Name: characterizing mechanical properties of primary cell wall in living plant organs using atomic force microscopy
Uploaded: 2022-05-18T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Characterizing Mechanical Properties of Primary Cell Wall in Living Plant Organs Using Atomic Force Microscopy at JoVE.com

We would like to acknowledge Dr. Dmitry Suslov (Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russia) and Prof. Mira Ponomareva (Tatar Scientific Research Institute of Agriculture, FRC KazSC RAS, Kazan, Russia) for providing maize and rye seeds, respectively. The presented method was developed within the framework of the Russian Science Foundation Project No. 18-14-00168 awarded to LK. The part of the work (obtaining of the results presented) was performed by AP with the financial support of the government assignment for the FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS.

1. Sample preparation for AFM measurements
<ol>
	<li>Plant material: Sterilize the seeds of maize (Zea mays L.) and rye (Secale cereale L.) with a 0.35% NaOCl solution for 10 min, wash 3x with distilled water, and then grow hydroponically in the dark at 27 &#176;C for 4 days and 2 days, respectively. Primary roots were used for the experiment.</li>
	<li>Preparation of solutions and sample for vibratome sectioning
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare agarose solution for root embedding by dissolving 3%...

<ol>
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A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Branched+pectic+galactan+in+phloem-sieve-element+cell+walls:+implications+for+cell+mechanics.">Branched pectic galactan in phloem-sieve-element cell walls: implications for cell mechanics.</a> Plant Physiology. 176 (2), 1547-1558 (2018).</li><li>Garcia, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nanomechanical+mapping+of+soft+materials+with+the+atomic+force+microscope:+methods,+theory+and+applications.">Nanomechanical mapping of soft materials with the atomic force microscope: methods, theory and applications.</a> Chemical Society Reviews. 49 (16), 5850-5884 (2020).</li><li>Kozlova, L., Petrova, A., Ananchenko, B., Gorshkova, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+primary+cell+wall+nanomechanical+properties+in+internal+cells+of+non-fixed+maize+roots.">Assessment of primary cell wall nanomechanical properties in internal cells of non-fixed maize roots.</a> Plants-Basel. 8 (6), 172 (2019).</li><li>Bovio, S., Long, Y. C., Moneger, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+atomic+force+microscopy+to+measure+mechanical+properties+and+turgor+pressure+of+plant+cells+and+plant+tissues.">Use of atomic force microscopy to measure mechanical properties and turgor pressure of plant cells and plant tissues.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (149), e59674 (2019).</li><li>Krieg, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Atomic+force+microscopy-based+mechanobiology.">Atomic force microscopy-based mechanobiology.</a> Nature Reviews Physics. 1 (1), 41-57 (2019).</li><li>Braunsmann, C., Schaffer, T. 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The mechanical properties of the primary cell walls determine the direction and rate of plant cell growth, and therefore the future size and shape of the plant. The AFM-based method presented here complements existing techniques which are used to study the properties of plant cell walls. It allows the elasticity of cell walls, which belong to the inner tissues of the plant, to be investigated. Using the presented method, the mechanical properties of cell walls in different tissues of the growing maize root were mapped, a...

