Authors are thankful to K. P. Madhu, Nita Beliappa and staff of the Media Centre of Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune for their help in the video production. The work was supported by funding under the Centre of Excellence program of Department of Biotechnology, Government of India to SG and postdoctoral fellowship by Department of Science and Technology, Government of India to RK.

1. Hydra culture et la mesure de la réponse d&#39;alimentation <ol><li> Maintenir polypes hydra en culture en les alimentant tous les jours avec des artémias et les conserver dans un moyen (1 mM de tampon Tris-HCl, pH 7,6, 1 mM de NaCl, 1 mM de CaCl2, 0,1 mM de KCl, 0,1 mM et MgSO 4) contenu dans un bol verre à 18 ° C sous la lumière 12 h 12 cycles sombres de h comme décrit plus haut 12. </li><li> Pour mesurer la réponse d&#39;alimentation, de transfert d&#39;âge mûr polype hydre ayant 5 à 6 tentacules à un seul puits d&#39;une plaque de 24 puits. Retirez le moyen résiduel du bien en l&#39;inclinant, puis ajouter immédiatement 500 pi de milieu frais. </li><li> Préparer la solution de glutathion 9 uM dans le milieu hydre. Etant donné que la solution de glutathion est sujette à l&#39;oxydation, en utilisant toujours une solution fraîchement préparée de glutathion pour chaque expérience. </li><li> Transférer la plaque de la plate-forme de formation d&#39;image d&#39;un microscope comportant des dispositifs pour l&#39;enregistrement de l&#39;image. Utilisez un fond sombre telle que le comportement opolype hydre f peut être clairement illustré dans le contexte contrasté. </li><li> La salle utilisée pour l&#39;observation et l&#39;imagerie du comportement de Hydra gratuit de feux dont l&#39;intensité, la fluctuation des courants d&#39;air et le bruit. De telles perturbations peuvent également causer le polype hydre à afficher contraction des tentacules - même en l&#39;absence de glutathion. </li><li> Laisser le polype pour se détendre pendant 5 min. </li><li> Assurez-vous que le polype est situé le long de la région centrale du bien telle que le comportement peut être imagée clairement. Si le polype est au bord du puits, apporter au centre par le moyen de rinçage à l&#39;aide d&#39;une pipette de nouveau et lui permettre de se relaxer. </li><li> Capturer une image de l&#39;hydre à l&#39;état détendu. Ce sera l&#39;observation du point zéro-temps. </li><li> Ajouter rapidement 9 uM solution de glutathion pour atteindre une concentration finale de 3 uM dans le puits. Selon le but de l&#39;expérience et de la réponse montre hydre, tester une gamme de différentes concentrations de glutathion et chooSE concentration appropriée requise. </li><li> Lancer le chronomètre immédiatement après addition d&#39;une solution de glutathion et de capturer des images après chaque 15-30 sec pour 4-5 min. Ne pas modifier les paramètres d&#39;agrandissement au cours de l&#39;imagerie time-lapse. </li><li> Ajouter la solution de glutathion doucement et avec un débit uniforme de telle sorte que la position de l&#39;animal dans le puits serait très peu perturbé dans le champ de vision du microscope. Toutefois, si le polype se déplace largement après addition d&#39;une solution de glutathion, déplacer la plaque très doucement pour amener le polype dans le champ de vision pour la capture d&#39;image. </li><li> Dans l&#39;expérience de contrôle, utilisez défaut moyen glutathion tout en gardant tous les autres paramètres identiques. </li><li> Assurez-vous d&#39;effectuer toutes les étapes expérimentales ci-dessus au cours de la première moitié de la journée - avant 13 heures pour éviter l&#39;effet possible du rythme circadien sur la mesure de la réponse de l&#39;alimentation. </li><li> Ouvrez chacune des images capturées à l&#39;aide de l&#39;Image Manipulation Program GIMP (GNU). </li&gt; <li> Utilisez la fonction &quot;Mesure&quot; disponible à partir de Menu&gt; Outils&gt; Mesurer pour déterminer la distance entre l&#39;extrémité apicale de chacun des tentacules et hypostome. Si l&#39;ouverture de la