Name: bioprinting cellularized constructs using a tissue-specific hydrogel bioink
Uploaded: 2016-04-21T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Bioprinting Cellularized Constructs Using a Tissue-specific Hydrogel Bioink at JoVE.com

The authors gratefully acknowledge funding by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) under Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center Pacific (SSC PACIFIC) Contract No. N6601-13-C-2027. The publication of this material does not constitute approval by the government of the findings or conclusions herein.

1. Hydrogel Bioink Formulations and Preparation
<ol>
	<li>In order to provide tissue-specific biochemical profiles, prepare tissue-specific ECM digest solutions as previously described for liver.20 
	Note: In general, this ECM digest will comprise 40% of the final hydrogel bioink volume that is employed. Several hundred milliliters of ECM digest solution can be prepared, aliquoted, and frozen at -80 &#176;C for future use.</li>
	<li>Prior to hydrogel formulation, dissolve a photoinitiator, 2-hydroxy-4&#...

There are several components that are critical to consider when attempting to biofabricate 3-D tissue constructs, for eventual use in humans or for in vitro screening applications. Employing the appropriate cellular components determines the end potential functionality, while the biofabrication device itself determines the general methodology for reaching the end construct. The third component, the biomaterial, is equally important, as it serves dual roles. Specifically, the biomaterial component must be compati...