The mechanical properties of the plant cell wall determine the shape of the cell and its ability to grow. For example, the growing tip of the pollen tube is softer than the non-growing parts of the same tube1. The primordia formation on Arabidopsis meristem is preceded by a local decrease in cell wall stiffness at the site of the future primordium2,3. The cell walls of Arabidopsis hypocotyl, which are parallel to the main growth axis and grow faster, are softer than those that are perpendicular to this axis and grow slower4,5. In the maize root, the transition of cells from division to elongation was accompanied by a decrease in elastic moduli in all tissues of the root. The moduli remained low in the elongation zone and increased in the late elongation zone6.
Despite the availability of various methods, the large arrays of biochemical and genetic information on cell wall biology obtained annually are rarely compared with the mechanical properties of cell walls. For example, mutants on cell wall-related genes often have altered growth and development4,7,8, but are rarely described in terms of biomechanics. One of the reasons for this is the difficulty of conducting measurements at the cellular and subcellular levels. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is currently the primary approach for such analyses9.
In recent years, numerous AFM-based studies on plant cell wall biomechanics have been carried out. The mechanical properties of cell walls of the outer tissues of Arabidopsis2,3,4,5,10,11 and onion12, as well as of cultured cells13,14,15, have been investigated. However, the superficial cells of a plant may have cell walls whose mechanical properties differ from those of the inner tissues6. In addition, plant cells are pressurized by turgor which makes them stiffer. To get rid of the influence of turgor pressure, researchers have to use plasmolyzing solutions2,3,4,5,10,11 or decompose the values obtained into turgor and cell wall contributions12. The first approach leads to sample dehydration and changes the thickness and properties of the cell wall16, while the second approach requires additional measurements and complicated mathematics, and applies only to cells of relatively simple shape12. The cell wall properties of internal tissues can be evaluated on cryosections17 or sections of plant material impregnated with resin8. However, both methods involve dehydration and/or impregnation of samples, which inevitably leads to changes in properties. The properties of isolated or cultured cells are difficult to relate to the physiology of the whole plant. Both cultivation and isolation of plant cells can affect the mechanical properties of their cell walls.
The method presented here complements the aforementioned approaches. Using it, the primary cell walls of any tissue and at any stage of plant development can be examined. Sectioning and AFM observations were performed in liquid which avoids sample dehydration. The problem of turgor was solved as the cells are cut. The protocol describes work with maize and rye roots, but any other sample can be examined if it is suitable for vibratome sectioning.
The AFM studies described here were performed using the force-volume technique. Different instruments use different names for this method. However, the basic principle is the same; a force-volume map of the sample is obtained by a sinusoidal or triangular motion of the cantilever (or sample) to achieve a certain loading force at each analyzed point, while recording the cantilever deflection18. The result combines a topographic image of the surface and the array of force-distance curves. Each curve is used to calculate the deformation, stiffness, Young&#39;s modulus, adhesion, and energy dissipation at a specific point. Similar data can be obtained by point-by-point force-spectroscopy after scanning in contact mode19, although it is more time-consuming.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose, low melting point</td>
			<td>Helicon</td>
			<td>B-5000-0.1</td>
			<td>for sample fixation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Brush</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>for section moving</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cantilevers</td>
			<td>NanoTools, Germany</td>
			<td>NT_B150_v0020-5</td>
			<td>Model: Biosphere B150-FM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cantilevers</td>
			<td>NT-MDT, Russia</td>
			<td>FMG01/50</td>
			<td>Model: FMG01</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cyanoacrylate adhesive</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>for vibratomy</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass slides</td>
			<td>Heinz Herenz</td>
			<td>1042000</td>
			<td>for vibratomy and AFM calibration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageAnalysis P9 Software</td>
			<td>NT-MDT, Russia</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>for data analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leica DM1000 epifluorescence microscope</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems, Germany</td>
			<td>11591301</td>
			<td>for section check</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaOCl</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>for seed sterilization</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nova PX 3.4.1 Software</td>
			<td>NT-MDT, Russia</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>for experiments conducting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NTEGRA Prima microscope with HD controller</td>
			<td>NT-MDT, Russia</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>for AFM and data acquisition</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dish 35 mm</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>153066</td>
			<td>for sample fixation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tip pipette 1000 &#181;L</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>4642092</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tip pipette 2-20 &#181;L</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>4642062</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrapure water</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vibratome Leica VT 1000S</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems, Germany</td>
			<td>1404723512</td>
			<td>for sample sectioning</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

characterizing mechanical properties of primary cell wall in living plant organs using atomic force microscopy

The mechanical properties of the primary cell walls determine the direction and rate of plant cell growth and, therefore, the future size and shape of the plant. Many sophisticated techniques have been developed to measure these properties; however, atomic force microscopy (AFM) remains the most convenient for studying cell wall elasticity at the cellular level. One of the most important limitations of this technique has been that only superficial or isolated living cells can be studied. Here, the use of atomic force microscopy to investigate the mechanical properties of primary cell walls belonging to the internal tissues of a plant body is presented. This protocol describes measurements of the apparent Young&#39;s modulus of cell walls in roots, but the method can also be applied to other plant organs. The measurements are performed on vibratome-derived sections of plant material in a liquid cell, which allows (i) avoiding the use of plasmolyzing solutions or sample impregnation with wax or resin, (ii) making the experiments fast, and (iii) preventing dehydration of the sample. Both anticlinal and periclinal cell walls can be studied, depending on how the specimen was sectioned. Differences in the mechanical properties of different tissues can be investigated in a single section. The protocol describes the principles of study planning, issues with specimen preparation and measurements, as well as the method of selecting force-deformation curves to avoid the influence of topography on the obtained values of elastic modulus. The method is not limited by sample size but is sensitive to cell size (i.e., cells with a large lumen are difficult to examine).