bouche est observée dans aucune des images, déterminer la distance entre le centre de la bouche ouverte et l&#39;extrémité apicale du tentacule. Reportez-vous à cette distance que la propagation de tentacule. </li><li> Calculer la propagation de tentacule moyenne pour chaque polype avant et après exposition de glutathion. Calculer le rapport de la propagation de tentacule moyenne au point zéro de temps pour que à chacun des points de temps ultérieurs. Ce rapport sera appelé rapport tentacule propagation. </li><li> Répétez mesures pour au moins 20 polypes. </li></ol><img alt="Equation 1" fo:content-width="3.5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52178/52178eq1.jpg" width="400" /> <img alt="Equation 2" fo:content-width="4in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52178/52178eq2.jpg" width="450" /> 2. Validation de la méthode utilisant leLa famine modèle <ol><li> Pour la famine, transférer quelques polypes hydra dans un bol en verre séparée et ne les nourrissez pas pendant 5 jours. Nourrir le groupe de quelques polypes de contrôle quotidien avec artémias dans un bol de taille similaire. Changer le support à la fois expérimentale bols par jour pour éviter le développement de champignons dans le milieu. </li><li> Le jour de l&#39;expérience, nourrir le groupe de l&#39;hydre de commande avec artémias pendant 1 heure et utiliser ces hydre pour les expériences ultérieures après avoir retiré artémias non consommés et mort du milieu. </li><li> Mesurer la réponse d&#39;alimentation de l&#39;hydre de faim par rapport à l&#39;hydre de groupe de contrôle par la méthode décrite précédemment à l&#39;étape 1. Pour éviter tout biais dû au temps de l&#39;observation, alterner les mesures de chacun des affamés et contrôler polypes Hydra. </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Loomis, W. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glutathione+control+of+the+specific+feeding+reactions+of+hydra.">Glutathione control of the specific feeding reactions of hydra.</a> Ann. Ny. Acad. Sci. 62, 209-228 (1955).</li><li>Beckmann, A., Ozbek, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Nematocyst:+a+molecular+map+of+the+Cnidarian+stinging+organelle.">The Nematocyst: a molecular map of the Cnidarian stinging organelle.</a> Int. J. Dev. Biol. 56, 577-582 (2012).</li><li>Venturini, G., Carolei, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dopaminergic+receptors+in+Hydra.+Pharmacological+and+biochemical+observations.">Dopaminergic receptors in Hydra. Pharmacological and biochemical observations.</a> Comp. Biochem. Phys. C. 102, 39-43 (1992).</li><li>Kass-Simon, G., Scappaticci, A. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glutamatergic+and+GABAnergic+control+in+the+tentacle+effector+systems+of+Hydra+vulgaris.">Glutamatergic and GABAnergic control in the tentacle effector systems of Hydra vulgaris.</a> Hydrobiologia. 530-531, 67-71 (2004).</li><li>Pierobon, P., Tino, A., Minei, R., Marino, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Different+roles+of+GABA+and+glycine+in+the+modulation+of+chemosensory+responses+in+Hydra+vulgaris+(Cnidaria,+Hydrozoa).">Different roles of GABA and glycine in the modulation of chemosensory responses in Hydra vulgaris (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa).</a> Hydrobiology. 178, 59-66 (2004).</li><li>Pierobon, P., Sogliano, C., Minei, R., Tino, A., Porcu, P., Marino, G., Tortiglione, C., Concas, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Putative+NMDA+receptors+in+Hydra:+a+biochemical+and+functional+study.">Putative NMDA receptors in Hydra: a biochemical and functional study.</a> Eur. J. Neurosci. 20, 2598-2604 (2004).</li><li>Alzugaray, M. E., Adami, M. L., Diambra, L. A., Hernandez-Martinez, S., Damborenea, C., Noriega, F. G., Ronderos, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Allatotropin:+An+ancestral+myotropic+neuropeptide+involved+in+feeding.">Allatotropin: An ancestral myotropic neuropeptide involved in feeding.</a> PLoS ONE. 8, (2013).