In recent years, a variety of technologies have become available that addresses the need for alternative sources of functional organs and tissues by seeking to manufacture, or biofabricate, them. Bioprinting has emerged as one of the most promising of these technologies. Bioprinting can be thought of as a form of robotic additive fabrication of biological parts, that can be used to build or pattern viable organ-like or tissue-like structures in 3 dimensions.1 In most cases, bioprinting employs a 3-dimensional (3-D) printing device that is directed by a computer to deposit cells and biomaterials into precise positions, thereby recapitulating anatomically-mimicking physiological architectures.2 These devices print a &#34;bioink&#34;, which can take the form of cell aggregates, cells encapsulated in hydrogels or viscous fluids, or cell-seeded microcarriers, as well as cell-free polymers that provide mechanical structure or act as cell-free placeholders.3,4 Following the bioprinting process, the resulting structure can be matured into functional tissue or organ structures, and used for its intended end application.5,6 To date, a complete fully functional human-sized organ has not been printed, but it remains the primary long-term goal of bioprinting research and development.2 However, small-scale &#34;organoid&#34; tissue constructs are currently being implemented in a number of applications, including pathology modeling, drug development, and toxicology screening.
One of the main hurdles that researchers have encountered in applying bioprinting technology is that very few materials have been developed for the explicit purpose of bioprinting. To effectively succeed in bioprinting, a biomaterial must meet 4 basic requirements. The biomaterial needs to have 1) the appropriate mechanical properties to allow deposition (be it extrusion through a nozzle as a gel or an inkjet as a droplet), 2) the ability to hold its shape as a component of a 3-D structure after deposition, 3) the capability for user control of the 2 prior characteristics, and 4) a cell friendly and supportive environment at all phases of the bioprinting procedure.7 Historically, bioprinting work has often tried to employ existing traditional biomaterials in bioprinting devices without consideration for their compatibility, instead of designing a biomaterial to have the properties necessary for bioprinting and subsequent post-printing applications.
A variety of bioinks have been developed recently to better interface with the deposition and fabrication hardware. Standard hydrogel systems pose significant problems because they generally exist as either precursor fluid solutions with insufficient mechanical properties, or polymerized hydrogels that if printed can clog nozzles or become broken up upon the extrusion process. Our team, as well as others, have explored various hydrogel formulations to address these bioprinting problems, including cell spheroid printing into hydrogel substrates,5,8 cell and hydrogel filament extrusion from microcapillary tubes,9-11 extrudable hyaluronic acid (HA)-gold nanoparticle hydrogels with dynamic crosslinking properties,12 temporal control of hydrogel stiffness using photopolymerizable methacrylated HA and gelatin,13 fibrinogen-thrombin-based crosslinking,14,15 ionic exchange alginate-collagen gels,16 and recently rapid polymerizing ultraviolet light (UV)-initiated crosslinking,17
These examples demonstrate the feasibility of generating materials that can by bioprinted effectively. However, in addition to integration with hardware, to successfully generate viable and functional 3-D tissue constructs, biomaterials must contain biochemical and mechanical cues that aid in maintaining cellular viability and function. These additional factors, biochemical and mechanical profiles, can have a significant influence on the successful function of bioprinted tissue constructs.
Both cells and the native extracellular matrix (ECM) are responsible for presenting a wide range of signaling molecules such as growth factors and other cytokines to other cells. The combination of these signals varies from tissue to tissue, but can be extremely potent and influential in regulating cell and tissue behavior.18 Employing tissue-specific ECM components from different organs and implementing as a hydrogel or as part of a hydrogel has been explored with success.19-21 This approach, which is comprised of decellularizing a given tissue, pulverizing it, and dissolving it, can be used to produce tissue-specific biochemical signals from any tissue and can be incorporated in 3-D hydrogel constructs.22
Additionally, it is widely documented that tissues in the body occupy a wide range of stiffnesses.23 As such, the ability to tune the mechanical properties of biomaterials, such as elastic modulus E&#39; or shear elastic modulus G&#39;, is a useful tool in tissue engineering. As described above, control over bioink mechanical properties allows for extrusion-based biofabrication using a soft gel, which can then further manipulated by secondary crosslinking at a later point, at which elastic modulus levels can be attained that match that of the target organ type. For example, biomaterials could be customized to match a stiffness of 5-10 kPa like a native liver,23 or match a stiffness of 10-15 kPa like native cardiac tissue,24,25 in theory increasing the ability of these organoids to function in a similar manner to their native tissue counterparts. The influence of environmental stiffness on cell phenotype has been explored in recent years, particularly with respect to stem cells. Engler et al. demonstrated that substrate elasticity aided in driving mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) towards lineages with tissue elasticity matching that of the substrate.25 This concept has been further explored for differentiation into muscle, cardiac function, liver phenotype, hematopoietic stem cell proliferation, and maintenance of stem cell therapeutic potential.24,26-29 Being able to tune a hydrogel to different elastic moduli is an important feature of a biomaterial that will be used to biofabricate tissue constructs.30
Here we describe a protocol that represents a versatile approach used in our laboratory to formulate a hydrogel system that can be extrusion bioprinted, and customized to 1) contain the biochemical profile of a particular tissue type and 2) mimic the elastic modulus of that tissue type. By addressing these requirements, we aim to provide a material that can recapitulate the physiochemical and biological characteristics of in vivo tissue.31 The modular hydrogel composite system described herein takes advantage of a multi-crosslinking approach to yield extrudable bioinks, and allows a secondary crosslinking to stabilize and increases the stiffness of the end products to match a range of tissue types. Biochemical customization is met by using tissue-specific ECM components. As a demonstration, we employ a liver-specific variety of this hydrogel system to bioprint functional liver organoid constructs. The protocol described uses a custom 3-D bioprinting device. In general, this protocol can be adapted to most extrusion-based printers, specific printing parameters vary dramatically for each type of device and require testing by the user.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="903">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:340px;">Hyaluronic acid</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">53747</td>
			<td style="width:336px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:340px;">Gelatin</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">G6144</td>
			<td style="width:336px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">2-Hydroxy-4&#8242;-(2-hydroxyethoxy)-2-methylpropiophenone</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">410896</td>
			<td style="width:336px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:340px;">Hyaluronic acid and gelatin hydrogel kit (HyStem-HP)</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">ESI-BIO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">GS315</td>
			<td style="width:336px;">Kit contains the components Heprasil (thiolated and heparinized hyaluronic acid), Gelin-S (thiolated gelatin), and Extralink (PEGDA)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:340px;">PEG 8-Arm Alkyne, 10 kDa</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">Creative PEGWorks</td>
			<td>PSB-887</td>
			<td style="width:336px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:340px;">Primary human hepatocytes</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">Triangle Research Labs</td>
			<td>HUCPM6</td>
			<td style="width:336px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:340px;">Primary human liver stellate cells</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">ScienCell</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">5300</td>
			<td style="width:336px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:340px;">Primary human Kupffer cells</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">HUKCCS</td>
			<td style="width:336px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:340px;">Hepatocyte Basal Media (HBM)</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">Lonza</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">CC-3199</td>
			<td style="width:336px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="126">
			<td height="126" style="height:126px;width:340px;">Hepatocyte Media Supplement Kit</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">Lonza</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">CC-3198</td>
			<td style="width:336px;">HCM SingleQuot Kits (contains ascorbic acid, 0.5mL; bovine serum albumin [fatty acid free], 10 mL; gentamicin sulfate/amphotericin B, 0.5mL; hydrocortisone 21-hemisuccinate, 0.5 mL; insulin, 0.5 mL; human recombinant epidermal growth factor, 0.5 mL; transferring, 0.5 mL)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:340px;">Triton X-100</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">T9284</td>
			<td style="width:336px;">Other manufacturers are ok.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:340px;">Ammonium hydroxide</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A669</td>
			<td style="width:336px;">Other manufacturers are ok.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:340px;">Fresh porcine cadaver tissue</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">n/a</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">n/a</td>
			<td style="width:336px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:340px;">Lyophilizer</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">any</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">n/a</td>
			<td style="width:336px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:340px;">Freezer mill</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">any</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">n/a</td>
			<td style="width:336px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:340px;">Bioprinter</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">n/a</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">n/a</td>
			<td style="width:336px;">The bioprinter described herein was custom built in-house. In general, other devices are adequate provided they support computer controlled extrusion-based printing of hydrogel materials.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:340px;">Hanging drop cell culture plate</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">InSphero</td>
			<td>CS-06-001</td>
			<td style="width:336px;">InSphero GravityPlus 3D Culture Platform</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

