, neurofeedback training (NFT) from functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) has the advantages of being completely non-invasive, non-pharmacologic, and spatially localized to target brain regions, as well as having no known side effects. Furthermore, NFT techniques, initially developed using fMRI, can often be translated to exercises that can be performed outside of the scanner without the aid of medical professionals or sophisticated medical equipment. In fMRI NFT, the fMRI signal is measured from specific regions of the brain, processed, and presented to the participant in real-time. Through training, self-directed mental processing techniques, that regulate this signal and its underlying neurophysiologic correlates, are developed. FMRI NFT has been used to train volitional control over a wide range of brain regions with implications for several different cognitive, behavioral, and motor systems. Additionally, fMRI NFT has shown promise in a broad range of applications such as the treatment of neurologic disorders and the augmentation of baseline human performance. In this article, we present an fMRI NFT protocol developed at our institution for modulation of both healthy and abnormal brain function, as well as examples of using the method to target both cognitive and auditory regions of the brain.

The ability to induce and/or control neural plasticity may be critical in future treatments for neurologic disorders and the recovery from brain injury. In this paper, we present a protocol on the use of neurofeedback training with functional magnetic resonance imaging to modulate human brain function.

Un protocolo para la administración de Real-Time fMRI entrenamiento de Neurofeedback

Neurologic disorders are characterized by abnormal cellular-, molecular-, and circuit-level functions in the brain. New methods to induce and control ...

Assay to Measure Nucleocytoplasmic Transport in Real Time within Motor Neuron-like NSC-34 Cells

Nucleocytoplasmic transport refers to the import and export of large molecules from the cell nucleus. Recently, a number of studies have shown a connection between amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and impairments in the nucleocytoplasmic pathway. ALS is a neurodegenerative disease affecting the motor neurons and resulting in paralysis and ultimately in death, within 2-5 years on average. Most cases of ALS are sporadic, lacking any apparent genetic linkage, but 10% are inherited in a dominant manner. Recently, hexanucleotide repeat expansions (HREs) in the chromosome 9 open reading frame 72 (C9orf72) gene were identified as a genetic cause of ALS and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Importantly, different groups have recently proposed that these mutants affect nucleocytoplasmic transport. These studies have mostly shown the final outcome and manifestations caused by HREs on nucleocytoplasmic transport, but they do not demonstrate nuclear transport dysfunction in real time. As a result, only severe nucleocytoplasmic transport deficiency can be determined, mostly due to high overexpression or exogenous protein insertion. 
This protocol describes a new and very sensitive assay to evaluate and quantify nucleocytoplasmic transport dysfunction in real time. The rate of import of a NLS-NES-GFP protein (shuttle-GFP) can be quantified in real time using fluorescent microscopy. This is performed by using an exportin inhibitor, thus allowing the shuttle GFP only to enter the nucleus. To validate the assay, the C9orf72 HRE translated dipeptide repeats, poly(GR) and poly(PR), which have been previously shown to disrupt nucleocytoplasmic transport, were used. Using the described assay, a 50% decrease in the nuclear import rate was observed compared to the control. Using this system, minute changes in nucleocytoplasmic transport can be examined and the ability of different factors to rescue (even partially) a nucleocytoplasmic transport defect can be determined.

This protocol describes a method to sensitively measure the nucleocytoplasmic transport rate within motor neuron-like NSC-34 cells by quantifying the real-time change in the nuclear import of a NLS-NES-GFP protein.

Ensayo para medir el transporte nucleocitoplasmático en tiempo real dentro de las células NSC-34 similares a neuronas motoras

Nucleocytoplasmic transport refers to the import and export of large molecules from the cell nucleus. Recently, a number of studies have shown a ...