</li><li>Bellis, S. L., Laux, D. C., Rhoads, D. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Affinity+purification+of+Hydra+glutathione+binding+proteins.">Affinity purification of Hydra glutathione binding proteins.</a> FEBS Lett. 354, 320-324 (1994).</li><li>Lenhoff, H. M., Shaw, C. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+discovery+of+the+GSH+receptor+in+Hydra+and+its+evolutionary+significance.">The discovery of the GSH receptor in Hydra and its evolutionary significance.</a> Glutathione in the Nervous System. , 25-43 (1998).</li><li>Venturini, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+hydra+GSH+receptor.+Pharmacological+and+radioligand+binding+studies.">The hydra GSH receptor. Pharmacological and radioligand binding studies.</a> Comp. Biochem. Phys. C. 87, 321-324 (1987).</li><li>Reddy, P. C., Barve, A., Ghaskadbi, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Description+and+phylogenetic+characterization+of+common+hydra+from+India.">Description and phylogenetic characterization of common hydra from India.</a> Curr. Sci. 101, 736-738 (2011).</li><li>Horibata, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Unique+catabolic+pathway+of+glycosphingolipids+in+a+hydrozoan,+Hydra+magnipapillata.+Involving+endoglycoceramidase.">Unique catabolic pathway of glycosphingolipids in a hydrozoan, Hydra magnipapillata. Involving endoglycoceramidase.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 279, 33379-33389 (2004).</li><li>Koizumi, O., Maeda, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rise+of+feeding+threshold+in+satiated+Hydra.">Rise of feeding threshold in satiated Hydra.</a> J. Comp. Physiol. 142, 75-80 (1981).</li><li>Bellis, S. L., Kass-Simon, G., Rhoads, D. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Partial+characterization+and+detergent+solubilization+of+the+putative+glutathione+chemoreceptor+from+hydra.">Partial characterization and detergent solubilization of the putative glutathione chemoreceptor from hydra.</a> Biochemistry. 31, 9838-9843 (1992).</li><li>Morita, H., Hanai, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Taste+receptor+proteins+in+invertebrates+-+with+special+reference+to+glutathione+receptor+of+hydra.">Taste receptor proteins in invertebrates - with special reference to glutathione receptor of hydra.</a> Chem. Senses. 12, 245-250 (1987).</li><li>Colasanti, M., Venturini, G., Merante, A., Musci, G., Lauro, G. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nitric+oxide+involvement+in+Hydra+vulgaris+very+primitive+olfactory-+like+system.">Nitric oxide involvement in Hydra vulgaris very primitive olfactory- like system.</a> Journal of Neurosci. 17, 493-499 (1997).</li><li>Kuhn, A., Tsiairis, C. D., Williamson, M., Kalbacher, H., Grimmelikhuijzen, C. J., Holstein, T. W., Gr&#252;nder, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three+homologous+subunits+form+a+high+affinity+peptide-gated+ion+channel+in+Hydra.">Three homologous subunits form a high affinity peptide-gated ion channel in Hydra.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 285, 11958-11965 (2010).</li><li>Wang, M., Yao, Y., Kuang, D., Hampson, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+family+C+G-protein-coupled+receptors+by+the+tripeptide+glutathione.">Activation of family C G-protein-coupled receptors by the tripeptide glutathione.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 281, 8864-8870 (2006).</li><li>Ruggieri, R. D., Pierobon, P., Kass-Simon, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pacemaker+activity+in+hydra+is+modulated+by+glycine+receptor+ligands.">Pacemaker activity in hydra is modulated by glycine receptor ligands.</a> Comp. Biochem. Phys. C. 138, 193-202 (2004).</li><li>Ramazani, R. B., Krishnan, H. R., Bergeson, S. E., Atkinson, N. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Computer+automated+movement+detection+for+the+analysis+of+behavior.">Computer automated movement detection for the analysis of behavior.</a> J. Neurosci. Meth. 162, 171-179 (2007).</li></ol>