bioprinting cellularized constructs using a tissue-specific hydrogel bioink

Bioprinting has emerged as a versatile biofabrication approach for creating tissue engineered organ constructs. These constructs have potential use as organ replacements for implantation in patients, and also, when created on a smaller size scale as model "organoids" that can be used in in vitro systems for drug and toxicology screening.
Despite development of a wide variety of bioprinting devices, application of bioprinting technology can be limited by the availability of materials that both expedite bioprinting procedures and support cell viability and function by providing tissue-specific cues. Here we describe a versatile hyaluronic acid (HA) and gelatin-based hydrogel system comprised of a multi-crosslinker, 2-stage crosslinking protocol, which can provide tissue specific biochemical signals and mimic the mechanical properties of in vivo tissues. 
Biochemical factors are provided by incorporating tissue-derived extracellular matrix materials, which include potent growth factors. Tissue mechanical properties are controlled combinations of PEG-based crosslinkers with varying molecular weights, geometries (linear or multi-arm), and functional groups to yield extrudable bioinks and final construct shear stiffness values over a wide range (100 Pa to 20 kPa). Using these parameters, hydrogel bioinks were used to bioprint primary liver spheroids in a liver-specific bioink to create in vitro liver constructs with high cell viability and measurable functional albumin and urea output. This methodology provides a general framework that can be adapted for future customization of hydrogels for biofabrication of a wide range of tissue construct types.

When the procedures described above are followed correctly, hydrogels should contain a biochemical profile specific to the target tissue type,20 allow for a high degree of control over bioprinting and final elastic modulus,34 and support viable functional cells in tissue constructs.
Hydrogel Customization 
To best mimic native liver, the hydrogel bioink was supplemented by liver ECM so...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Bioprinting Cellularized Constructs Using a Tissue-specific Hydrogel Bioink at JoVE.com

Bioprinting Cellularized Constructs Using a Tissue-specific Hydrogel Bioink

We describe a set of protocols that together provide a tissue-mimicking hydrogel bioink with which functional and viable 3-D tissue constructs can be bioprinted for use in in vitro screening applications.

Bioprinting has emerged as a versatile biofabrication approach for creating tissue engineered organ constructs. These constructs have potential use as ...