Typical elastic modulus and DFL maps, as well as force curves obtained on rye and maize roots by the method described, are presented in Figure&#160;2. Figure&#160;2A shows elastic modulus and DFL maps obtained on the transverse section of rye primary root. The white areas in the modulus map (Figure&#160;2A, left) correspond to an erroneous overestimation of Young&#39;s modulus due to the scanner reaching its limit in the z-direction...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Characterizing Mechanical Properties of Primary Cell Wall in Living Plant Organs Using Atomic Force Microscopy at JoVE.com

Characterizing Mechanical Properties of Primary Cell Wall in Living Plant Organs Using Atomic Force Microscopy

Studies of cell wall biomechanics are essential for understanding plant growth and morphogenesis. The following protocol is proposed to investigate thin primary cell walls in the internal tissues of young plant organs using atomic force microscopy.

The mechanical properties of the primary cell walls determine the direction and rate of plant cell growth and, therefore, the future size and shape of the ...

Plant cell growth is controlled by the mechanical properties of their cell walls. Therefore, it's important to know these properties in different organ and tissues of the plants. The method presented here allows the biomechanical characterization of non-fixed and non-dehydrated cell walls in the internal tissues of young plants.Start with preparing the solutions and sample for vibratome sectioning. Pour a four millimeter layer of melted 3%agarose on the bottom of the Petri dish and let it cool slightly to prevent thermal damage to the sample. Place about five millimeter long three or four pieces of the plant organ horizontally on the agarose.Around 30 to 60 seconds later, a thin semi-solid film will appear on top of the first agarose layer. Then, carefully pour a second layer on top. After the agarose is completely solidified, cut out the block containing the specimen.Shape the block into a hexagonal truncated pyramid to ensure its stability during further sectioning. Before starting the sample sectioning with the vibratome, glue the block to the vibratome stage with cyanoacrylate adhesive. Place the stage in the vibratome, so that one of the pyramid corners faces the blade of the vibratome and pour water into the vibratome bath.Set the sectioning parameters like section thickness, blade speed, and vibration frequency and cut the sample. Using a fine brush, move the section from the water bath onto a glass slide and place a drop of water on the section to prevent it from drying out. After checking the quality of the section under a light microscope, select the proper section having cell wall perpendicular to the section plane.Then immobilize the section for atomic force microscopy measurements by pouring a layer of one milliliter of 1%molten agarose on the bottom of the Petri dish cap using a pipette. After the agarose has solidified, remove excess water from the section by bringing filter paper to its edge. Carefully transfer the section from the slide to the center of the Petri dish cap using a brush.Then carefully add 1%agarose around the section using a 20 microliter pipette and pour the water or other solution for the atomic force microscopy into the Petri dish cap with the immobilized section. Guide the sample under the atomic force microscopy cantilever using the optical microscope. Click on the Approach button and then the Landing button to approach the sample in contact mode with a set point of one nanoampere.Click on the Scanning button and then the Area button. Select the area size of 50 micrometers by 50 micrometers to scan. Click on the Move Probe button and check the entire scan area by moving the scanner over it and finding the highest point based on the degree of scanner protrusion.Open the Approach tab. Then click on the Remove button to retract from the sample. Using the highest point as a target, click the Landing button to approach the sample again.Then check the surface again by clicking on the Move Probe button and moving the scanner over it. Set the scan rate to 0.5 hertz, and set the scan size to 50 micrometers by 50 micrometers and the scan point to 64 by 64. Click on the Run button and scan to check the surface of the sample and it's possible contamination with agarose.After clicking the On button, choose the HDPlus mode in the dropdown menu in the program's main window and set the set point to 0.1 nanoamperes in the main program window. In the main tab of the HD window, set the scanning parameters appropriate to the studied sample. Then open the Noises tab in the HD window and enter the cantilever's resonance frequency.Open the Quant tab of the HD window and enter the IOS, cantilever stiffness, tip radius, and angle. Select the model of contact, which will be used for calculations depending on tip geometry. After this, open the Scan tab of the HD window and select the signals, as well as the direction in which the signal is recorded.Tick the Force Volume box to get a record of all force curves and click on the Off button at the top of the main program window to switch on the feedback loop Click on the Phase Core button in the main HD window to correct the sensitivity of the optical system. The Versus Time tab of the main HD window presents the function of the DFL signal versus time in real time. Select the parts of this function that will be used for baseline level determination and to fit the contact model for further calculations.Now, set the scan point value to 256 by 256 in the main window of the program. Then, set the scan rate to 0.2 hertz and click on the Run button to scan the sample. After scanning stops, click on the On button at the top of the main window to switch off the feedback loop.Choose Contact Mode in the dropdown menu, open the Approach tab, and click on the Remove button to retract from the sample. Click on the Data button to open the analysis software and save the output. Open the saved file in the analysis software.Select the HD force volume frame. Hold down the Control key and select one visual frame obtained in the same scanning direction. Click on the Load External Map button to see where the cell walls are located.Check InvOptSens and cantilever stiffness values in the main tab. Open the Additional tab and check the tip parameters and contact model. Click on various points on the cell walls on the visual frame and select only those curves well-described by the model.The white areas in the modulus map correspond to an erroneous overestimation of Young's modulus due to the scanner reaching its limit in the Z direction. This image is not convenient to be used as an external map for a further selection of satisfactory force curves. However, the DFL signal map presented on the right is better suited here.Different instruments may refer to DFL signals as deflection or error signals. The scanner that has been fully extended while trying to reach the bottom of the sample can result in erroneous measurements and even interrupted scans. The agarose presence can be checked while obtaining the first scan in the contact mode as the cell walls and some cell bottoms are visible on such scans.However, in case of inaccurate immobilization, the surface may be covered with agarose, which masks the sample topography. Out of four different force curves recorded at different points of the same cell wall, the curve recorded at 0.1 shows no baseline, meaning no separation of the cantilever tip from the cell wall. The curve recorded at 0.3 shows a shoulder on the approaching part indicating bending of the cell wall.Points two and four show satisfactory force curves with similar moduli values. Sample preparation and examination require practice, but it can be mastered. A crucial part of this protocol is to filter resulting curves.Do not rely on moduli, which were calculated automatically. The same technique can be used to measure the adhesion forces or energy dissipation. It also can be important for description of viscose or viscoelastic behavior of some materials.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Measuring Plant Cell Wall Extension (Creep) Induced by Acidic pH and by Alpha-Expansin