Visualization of the Axonal Projection Pattern of Embryonic Motor Neurons in Drosophila

The establishment of functional neuromuscular circuits relies on precise connections between developing motor axons and target muscles. Motor neurons extend growth cones to navigate along specific pathways by responding to a large number of axon guidance cues that emanate from the surrounding extracellular environment. Growth cone target recognition also plays a critical role in neuromuscular specificity. This work presents a standard immunohistochemistry protocol to visualize motor neuron projections of late stage-16 Drosophila melanogaster embryos. This protocol includes a few key steps, including a genotyping procedure, to sort the desired mutant embryos; an immunostaining procedure, to tag embryos with fasciclin II (FasII) antibody; and a dissection procedure, to generate filleted preparations from fixed embryos. Motor axon projections and muscle patterns in the periphery are much better visualized in flat preparations of filleted embryos than in whole-mount embryos. Therefore, the filleted preparation of fixed embryos stained with FasII antibody provides a powerful tool to characterize the genes required for motor axon pathfinding and target recognition, and it can also be applied to both loss-of-function and gain-of-function genetic screens.

Visualization of the Axonal Projection Pattern of Embryonic Motor Neurons in Drosophila

This work details a standard immunohistochemistry method to visualize motor neuron projections of late stage-16 Drosophila melanogaster embryos. The filleted preparation of fixed embryos stained with FasII antibody provides a powerful tool to characterize the genes required for motor axon pathfinding and target recognition during neural development.

Visualización del patrón de proyección axonal de las neuronas motrices embrionarias<em&gt; Drosophila</em

The establishment of functional neuromuscular circuits relies on precise connections between developing motor axons and target muscles. Motor neurons ...

Axonal Transport of Organelles in Motor Neuron Cultures using Microfluidic Chambers System

Motor neurons (MNs) are highly polarized cells with very long axons. Axonal transport is a crucial mechanism for MN health, contributing to neuronal growth, development, and survival. We describe a detailed method for the use of microfluidic chambers (MFCs) for tracking axonal transport of fluorescently labeled organelles in MN axons. This method is rapid, relatively inexpensive, and allows for the monitoring of intracellular cues in space and time. We describe a step by step protocol for: 1) Fabrication of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) MFCs; 2) Plating of ventral spinal cord explants and MN dissociated culture in MFCs; 3) Labeling of mitochondria and acidic compartments followed by live confocal imagining; 4) Manual and semiautomated axonal transport analysis. Lastly, we demonstrate a difference in the transport of mitochondria and acidic compartments of HB9::GFP ventral spinal cord explant axons as a proof of the system validity. Altogether, this protocol provides an efficient tool for studying the axonal transport of various axonal components, as well as a simplified manual for MFC usage to help discover spatial experimental possibilities.

Axonal transport is a crucial mechanism for motor neuron health. In this protocol we provide a detailed method for tracking the axonal transport of acidic compartments and mitochondria in motor neuron axons using microfluidic chambers.

Transporte axónico de organelos en cultivos de neuronas motoras utilizando el sistema de cámaras microfluídicas

Motor neurons (MNs) are highly polarized cells with very long axons. Axonal transport is a crucial mechanism for MN health, contributing to neuronal ...

Real-Time fMRI Brain Mapping in Animals

Dynamic fMRI responses vary largely according to the physiological conditions of animals either under anesthesia or in awake states. We developed a real-time fMRI platform to guide experimenters to monitor fMRI responses instantaneously during acquisition, which can be used to modify the physiology of animals to achieve desired hemodynamic responses in animal brains. The real-time fMRI set-up is based on a 14.1T preclinical MRI system, enabling the real-time mapping of dynamic fMRI responses in the primary forepaw somatosensory cortex (FP-S1) of anesthetized rats. Instead of a retrospective analysis to investigate confounding sources leading to the variability of fMRI signals, the real-time fMRI platform provides a more effective scheme to identify dynamic fMRI responses using customized macro-functions and a common neuroimage analysis software in the MRI system. Also, it provides immediate troubleshooting feasibility and a real-time biofeedback stimulation paradigm for brain functional studies in animals.

Animal brain functional mapping can benefit from the real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experimental set-up. Using the latest software implemented in the animal MRI system, we established a real-time monitoring platform for small animal fMRI.