The overall goal of this protocol is to demonstrate a versatile approach for designing hydrogel bioinks that can be extruded through bioprinting devices. The bioinks can then be used to fabricate three dimensional tissue constructs. This method can help answer key questions in the bioprinting field, such as how to control the mechanical properties needed in order to provide a material that can be extruded using a bioprinter.The main advantage of this technique is that we use commercially available components combined in a modular fashion to create a simple and effective bioprintable hydrogel bioink. The applications of these technologies include the creation of 3D tissue organoids that can be used to accurately model the effects of drugs, toxins, and diseases. Although this method can provide a framework to bioprint 3D liver constructs, it can also be applied to other tissue types such as muscle, lung, and colon.Generally, individuals new to this method will struggle because there are a number of different reagents used to create the hydrogel bioink, but it is actually quite straightforward. Demonstrating the procedure will be Young-Joon Seol, a post-doc on our team. To begin, prepare a tissue-specific extracellular matrix digest to be used in the hydrogel formulation as described elsewhere.Then, dissolve a photoinitiator in water at a weight per volume ratio of 0.1%To form the hydrogel bioinks, first dissolve the base material components from the hyaluronic acid hydrogel kits into individual aliquots of the water photoinitiator solution. Then, combine the ECM solution, the 2%thiolated hyaluronic acid, the 2%thiolated gelatin, the crosslinkers, and hepatocyte culture media in the ratios shown here. To improve the extrusion properties of the bioink, add 1.5 milligrams per milliliter of unmodified hyaluronic acid and 30 milligrams per milliliter of gelatin to the mixture.Then, vortex the resulting mixture on high for ten seconds prior to use. Before testing the bioink in a bioprinting device, first test the extrusion characteristics on the laboratory bench. Using a standard syringe, drop a sample of the bioink and then attach a 20 to 30 gauge needle to the syringe.Allow the bioink to crosslink and then push the bioink through the needle to achieve smoothly extruded hydrogel filaments. If the formulation is able to create a filament with few or no bumps, then it is ready for bioprinting. To load the bioink preparations in a bioprinter, pipette the bioinks into sterilized printer cartridges.Allow them to sit for 30 minutes before extrusion as the bioink will undergo spontaneous stage one crosslinking within the cartridge. Next, load the cartridge into the print setup and connect a pneumatic pressure source to the cartridge. Prepare a simple pattern, like this seven by seven millimeter grid of parallel lines, to print in order to evaluate its extrusion compatibility.While the print head moves in the XY plane at a velocity of approximately 300 millimeters per minute, apply a pressure of 20 kilopascals to the cartridge to extrude the bioink. If the extruded materials are lumpy or irregular, reduce the amount of the crosslinker added in order to soften the stage one crosslinked material. A properly prepared bioink formulation should extrude smoothly, allowing for precise deposition and architectures.Prepare 3D primary cell liver spheroids in a 96 well plate using the hanging drop method as described in the accompanying text protocol. After three days in culture, collect the liver spheroids from the hanging drop plate using a pipette, and transfer them into a sterile, 15 milliliter conical tube. Let the spheroids settle to the bottom of the conical tube for one to two minutes.Then, carefully aspirate the media with a pipette. Transfer 110 to 125 percent of the desired printed 3D construct volume of the freshly prepared hydrogel bioink solution to the conical tube containing the spheroids. Then, carefully pipette the spheroids up and down to re-suspend them in the hydrogel bioink solution.Once evenly suspended, transfer the spheroid solution to a bioprinter cartridge using a pipette and allow the solution to undergo the first crosslinking stage for 30 minutes. Following stage on crosslinking, use a bioprinting device to create the desired hydrogel structures containing the primary liver spheroids. After each layer of deposition, expose the printed bioink to UV light for two to four seconds to initiate the secondary crosslinking mechanism.This will stabilize the constructs and increase the stiffness to the desired level. The concentration of PEG alkyne in the solution is what controls the overall crosslinking density, and therefore primarily controls the stiffness of the final construct. After bioprinting, high cell viability in the liver constructs was observed using confocal microscopy.Under optimal environmental conditions, viability should be above 85%Additionally, when the constructs were stained for markers indicative of liver tissue, positive expression of CYP3A4, a cytochrome P450 isoform, intracellular albumin, E-cadherin, an epithelial cell-cell adhesion protein, and DPP4, a protein expressed highly in the liver, were all observed. When the culture media was tested for levels of urea and albumin, it was found that the construct secreted both urea and albumin at constant levels over the 14 day time course. This further suggests that the tissue-specific hydrogel bioinks aid in maintaining the function of the liver cells.Once mastered, this technique can be done in about two hours from start to finish if it is performed properly. However, this is often dependent on the particular bioprinting device that is employed. While attempting this procedure, it's important to remember that the steps demonstrated must often be adapted to be compatible with other tissue types or bioprinting devices.Following this procedure, other hydrogel bioink formulations can be created in order to support the bioprinting of other tissue types. The development of these technologies helped pave the way for the creation of multi-organoid, body-on-a-chip platforms for the screening of drugs and modeling diseases. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to begin designing materials that can be used for bioprinting 3D tissue constructs by using multi-step crosslinking.Don't forget that working with ultraviolet light can be extremely hazardous to one's vision, and precautions such as using UV protective goggles should always be taken while performing this procedure.