Growing plant cell walls characteristically exhibit a property known as 'acid growth', by which we mean they are more extensible at low pH (&lt; 5) 1. The plant hormone auxin rapidly stimulates cell elongation in young stems and similar tissues at least in part by an acid-growth mechanism 2, 3. Auxin activates a H+ pump in the plasma membrane, causing acidification of the cell wall solution. Wall acidification activates expansins, which are endogenous cell wall-loosening proteins 4, causing the cell wall to yield to the wall tensions created by cell turgor pressure. As a result, the cell begins to enlarge rapidly. This 'acid growth' phenomenon is readily measured in isolated (nonliving) cell wall specimens. The ability of cell walls to undergo acid-induced extension is not simply the result of the structural arrangement of the cell wall polysaccharides (e.g. pectins), but depends on the activity of expansins 5. Expansins do not have any known enzymatic activity and the only way to assay for expansin activity is to measure their induction of cell wall extension. This video report details the sources and preparation techniques for obtaining suitable wall materials for expansin assays and goes on to show acid-induced extension and expansin-induced extension of wall samples prepared from growing cucumber hypocotyls.
 To obtain suitable cell wall samples, cucumber seedlings are grown in the dark, the hypocotyls are cut and frozen at -80 &deg;C. Frozen hypocotyls are abraded, flattened, and then clamped at constant tension in a special cuvette for extensometer measurements. To measure acid-induced extension, the walls are initially buffered at neutral pH, resulting in low activity of expansins that are components of the native cell walls. Upon buffer exchange to acidic pH, expansins are activated and the cell walls extend rapidly. We also demonstrate expansin activity in a reconstitution assay. For this part, we use a brief heat treatment to denature the native expansins in the cell wall samples. These inactivated cell walls do not extend even in acidic buffer, but addition of expansins to the cell walls rapidly restores their ability to extend.