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Comportement alimentaire dans hydre représente l&#39;un des systèmes les plus chimiosensoriels ancestrales dans les métazoaires. Bien que la présence de GSH dans le liquide crustacé libéré après la capture des proies assisté nématocyste-été détecté depuis longtemps 1, ni la protéine GSHR ni le gène codant putatif / s ont été caractérisés à ce jour de Hydra. Quelques tentatives ont été effectuées pour caractériser GSH protéines de liaison à hydre 8, 14, 15. Cependant, l&#3...

Hydra is the most primitive organism possessing a nervous system and chemosensation for detecting reduced glutathione (GSH) for capturing the prey1. It feeds on a variety of animals such as nematode, crustacea, insect larvae, tadpoles and newly hatched fish1. The movement of these prey organisms causes mechanosensory discharge of the stinging capsules called nematocysts from hydra, which are inserted into the prey2. GSH present in the fluid released from the injured prey subsequently activates the feeding response in hydra which includes curling of the tentacles to bring the prey towards the mouth, opening of the mouth, and consequent engulfing of the prey. Multiple molecules, such as dopamine3, glutamate4, GABA, glycine5, NMDA receptors6, and allatotropin7, have been shown to be involved in the feeding response in hydra. It has also been shown that the chemosensory response induced by GSH is modulated by the feeding status of the animal such that starved hydra exhibited enhanced feeding response1. Such an increase in the GSH sensitivity is biologically relevant since under starvation hydra need to find its prey at higher sensitivity. 
Although the feeding response induced by GSH can be clearly observed under microscope, the methods typically used for measuring the feeding response observations are non-quantitative. In most of the cases, the time during which the mouth of the hydra remains open was taken as a measure of the feeding response8,9; whereas in another case, quantitation was based on the number of hydra out of a population showing the feeding response10. However, observing the mouth opening time of the hydra polyps is cumbersome and subject to variation induced by uncontrollable parameters such as the direction of the mouth orientation during observations. Similarly, since the feeding response is a quantitative parameter, population-based approaches are subject to variations/errors caused by the opinion or observational bias of the individual observer. To circumvent these issues we have developed a method for the relative quantification of the feeding response in hydra (Hydra vulgaris Ind-Pune11) based on the distance of the apical end of the tentacle from the mouth of the hydra polyp.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1005">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Cooled Incubator</td>
			<td style="width:73px;">Panasonic&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">MIR-254-PE</td>
			<td style="width:588px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Microscope</td>
			<td style="width:73px;">Leica</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">S8AP0&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Camera for the microscope</td>
			<td style="width:73px;">Leica&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">EC3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Reduced glutathione</td>
			<td style="width:73px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">G4251</td>
			<td>Stored at 4&#176;C. Bring the bottle to room temperature before opening to avoid oxidation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Image editing program</td>
			<td style="width:73px;">GIMP</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Version 2.8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

measuring glutathione-induced feeding response in hydra

Hydra is among the most primitive organisms possessing a nervous system and chemosensation for detecting reduced glutathione (GSH) for capturing the prey. The movement of prey organisms causes mechanosensory discharge of the stinging cells called nematocysts from hydra, which are inserted into the prey. The feeding response in hydra, which includes curling of the tentacles to bring the prey towards the mouth, opening of the mouth and consequent engulfing of the prey, is triggered by GSH present in the fluid released from the injured prey. To be able to identify the molecular mechanism of the feeding response in hydra which is unknown to date, it is necessary to establish an assay to measure the feeding response. Here, we describe a simple method for the quantitation of the feeding response in which the distance between the apical end of the tentacle and mouth of hydra is measured and the ratio of such distance before and after the addition of GSH is determined. The ratio, called the relative tentacle spread, was found to give a measure of the feeding response. This assay was validated using a starvation model in which starved hydra show an enhanced feeding response in comparison with daily fed hydra.

Le glutathion provoque hydre exposer curling des tentacules vers la bouche dans le but d&#39;engloutir la proie. Cette curling de tentacules apporte extrémités apicales des tentacules plus près de la hypostome. Cela se traduit par la réduction de la propagation du tentacule, ou la distance linéaire entre l&#39;extrémité apicale du tentacule et hypostome (figure 1). La propagation de tentacule relative, ou le rapport de tentacule moyenne réparties avant et après l&#39;ajout de glutathion, en moy...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measuring Glutathione-induced Feeding Response in Hydra at JoVE.com

Measuring Glutathione-induced Feeding Response in Hydra

Here we describe a simple assay for the quantification of the feeding response in hydra induced by the reduced form of glutathione. This assay relies on measuring the distance between the apical end of the tentacle and mouth of hydra.

Mesure induite glutathion-réponse d&#39;alimentation à Hydra

Hydra is among the most primitive organisms possessing a nervous system and chemosensation for detecting reduced glutathione (GSH) for capturing the prey. ...

measuring-glutathione-induced-feeding-response-in-hydra

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

11.3K vues.  India Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune. Here we describe a simple assay for the quantification of the feeding response in hydra induced by the reduced form of glutathione. This assay relies on measuring the distance between the apical end of the tentacle and mouth of hydra.