bioprinting-cellularized-constructs-using-tissue-specific-hydrogel

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

Synthesis of an Intein-mediated Artificial Protein Hydrogel

We present the synthesis of a highly stable protein hydrogel mediated by a split-intein-catalyzed protein trans-splicing reaction. The building blocks of this hydrogel are two protein block-copolymers each containing a subunit of a trimeric protein that serves as a crosslinker and one half of a split intein. A highly hydrophilic random coil is inserted into one of the block-copolymers for water retention. Mixing of the two protein block copolymers triggers an intein trans-splicing reaction, yielding a polypeptide unit with crosslinkers at either end that rapidly self-assembles into a hydrogel. This hydrogel is very stable under both acidic and basic conditions, at temperatures up to 50 &#176;C, and in organic solvents. The hydrogel rapidly reforms after shear-induced rupture. Incorporation of a &#34;docking station peptide&#34; into the hydrogel building block enables convenient incorporation of &#34;docking protein&#34;-tagged target proteins. The hydrogel is compatible with tissue culture growth media, supports the diffusion of 20 kDa molecules, and enables the immobilization of bioactive globular proteins. The application of the intein-mediated protein hydrogel as an organic-solvent-compatible biocatalyst was demonstrated by encapsulating the horseradish peroxidase enzyme and corroborating its activity.

We present the synthesis of a split-intein-mediated protein hydrogel. The building blocks of this hydrogel are two protein copolymers each containing a subunit of a trimeric protein that serves as a crosslinker and one half of a split intein. Mixing of the two protein copolymers triggers an intein trans-splicing reaction, yielding a polypeptide unit that self-assembles into a hydrogel. This hydrogel is highly pH- and temperature-stable, compatible with organic solvents, and easily incorporates functional globular proteins.

We present the synthesis of a highly stable protein hydrogel mediated by a split-intein-catalyzed protein trans-splicing reaction. The building blocks of ...

Viability of Bioprinted Cellular Constructs Using a Three Dispenser Cartesian Printer

Tissue engineering has centralized its focus on the construction of replacements for non-functional or damaged tissue. The utilization of three-dimensional bioprinting in tissue engineering has generated new methods for the printing of cells and matrix to fabricate biomimetic tissue constructs. The solid freeform fabrication (SFF) method developed for three-dimensional bioprinting uses an additive manufacturing approach by depositing droplets of cells and hydrogels in a layer-by-layer fashion. Bioprinting fabrication is dependent on the specific placement of biological materials into three-dimensional architectures, and the printed constructs should closely mimic the complex organization of cells and extracellular matrices in native tissue. This paper highlights the use of the Palmetto Printer, a Cartesian bioprinter, as well as the process of producing spatially organized, viable constructs while simultaneously allowing control of environmental factors. This methodology utilizes computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing to produce these specific and complex geometries. Finally, this approach allows for the reproducible production of fabricated constructs optimized by controllable printing parameters.