Measuring Plant Cell Wall Extension Creep Induced by Acidic pH and by Alpha-Expansin

We demonstrate the use of a constant-force extensometer to measure long-term extension (creep) of plant cell wall specimens induced by acidic buffers and expansin protein.

Growing plant cell walls characteristically exhibit a property known as 'acid growth', by which we mean they are more extensible at low pH (&lt; 5) 1. The ...

Live Cell Response to Mechanical Stimulation Studied by Integrated Optical and Atomic Force Microscopy

To understand the mechanism by which living cells sense mechanical forces, and how they respond and adapt to their environment, a new technology able to investigate cells behavior at sub-cellular level with high spatial and temporal resolution was developed. Thus, an atomic force microscope (AFM) was integrated with total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy and fast-spinning disk (FSD) confocal microscopy. The integrated system is broadly applicable across a wide range of molecular dynamic studies in any adherent live cells, allowing direct optical imaging of cell responses to mechanical stimulation in real-time. Significant rearrangement of the actin filaments and focal adhesions was shown due to local mechanical stimulation at the apical cell surface that induced changes into the cellular structure throughout the cell body. These innovative techniques will provide new information for understanding live cell restructuring and dynamics in response to mechanical force. A detailed protocol and a representative data set that show live cell response to mechanical stimulation are presented.

This paper aims to instruct the reader in the operation of an integrated atomic force-optical imaging microscope for mechanical stimulation of live cells in culture. A step-by-step protocol is presented. A representative data set that shows live cell response to mechanical stimulation is presented.

To understand the mechanism by which living cells sense mechanical forces, and how they respond and adapt to their environment, a new technology able to ...

Imaging Cell Shape Change in Living Drosophila Embryos

The developing Drosophila melanogaster embryo undergoes a number of cell shape changes that are highly amenable to live confocal imaging. Cell shape changes in the fly are analogous to those in higher organisms, and they drive tissue morphogenesis. So, in many cases, their study has direct implications for understanding human disease (Table 1)1-5. On the sub-cellular scale, these cell shape changes are the product of activities ranging from gene expression to signal transduction, cell polarity, cytoskeletal remodeling and membrane trafficking. Thus, the Drosophila embryo provides not only the context to evaluate cell shape changes as they relate to tissue morphogenesis, but also offers a completely physiological environment to study the sub-cellular activities that shape cells.
The protocol described here is designed to image a specific cell shape change called cellularization. Cellularization is a process of dramatic plasma membrane growth, and it ultimately converts the syncytial embryo into the cellular blastoderm. That is, at interphase of mitotic cycle 14, the plasma membrane simultaneously invaginates around each of ~6000 cortically anchored nuclei to generate a sheet of primary epithelial cells. Counter to previous suggestions, cellularization is not driven by Myosin-2 contractility6, but is instead fueled largely by exocytosis of membrane from internal stores7. Thus, cellularization is an excellent system for studying membrane trafficking during cell shape changes that require plasma membrane invagination or expansion, such as cytokinesis or transverse-tubule (T-tubule) morphogenesis in muscle.
Note that this protocol is easily applied to the imaging of other cell shape changes in the fly embryo, and only requires slight adaptations such as changing the stage of embryo collection, or using "embryo glue" to mount the embryo in a specific orientation (Table 1)8-19. In all cases, the workflow is basically the same (Figure 1). Standard methods for cloning and Drosophila transgenesis are used to prepare stable fly stocks that express a protein of interest, fused to Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) or its variants, and these flies provide a renewable source of embryos. Alternatively, fluorescent proteins/probes are directly introduced into fly embryos via straightforward micro-injection techniques9-10. Then, depending on the developmental event and cell shape change to be imaged, embryos are collected and staged by morphology on a dissecting microscope, and finally positioned and mounted for time-lapse imaging on a confocal microscope.