Vidéo: Measuring Glutathione-induced Feeding Response in Hydra

Proboscis Extension Response (PER) Assay in Drosophila

Proboscis extension response (PER) is a taste behavior assay that has been used in flies as well as in honeybees.
On the surface of the fly's mouth (labellum), there are hair-like structures called sensilla which houses taste neurons. When an attractive substance makes contact to the labellum, the fly extends its proboscis to consume the material. Proboscis Extension Response (PER) assay measures this taste behavior response, and it is a useful method to learn about food preferences in a single fly. Solutions of various sugars, such as sucrose, glucose and fructose, are very attractive to the fly. The effect of aversive substances can also be tested as reduction of PER when mixed in a sweet solution.Despite the simplicity of the basic procedure, there are many things that can prevent it from working. One of the factors that requires attention is the fly's responsive state. The required starvation time to bring the fly to the proper responsive state varies drastically from 36 to 72 hours. We established a series of controls to evaluate the fly's state and which allows screening out of non-responsive or hyper-responsive individual animals. Another important factor is the impact level and the position of the contact to the labellum, which would be difficult to describe by words. This video presentation demonstrates all these together with several other improvements that would increase the reproducibility of this method.

Proboscis Extension Response PER Assay in Drosophila

Proboscis extension response or PER is a taste behavior assay that has been used in flies as well as in honeybees. When the proboscis makes contact with an attractive substance, the fly extends its proboscis to consume the substance. Solutions of various sugars are very attractive to the fly.

Extension Proboscis Réponse (PER) Dosage de la drosophile

Proboscis extension response (PER) is a taste behavior assay that has been used in flies as well as in honeybees.
On the surface of the fly's mouth ...

Recherche

Biologie

Quantification of &gamma;H2AX Foci in Response to Ionising Radiation

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), which are induced by either endogenous metabolic processes or by exogenous sources, are one of the most critical DNA lesions with respect to survival and preservation of genomic integrity. An early response to the induction of DSBs is phosphorylation of the H2A histone variant, H2AX, at the serine-139 residue, in the highly conserved C-terminal SQEY motif, forming &gamma;H2AX1. Following induction of DSBs, H2AX is rapidly phosphorylated by the phosphatidyl-inosito 3-kinase (PIKK) family of proteins, ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), DNA-protein kinase catalytic subunit and ATM and RAD3-related (ATR)2. Typically, only a few base-pairs (bp) are implicated in a DSB, however, there is significant signal amplification, given the importance of chromatin modifications in DNA damage signalling and repair. Phosphorylation of H2AX mediated predominantly by ATM spreads to adjacent areas of chromatin, affecting approximately 0.03% of total cellular H2AX per DSB2,3. This corresponds to phosphorylation of approximately 2000 H2AX molecules spanning ~2 Mbp regions of chromatin surrounding the site of the DSB and results in the formation of discrete &gamma;H2AX foci which can be easily visualized and quantitated by immunofluorescence microscopy2. The loss of &gamma;H2AX at DSB reflects repair, however, there is some controversy as to what defines complete repair of DSBs; it has been proposed that rejoining of both strands of DNA is adequate however, it has also been suggested that re-instatement of the original chromatin state of compaction is necessary4-8. The disappearence of &gamma;H2AX involves at least in part, dephosphorylation by phosphatases, phosphatase 2A and phosphatase 4C5,6. Further, removal of &gamma;H2AX by redistribution involving histone exchange with H2A.Z has been implicated7,8. Importantly, the quantitative analysis of &gamma;H2AX foci has led to a wide range of applications in medical and nuclear research. Here, we demonstrate the most commonly used immunofluorescence method for evaluation of initial DNA damage by detection and quantitation of &gamma;H2AX foci in &gamma;-irradiated adherent human keratinocytes9.

Quantification of &#947;H2AX Foci in Response to Ionising Radiation

Quantification of DNA double-strand streaks using &gamma;H2AX formation as a molecular marker has become an invaluable tool in radiation biology. Here we demonstrate the use of an immunofluorescence assay for quantification of &gamma;H2AX foci after exposure of cells to radiation.

Quantification des γH2AX Foci en réponse aux radiations ionisantes

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), which are induced by either endogenous metabolic processes or by exogenous sources, are one of the most critical DNA ...