A Cartesian bioprinter was designed and fabricated to allow multi-material deposition in precise, reproducible geometries, while also allowing control of environmental factors. Utilizing the three-dimensional bioprinter, complex and viable constructs may be printed and easily reproduced.

Tissue engineering has centralized its focus on the construction of replacements for non-functional or damaged tissue. The utilization of ...

Bioprinting of Cartilage and Skin Tissue Analogs Utilizing a Novel Passive Mixing Unit Technique for Bioink Precellularization

Bioprinting is a powerful technique for the rapid and reproducible fabrication of constructs for tissue engineering applications. In this study, both cartilage and skin analogs were fabricated after bioink pre-cellularization utilizing a novel passive mixing unit technique. This technique was developed with the aim to simplify the steps involved in the mixing of a cell suspension into a highly viscous bioink. The resolution of filaments deposited through bioprinting necessitates the assurance of uniformity in cell distribution prior to printing to avoid the deposition of regions without cells or retention of large cell clumps that can clog the needle. We demonstrate the ability to rapidly blend a cell suspension with a bioink prior to bioprinting of both cartilage and skin analogs. Both tissue analogs could be cultured for up to 4 weeks. Histological analysis demonstrated both cell viability and deposition of tissue specific extracellular matrix (ECM) markers such as glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and collagen I respectively.

Cartilage and skin analogs were bioprinted using a nanocellulose-alginate based bioink. The bioinks were cellularized prior to printing via a single step passive mixing unit. The constructs were demonstrated to be uniformly cellularized, have high viability, and exhibit favorable markers of differentiation.

Bioprinting is a powerful technique for the rapid and reproducible fabrication of constructs for tissue engineering applications. In this study, both ...

Pancreatic Tissue-Derived Extracellular Matrix Bioink for Printing 3D Cell-Laden Pancreatic Tissue Constructs

The transplantation of pancreatic islets is a promising treatment for patients who suffer from type 1 diabetes accompanied by hypoglycemia and secondary complications. However, islet transplantation still has several limitations such as the low viability of transplanted islets due to poor islet engraftment and hostile environments. In addition, the insulin-producing cells differentiated from human pluripotent stem cells have limited ability to secrete sufficient hormones that can regulate the blood glucose level; therefore, improving the maturation by culturing cells with proper microenvironmental cues is strongly required. In this article, we elucidate protocols for preparing a pancreatic tissue-derived decellularized extracellular matrix (pdECM) bioink to provide a beneficial microenvironment that can increase glucose sensitivity of pancreatic islets, followed by describing the processes for generating 3D pancreatic tissue constructs using a microextrusion-based bioprinting technique.

Decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) can provide suitable microenvironmental cues to recapitulate the inherent functions of target tissues in an engineered construct. This article elucidates the protocols for the decellularization of pancreatic tissue, evaluation of pancreatic tissue-derived dECM bioink, and generation of 3D pancreatic tissue constructs using a bioprinting technique.

The transplantation of pancreatic islets is a promising treatment for patients who suffer from type 1 diabetes accompanied by hypoglycemia and secondary ...

Protocols of 3D Bioprinting of Gelatin Methacryloyl Hydrogel Based Bioinks

Gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) has become a popular biomaterial in the field of bioprinting. The derivation of this material is gelatin, which is hydrolyzed from mammal collagen. Thus, the arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) sequences and target motifs of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) remain on the molecular chains, which help achieve cell attachment and degradation. Furthermore, formation properties of GelMA are versatile. The methacrylamide groups allow a material to become rapidly crosslinked under light irradiation in the presence of a photoinitiator. Therefore, it makes great sense to establish suitable methods for synthesizing three-dimensional (3D) structures with this promising material. However, its low viscosity restricts GelMA's printability. Presented here are methods to carry out 3D bioprinting of GelMA hydrogels, namely the fabrication of GelMA microspheres, GelMA fibers, GelMA complex structures, and GelMA-based microfluidic chips. The resulting structures and biocompatibility of the materials as well as the printing methods are discussed. It is believed that this protocol may serve as a bridge between previously applied biomaterials and GelMA as well as contribute to the establishment of GelMA-based 3D architectures for biomedical applications.