Imaging Cell Shape Change in Living Drosophila Embryos

Early development of the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, is characterized by a number of cell shape changes that are well suited for imaging approaches. This article will describe basic tools and methods required for live confocal imaging of Drosophila embryos, and will focus on a cell shape change called cellularization.

The developing Drosophila melanogaster embryo undergoes a number of cell shape changes that are highly amenable to live confocal imaging.  Cell shape ...

Micro-Mechanical Characterization of Lung Tissue Using Atomic Force Microscopy

Matrix stiffness strongly influences growth, differentiation and function of adherent cells1-3. On the macro scale the stiffness of tissues and organs within the human body span several orders of magnitude4. Much less is known about how stiffness varies spatially within tissues, and what the scope and spatial scale of stiffness changes are in disease processes that result in tissue remodeling. To better understand how changes in matrix stiffness contribute to cellular physiology in health and disease, measurements of tissue stiffness obtained at a spatial scale relevant to resident cells are needed. This is particularly true for the lung, a highly compliant and elastic tissue in which matrix remodeling is a prominent feature in diseases such as asthma, emphysema, hypertension and fibrosis. To characterize the local mechanical environment of lung parenchyma at a spatial scale relevant to resident cells, we have developed methods to directly measure the local elastic properties of fresh murine lung tissue using atomic force microscopy (AFM) microindentation. With appropriate choice of AFM indentor, cantilever, and indentation depth, these methods allow measurements of local tissue shear modulus in parallel with phase contrast and fluorescence imaging of the region of interest. Systematic sampling of tissue strips provides maps of tissue mechanical properties that reveal local spatial variations in shear modulus. Correlations between mechanical properties and underlying anatomical and pathological features illustrate how stiffness varies with matrix deposition in fibrosis. These methods can be extended to other soft tissues and disease processes to reveal how local tissue mechanical properties vary across space and disease progression.

The stiffness of the extracellular matrix strongly influences multiple behaviors of adherent cells. Matrix stiffness varies spatially throughout a tissue, and undergoes modification in various disease conditions. Here we develop methods to characterize spatial variations in stiffness in normal and fibrotic mouse lung tissue using atomic force microscopy microindentation.

Matrix stiffness strongly influences growth, differentiation and function of adherent cells1-3.  On the macro scale the stiffness of tissues and organs ...

Identifying Targets of Human microRNAs with the LightSwitch Luciferase Assay System using 3'UTR-reporter Constructs and a microRNA Mimic in Adherent Cells

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important regulators of gene expression and play a role in many biological processes. More than 700 human miRNAs have been identified so far with each having up to hundreds of unique target mRNAs. Computational tools, expression and proteomics assays, and chromatin-immunoprecipitation-based techniques provide important clues for identifying mRNAs that are direct targets of a particular miRNA. In addition, 3'UTR-reporter assays have become an important component of thorough miRNA target studies because they provide functional evidence for and quantitate the effects of specific miRNA-3'UTR interactions in a cell-based system. To enable more researchers to leverage 3'UTR-reporter assays and to support the scale-up of such assays to high-throughput levels, we have created a genome-wide collection of human 3'UTR luciferase reporters in the highly-optimized LightSwitch Luciferase Assay System. The system also includes synthetic miRNA target reporter constructs for use as positive controls, various endogenous 3'UTR reporter constructs, and a series of standardized experimental protocols.
Here we describe a method for co-transfection of individual 3'UTR-reporter constructs along with a miRNA mimic that is efficient, reproducible, and amenable to high-throughput analysis.

Identifying Targets of Human microRNAs with the LightSwitch Luciferase Assay System using 3&#039;UTR-reporter Constructs and a microRNA Mimic in Adherent Cells

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important regulators of gene expression and have been shown to play a role in numerous biological processes. To better understand miRNA-UTR interactions, we have created a genome-wide collection of 3 UTR luciferase reporters paired with a novel luciferase gene and assay reagent, the LightSwitch system.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important regulators of gene expression and play a role in many biological processes.  More than 700 human miRNAs have been ...