Measuring Fast Calcium Fluxes in Cardiomyocytes

Cardiomyocytes have multiple Ca2+ fluxes of varying duration that work together to optimize function 1,2. Changes in Ca2+ activity in response to extracellular agents is predominantly regulated by the phospholipase C&beta;- G&alpha;q pathway localized on the plasma membrane which is stimulated by agents such as acetylcholine 3,4. We have recently found that plasma membrane protein domains called caveolae5,6 can entrap activated G&alpha;q 7. This entrapment has the effect of stabilizing the activated state of G&alpha;q and resulting in prolonged Ca2+ signals in cardiomyocytes and other cell types8. We uncovered this surprising result by measuring dynamic calcium responses on a fast scale in living cardiomyocytes. Briefly, cells are loaded with a fluorescent Ca2+ indicator. In our studies, we used Ca2+ Green (Invitrogen, Inc.) which exhibits an increase in fluorescence emission intensity upon binding of calcium ions. The fluorescence intensity is then recorded for using a line-scan mode of a laser scanning confocal microscope. This method allows rapid acquisition of the time course of fluorescence intensity in pixels along a selected line, producing several hundreds of time traces on the microsecond time scale. These very fast traces are transferred into excel and then into Sigmaplot for analysis, and are compared to traces obtained for electronic noise, free dye, and other controls. To dissect Ca2+ responses of different flux rates, we performed a histogram analysis that binned pixel intensities with time. Binning allows us to group over 500 traces of scans and visualize the compiled results spatially and temporally on a single plot. Thus, the slow Ca2+ waves that are difficult to discern when the scans are overlaid due to different peak placement and noise, can be readily seen in the binned histograms. Very fast fluxes in the time scale of the measurement show a narrow distribution of intensities in the very short time bins whereas longer Ca2+ waves show binned data with a broad distribution over longer time bins. These different time distributions allow us to dissect the timing of Ca2+fluxes in the cells, and to determine their impact on various cellular events.

We present a method to isolate rapid (microsecond) calcium events from slower fluxes in living cells using laser scanning confocal microscopy. The method measures fluorescence intensity fluctuations of calcium indicators by recording line scans of several hundred pixels in a cell. Histogram analysis allows us to isolate the time scales of different calcium fluxes.

Mesurer les flux de calcium dans les cardiomyocytes rapide

Cardiomyocytes have multiple Ca2+ fluxes of varying duration that work together to optimize function 1,2. Changes in Ca2+ activity in response to ...

Generation of Transgenic Hydra by Embryo Microinjection

As a member of the phylum Cnidaria, the sister group to all bilaterians, Hydra can shed light on fundamental biological processes shared among multicellular animals. Hydra is used as a model for the study of regeneration, pattern formation, and stem cells. However, research efforts have been hampered by lack of a reliable method for gene perturbations to study molecular function. The development of transgenic methods has revitalized the study of Hydra biology1. Transgenic Hydra allow for the tracking of live cells, sorting to yield pure cell populations for biochemical analysis, manipulation of gene function by knockdown and over-expression, and analysis of promoter function. Plasmid DNA injected into early stage embryos randomly integrates into the genome early in development. This results in hatchlings that express transgenes in patches of tissue in one or more of the three lineages (ectodermal epithelial, endodermal epithelial, or interstitial). The success rate of obtaining a hatchling with transgenic tissue is between 10% and 20%. Asexual propagation of the transgenic hatchling is used to establish a uniformly transgenic line in a particular lineage. Generating transgenic Hydra is surprisingly simple and robust, and here we describe a protocol that can be easily implemented at low cost.

Generation of Transgenic Hydra by Embryo Microinjection

Stably transgenic Hydra are made by microinjection of plasmid DNA into embryos followed by random genomic integration and asexual propagation to establish a uniform line. Transgenic Hydra are used to track cell movements, overexpress genes, study promoter function, or knock down gene expression using RNAi.

La génération d&#39;transgénique<em&gt; Hydra</em&gt; Par micro-injection d&#39;embryons

As a member of the phylum Cnidaria, the sister group to all bilaterians, Hydra can shed light on fundamental biological processes shared among ...

Measuring the Stiffness of Ex Vivo Mouse Aortas Using Atomic Force Microscopy

Arterial stiffening is a significant risk factor and biomarker for cardiovascular disease and a hallmark of aging. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a versatile analytical tool for characterizing viscoelastic mechanical properties for a variety of materials ranging from hard (plastic, glass, metal, etc.) surfaces to cells on any substrate. It has been widely used to measure the stiffness of cells, but less frequently used to measure the stiffness of aortas. In this paper, we will describe the procedures for using AFM in contact mode to measure the ex vivo elastic modulus of unloaded mouse arteries. We describe our procedure for isolation of mouse aortas, and then provide detailed information for the AFM analysis. This includes step-by-step instructions for alignment of the laser beam, calibration of the spring constant and deflection sensitivity of the AFM probe, and acquisition of force curves. We also provide a detailed protocol for data analysis of the force curves.