Mapeo cerebral de resonancia magnética funcional en tiempo real en animales

Dynamic fMRI responses vary largely according to the physiological conditions of animals either under anesthesia or in awake states. We developed a ...

Expanding the Toolkit for In Vivo Imaging of Axonal Transport

Axonal transport maintains neuronal homeostasis by enabling the bidirectional trafficking of diverse organelles and cargoes. Disruptions in axonal transport have devastating consequences for individual neurons and their networks, and contribute to a plethora of neurological disorders. As many of these conditions involve both cell autonomous and non-autonomous mechanisms, and often display a spectrum of pathology across neuronal subtypes, methods to accurately identify and analyze neuronal subsets are imperative.
This paper details protocols to assess in vivo axonal transport of signaling endosomes and mitochondria in sciatic nerves of anesthetized mice. Stepwise instructions are provided to 1) distinguish motor from sensory neurons in vivo, in situ, and ex vivo by using mice that selectively express fluorescent proteins within cholinergic motor neurons; and 2) separately or concurrently assess in vivo axonal transport of signaling endosomes and mitochondria. These complementary intravital approaches facilitate the simultaneous imaging of different cargoes in distinct peripheral nerve axons to quantitatively monitor axonal transport in health and disease.

Expanding the Toolkit for In Vivo Imaging of Axonal Transport

Using transgenic fluorescent mice, detailed protocols are described to assess in vivo axonal transport of signaling endosomes and mitochondria within motor and sensory axons of the intact sciatic nerve in live animals.

Ampliación del kit de herramientas para imágenes in vivo del transporte axonal

Axonal transport maintains neuronal homeostasis by enabling the bidirectional trafficking of diverse organelles and cargoes. Disruptions in axonal ...

In Vivo Calcium Imaging of Neuronal Ensembles in Networks of Primary Sensory Neurons in Intact Dorsal Root Ganglia

Ca2+ imaging can be used as a proxy for cellular activity, including action potentials and various signaling mechanisms involving Ca2+ entry into the cytoplasm or the release of intracellular Ca2+ stores. Pirt-GCaMP3-based Ca2+ imaging of primary sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) in mice offers the advantage of simultaneous measurement of a large number of cells. Up to 1,800 neurons can be monitored, allowing neuronal networks and somatosensory processes to be studied as an ensemble in their normal physiological context at a populational level in vivo. The large number of neurons monitored allows the detection of activity patterns that would be challenging to detect using other methods. Stimuli can be applied to the mouse hindpaw, allowing the direct effects of stimuli on the DRG neuron ensemble to be studied. The number of neurons producing Ca2+ transients as well as the amplitude of Ca2+ transients indicates sensitivity to specific sensory modalities. The diameter of neurons provides evidence of activated fiber types (non-noxious mechano vs. noxious pain fibers, A&#946;, A&#948;, and C fibers). Neurons expressing specific receptors can be genetically labeled with td-Tomato and specific Cre recombinases together with Pirt-GCaMP. Therefore, Pirt-GCaMP3 Ca2+ imaging of DRG provides a powerful tool and model for the analysis of specific sensory modalities and neuron subtypes acting as an ensemble at the populational level to study pain, itch, touch, and other somatosensory signals.

In Vivo Calcium Imaging of Neuronal Ensembles in Networks of Primary Sensory Neurons in Intact Dorsal Root Ganglia

This protocol describes the surgical exposure of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) followed by GCaMP3 (genetically-encoded Ca2+ indicator; Green Fluorescent Protein-Calmodulin-M13 Protein 3) Ca2+ imaging of the neuronal ensembles using Pirt-GCaMP3 mice while applying a variety of stimuli to the ipsilateral hind paw.

In vivo Imágenes de calcio de conjuntos neuronales en redes de neuronas sensoriales primarias en ganglios intactos de la raíz dorsal

Ca2+ imaging can be used as a proxy for cellular activity, including action potentials and various signaling mechanisms involving Ca2+ entry into the ...