Glycan Profiling of Plant Cell Wall Polymers using Microarrays

Plant cell walls are complex matrixes of heterogeneous glycans which play an important role in the physiology and development of plants and provide the raw materials for human societies (e.g. wood, paper, textile and biofuel industries)1,2. However, understanding the biosynthesis and function of these components remains challenging.
Cell wall glycans are chemically and conformationally diverse due to the complexity of their building blocks, the glycosyl residues. These form linkages at multiple positions and differ in ring structure, isomeric or anomeric configuration, and in addition, are substituted with an array of non-sugar residues. Glycan composition varies in different cell and/or tissue types or even sub-domains of a single cell wall3. Furthermore, their composition is also modified during development1, or in response to environmental cues4.
In excess of 2,000 genes have Plant cell walls are complex matrixes of heterogeneous glycans been predicted to be involved in cell wall glycan biosynthesis and modification in Arabidopsis5. However, relatively few of the biosynthetic genes have been functionally characterized 4,5. Reverse genetics approaches are difficult because the genes are often differentially expressed, often at low levels, between cell types6. Also, mutant studies are often hindered by gene redundancy or compensatory mechanisms to ensure appropriate cell wall function is maintained7. Thus novel approaches are needed to rapidly characterise the diverse range of glycan structures and to facilitate functional genomics approaches to understanding cell wall biosynthesis and modification.
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs)8,9 have emerged as an important tool for determining glycan structure and distribution in plants. These recognise distinct epitopes present within major classes of plant cell wall glycans, including pectins, xyloglucans, xylans, mannans, glucans and arabinogalactans. Recently their use has been extended to large-scale screening experiments to determine the relative abundance of glycans in a broad range of plant and tissue types simultaneously9,10,11.
Here we present a microarray-based glycan screening method called Comprehensive Microarray Polymer Profiling (CoMPP) (Figures 1 &amp; 2)10,11 that enables multiple samples (100 sec) to be screened using a miniaturised microarray platform with reduced reagent and sample volumes. The spot signals on the microarray can be formally quantified to give semi-quantitative data about glycan epitope occurrence. This approach is well suited to tracking glycan changes in complex biological systems12 and providing a global overview of cell wall composition particularly when prior knowledge of this is unavailable.

A technique called Comprehensive Microarray Polymer Profiling (CoMPP) for the characterisation of plant cell wall glycans is described. This method combines the specificity of monoclonal antibodies directed to defined glycan-epitopes with a miniature microarray analytical platform allowing screening of glycan occurrence in a broad range of biological contexts.

Plant cell walls are complex matrixes of heterogeneous glycans which play an important role in the physiology and development of plants and provide the ...

Sample Preparation for Single Virion Atomic Force Microscopy and Super-resolution Fluorescence Imaging

Immobilization of virions to glass surfaces is a critical step in single virion imaging. Here we present a technique&#160;adopted from single molecule imaging assays which allows adhesion of single virions to glass surfaces with specificity. This preparation is based on grafting the surface of the glass with a mixture of PLL-g-PEG and PLL-g-PEG-Biotin, adding a layer of avidin, and finally creating virion anchors through attachment of biotinylated virus specific antibodies. We have applied this technique across a range of experiments including atomic force microscopy (AFM) and super-resolution fluorescence imaging. This sample preparation method results in a control adhesion of the virions to the surface.

The attachment of virions to a surface is a requirement for single virion imaging by Super-resolution fluorescence imaging or atomic force microscopy (AFM). Here we demonstrate a sample preparation method for controlled adhesion of virions to glass surfaces suitable for use in AFM and super-resolution fluorescence imaging.

Immobilization of virions to glass surfaces is a critical step in single virion imaging. Here we present a technique&#160;adopted from single molecule ...

Simultaneous pH Measurement in Endocytic and Cytosolic Compartments in Living Cells using Confocal Microscopy