Measuring the Stiffness of Ex Vivo Mouse Aortas Using Atomic Force Microscopy

We present detailed protocols for isolation of aortas from mouse and measurement of their elastic modulus using atomic force microscopy.

Mesure de la rigidité de<em&gt; Ex Vivo</em&gt; Souris aortes Utiliser Atomic Force Microscopy

Arterial stiffening is a significant risk factor and biomarker for cardiovascular disease and a hallmark of aging. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a ...

High-fat Feeding Paradigm for Larval Zebrafish: Feeding, Live Imaging, and Quantification of Food Intake

Zebrafish are emerging as a model of dietary lipid processing and metabolic disease. This protocol describes how to feed larval zebrafish a lipid-rich meal, which consists of an emulsion of chicken egg yolk liposomes created by sonicating egg yolk in embryo media. Detailed instructions are provided to screen larvae for egg yolk consumption so that larvae that fail to feed will not confound experimental results. The chicken egg yolk liposomes can be spiked with fluorescent lipid analogs, including fatty acids and cholesterol, enabling both systemic and subcellular visualization of dietary lipid processing. Several methods are described to mount larvae that are conducive to short- and long-term live imaging with both upright and inverted objectives at high and low magnification. Additionally presented is an assay to quantify larval food intake by extracting the lipids of larvae fed fluorescent lipid analogs, spotting the lipids on a thin layer chromatography plate, and quantifying the fluorescence. Finally, critical aspects of the procedures, important controls, options for modifying the protocols to address specific experimental questions, and potential limitations are discussed. These techniques can be applied not only to focused, hypothesis driven inquiries, but also to a variety of screens and live imaging techniques to study dietary lipid metabolism and the control of food intake.

Zebrafish are emerging as a valuable model of dietary lipid processing and metabolic disease. Described are protocols of lipid-rich larval feeds, live imaging of dietary fluorescent lipid analogs, and quantification of food intake. These techniques can be applied to a variety of screening, imaging, and hypothesis driven inquiry techniques.

Haute teneur en graisses Alimentation Paradigm pour larvaire Zebrafish: Alimentation, imagerie en direct, et la quantification de la prise alimentaire

Zebrafish are emerging as a model of dietary lipid processing and metabolic disease. This protocol describes how to feed larval zebrafish a lipid-rich ...

Measuring RAN Peptide Toxicity in C. elegans

C. elegans is commonly used to model age-related neurodegenerative diseases caused by repeat expansion mutations, such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) and Huntington&#8217;s disease. Recently, repeat expansion-containing RNA was shown to be the substrate for a novel type of protein translation called repeat-associated non-AUG-dependent (RAN) translation. Unlike canonical translation, RAN translation does not require a start codon and only occurs when repeats exceed a threshold length. Because there is no start codon to determine the reading frame, RAN translation occurs in all reading frames from both sense and antisense RNA templates that contain a repeat expansion sequence. Therefore, RAN translation expands the number of possible disease-associated toxic peptides from one to six. Thus far, RAN translation has been documented in eight different repeat expansion-based neurodegenerative and neuromuscular diseases. In each case, deciphering which RAN products are toxic, as well as their mechanisms of toxicity, is a critical step towards understanding how these peptides contribute to disease pathophysiology. In this paper, we present strategies to measure the toxicity of RAN peptides in the model system C. elegans. First, we describe procedures for measuring RAN peptide toxicity on the growth and motility of developing C. elegans. Second, we detail an assay for measuring postdevelopmental, age-dependent effects of RAN peptides on motility. Finally, we describe a neurotoxicity assay for evaluating the effects of RAN peptides on neuron morphology. These assays provide a broad assessment of RAN peptide toxicity and may be useful for performing large-scale genetic or small molecule screens to identify disease mechanisms or therapies.

Measuring RAN Peptide Toxicity in C. elegans

Repeat-associated non-ATG-dependent translational products are emerging pathogenic features of several repeat expansion-based diseases. The goal of the protocol described is to evaluate toxicity caused by these peptides using behavioral and cellular assays in the model system C. elegans.

Mesurer RAN Peptide Toxicity à C. elegans

C. elegans is commonly used to model age-related neurodegenerative diseases caused by repeat expansion mutations, such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis ...

A Bacterial Oral Feeding Assay with Antibiotic-Treated Mosquitoes

The mosquito midgut harbors a highly dynamic microbiome that affects the host metabolism, reproduction, fitness, and vector competence. Studies have been conducted to investigate the effect of gut microbes as a whole; however, different microbes could exert distinct effects toward the host. This article provides the methodology to study the effect of each specific mosquito gut microbe and the potential mechanism.
This protocol contains two parts. The first part introduces how to dissect the mosquito midgut, isolate cultivable bacteria colonies, and identify bacteria species. The second part provides the procedure to generate antibiotic-treated mosquitoes and reintroduce one specific bacteria species.

This article presents a protocol to investigate the effect of individual mosquito gut bacteria, including isolation and identification of mosquito midgut cultivable microbes, antibiotic depletion of mosquito gut bacteria, and reintroduce one specific bacteria species.

Un test d’alimentation orale bactérienne avec des moustiques traités aux antibiotiques

The mosquito midgut harbors a highly dynamic microbiome that affects the host metabolism, reproduction, fitness, and vector competence. Studies have been ...

Plasmodium falciparum Gametocyte Culture and Mosquito Infection Through Artificial Membrane Feeding

Malaria remains one of the most important public health problems, causing significant morbidity and mortality. Malaria is a mosquito borne disease transmitted through an infectious bite from the female Anopheles mosquito. Malaria control will eventually rely on a multitude of approaches, which includes ways to block transmission to, through and from mosquitoes. To study mosquito stages of malaria parasites in the laboratory, we have optimized a protocol to culture highly infectious Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes, a parasite stage required for transmission from the human host to the mosquito vector. P. falciparum gametocytes mature through five morphologically distinct steps, which takes approximately 1-2 weeks. Gametocyte culture described in this protocol is completed in 15 days and are infectious to mosquitoes from days 15-18. These protocols were developed to maintain a continuous cycle of infection competent gametocytes and to maintain uninterrupted supply of mosquito stages of the parasite. Here, we describe the methodology of gametocyte culture and how to infect mosquitoes with these parasites using glass membrane feeders.

Plasmodium falciparum Gametocyte Culture and Mosquito Infection Through Artificial Membrane Feeding

Detailed investigations on mosquito stages of malaria parasites are critical to design effective transmission blocking strategies. This protocol demonstrates how to effectively culture infectious gametocytes and then feed these gametocytes to mosquitoes to generate mosquito stages of P. falciparum.

Plasmodium falciparum Culture de gamétocytes et infection par les moustiques par l’alimentation par membrane artificielle

Malaria remains one of the most important public health problems, causing significant morbidity and mortality. Malaria is a mosquito borne disease ...

Measuring Mitochondrial Substrate Flux in Recombinant Perfringolysin O-Permeabilized Cells

Mitochondrial substrate flux is a distinguishing characteristic of each cell type, and changes in its components such as transporters, channels, or enzymes are involved in the pathogenesis of several diseases. Mitochondrial substrate flux can be studied using intact cells, permeabilized cells, or isolated mitochondria. Investigating intact cells encounters several problems due to simultaneous oxidation of different substrates. Besides, several cell types contain internal stores of different substrates that complicate results interpretation. Methods such as mitochondrial isolation or using permeabilizing agents are not easily reproducible. Isolating pure mitochondria with intact membranes in sufficient amounts from small samples is problematic. Using non-selective permeabilizers causes various degrees of unavoidable mitochondrial membrane damage. Recombinant perfringolysin O (rPFO) was offered as a more appropriate permeabilizer, thanks to its ability to selectively permeabilize plasma membrane without affecting mitochondrial integrity. When used in combination with microplate respirometry, it allows testing the flux of several mitochondrial substrates with enough replicates within one experiment while using a minimal number of cells. In this work, the protocol describes a method to compare mitochondrial substrate flux of two different cellular phenotypes or genotypes and can be customized to test various mitochondrial substrates or inhibitors.

In this work, we describe a modified protocol to test mitochondrial respiratory substrate flux using recombinant perfringolysin O in combination with microplate-based respirometry. With this protocol, we show how metformin affects mitochondrial respiration of two different tumor cell lines.

Mesure du flux de substrat mitochondrial dans les cellules O-perméabilisées de perfringolysine recombinante

Mitochondrial substrate flux is a distinguishing characteristic of each cell type, and changes in its components such as transporters, channels, or ...