Intracellular pH is tightly regulated and differences in pH between the cytoplasm and organelles have been reported1. Regulation of cellular pH is crucial for homeostatic control of physiological processes that include: protein, DNA and RNA synthesis, vesicular trafficking, cell growth and cell division. Alterations in cellular pH homeostasis can lead to detrimental functional changes and promote progression of various diseases2. Various methods are available for measuring intracellular pH but very few of these allow simultaneous measurement of pH in the cytoplasm and in organelles. Here, we describe in detail a rapid and accurate method for the simultaneous measurement of cytoplasmic and organellar pH by using confocal microscopy on living cells3. This goal is achieved with the use of two pH-sensing ratiometric dyes that possess selective cellular compartment partitioning. For instance, SNARF-1 is compartmentalized inside the cytoplasm whereas HPTS is compartmentalized inside endosomal/lysosomal organelles. Although HPTS is commonly used as a cytoplasmic pH indicator, this dye can specifically label vesicles along the endosomal-lysosomal pathway after being taken up by pinocytosis3,4. Using these pH-sensing probes, it is possible to simultaneously measure pH within the endocytic and cytoplasmic compartments. The optimal excitation wavelength of HPTS varies depending on the pH while for SNARF-1, it is the optimal emission wavelength that varies. Following loading with SNARF-1 and HPTS, cells are cultured in different pH-calibrated solutions to construct a pH standard curve for each probe. Cell imaging by confocal microscopy allows elimination of artifacts and background noise. Because of the spectral properties of HPTS, this probe is better suited for measurement of the mildly acidic endosomal compartment or to demonstrate alkalinization of the endosomal/lysosomal organelles. This method simplifies data analysis, improves accuracy of pH measurements and can be used to address fundamental questions related to pH modulation during cell responses to external challenges.

Several methods are available for measuring intracellular pH but very few of these allow simultaneous measurement of cytoplasmic and organellar pH. Here, we describe in detail a rapid and accurate methodology to simultaneously measure cytoplasmic and vesicular pH by ratiometric imaging of living cells.

Intracellular pH is tightly regulated and differences in pH between the cytoplasm and organelles have been reported1. Regulation of cellular pH is crucial ...

High Resolution Quantification of Crystalline Cellulose Accumulation in Arabidopsis Roots to Monitor Tissue-specific Cell Wall Modifications

Plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall, the composition of which determines their final size and shape. The cell wall is composed of a complex matrix containing polysaccharides that include cellulose microfibrils that form both crystalline structures and cellulose chains of amorphous organization. The orientation of the cellulose fibers and their concentrations dictate the mechanical properties of the cell. Several methods are used to determine the levels of crystalline cellulose, each bringing both advantages and limitations. Some can distinguish the proportion of crystalline regions within the total cellulose. However, they are limited to whole-organ analyses that are deficient in spatiotemporal information. Others relying on live imaging, are limited by the use of imprecise dyes. Here, we report a sensitive polarized light-based system for specific quantification of relative light retardance, representing crystalline cellulose accumulation in cross sections of Arabidopsis thaliana roots. In this method, the cellular resolution and anatomical data are maintained, enabling direct comparisons between the different tissues composing the growing root. This approach opens a new analytical dimension, shedding light on the link between cell wall composition, cellular behavior and whole-organ growth.

High Resolution Quantification of Crystalline Cellulose Accumulation in Arabidopsis Roots to Monitor Tissue-specific Cell Wall Modifications

Crystalline cellulose is an important constituent of the plant cell wall. However, its quantification at a cellular resolution is technically challenging. Here, we report the use of polarized light technology and root cross sections to obtain information of cell wall composition at a spatiotemporal resolution.

Plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall, the composition of which determines their final size and shape. The cell wall is composed of a complex matrix ...

Measuring the Stiffness of Ex Vivo Mouse Aortas Using Atomic Force Microscopy

Arterial stiffening is a significant risk factor and biomarker for cardiovascular disease and a hallmark of aging. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a versatile analytical tool for characterizing viscoelastic mechanical properties for a variety of materials ranging from hard (plastic, glass, metal, etc.) surfaces to cells on any substrate. It has been widely used to measure the stiffness of cells, but less frequently used to measure the stiffness of aortas. In this paper, we will describe the procedures for using AFM in contact mode to measure the ex vivo elastic modulus of unloaded mouse arteries. We describe our procedure for isolation of mouse aortas, and then provide detailed information for the AFM analysis. This includes step-by-step instructions for alignment of the laser beam, calibration of the spring constant and deflection sensitivity of the AFM probe, and acquisition of force curves. We also provide a detailed protocol for data analysis of the force curves.

Measuring the Stiffness of Ex Vivo Mouse Aortas Using Atomic Force Microscopy

We present detailed protocols for isolation of aortas from mouse and measurement of their elastic modulus using atomic force microscopy.

Arterial stiffening is a significant risk factor and biomarker for cardiovascular disease and a hallmark of aging. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a ...