Presented here is a method for the 3D bioprinting of gelatin methacryloyl.

Gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) has become a popular biomaterial in the field of bioprinting. The derivation of this material is gelatin, which is hydrolyzed ...

Using Multilayered Hydrogel Bioink in Three-Dimensional Bioprinting for Homogeneous Cell Distribution

During the extrusion-based three-dimensional bioprinting process, liquid-like bioinks with low viscosity can protect cells from membrane damage induced by shear stress and improve the survival of the encapsulated cells. However, rapid gravity-driven cell sedimentation in the reservoir could lead to an inhomogeneous cell distribution in bioprinted structures and therefore hinder the application of liquid-like bioinks. Here, we developed a novel multilayered modified strategy for liquid-like bioinks (e.g., gelatin methacryloyl with low viscosity) to prevent the sedimentation of encapsulated cells. Multiple liquid interfaces were manipulated in the multilayered bioink to provide interfacial retention. Consequently, the cell sedimentation action going across adjacent layers in the multilayered system was retarded in the bioink reservoir. It was found that the interfacial retention was much higher than the sedimental pull of cells, demonstrating a critical role of the interfacial retention in preventing cell sedimentation and promoting a more homogeneous dispersion of cells in the multilayered bioink.

Here, we developed a novel multilayered modified strategy for liquid-like bioinks (gelatin methacryloyl with low viscosity) to prevent the sedimentation of encapsulated cells.

During the extrusion-based three-dimensional bioprinting process, liquid-like bioinks with low viscosity can protect cells from membrane damage induced by ...

3D Bioprinting of Murine Cortical Astrocytes for Engineering Neural-Like Tissue

Astrocytes are glial cells with an essential role in the central nervous system (CNS), including neuronal support and functionality. These cells also respond to neural injuries and act to protect the tissue from degenerative events. In vitro studies of astrocytes&#39; functionality are important to elucidate the mechanisms involved in such events and contribute to developing therapies to treat neurological disorders. This protocol describes a method to biofabricate a neural-like tissue structure rich in astrocytes by 3D bioprinting astrocytes-laden bioink. An extrusion-based 3D bioprinter was used in this work, and astrocytes were extracted from C57Bl/6 mice pups&#39; brain cortices. The bioink was prepared by mixing cortical astrocytes from up to passage 3 to a biomaterial solution composed of gelatin, gelatin-methacryloyl (GelMA), and fibrinogen, supplemented with laminin, which presented optimal bioprinting conditions. The 3D bioprinting conditions minimized cell stress, contributing to the high viability of the astrocytes during the process, in which 74.08% &#177; 1.33% of cells were viable right after bioprinting. After 1 week of incubation, the viability of astrocytes significantly increased to 83.54% &#177; 3.00%, indicating that the 3D construct represents a suitable microenvironment for cell growth. The biomaterial composition allowed cell attachment and stimulated astrocytic behavior, with cells expressing the specific astrocytes marker glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and possessing typical astrocytic morphology. This&#160;reproducible protocol provides a valuable method to biofabricate 3D neural-like tissue rich in astrocytes that resembles cells&#39; native microenvironment, useful to researchers that aim to understand astrocytes&#39; functionality and their relation to the mechanisms involved in neurological diseases.

Here we report a method of 3D bioprinting murine cortical astrocytes for biofabricating neural-like tissues to study the functionality of astrocytes in the central nervous system and the mechanisms involving glial cells in neurological diseases and treatments.

Astrocytes are glial cells with an essential role in the central nervous system (CNS), including neuronal support and functionality. These cells also ...

Preparation and Characterization of Graphene-Based 3D Biohybrid Hydrogel Bioink for Peripheral Neuroengineering

Peripheral neuropathies can occur as a result of axonal damage, and occasionally due to demyelinating diseases. Peripheral nerve damage is a global problem that occurs in 1.5%-5% of emergency patients and may lead to significant job losses. Today, tissue engineering-based approaches, consisting of scaffolds, appropriate cell lines, and biosignals, have become more applicable with the development of three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting technologies. The combination of various hydrogel biomaterials with stem cells, exosomes, or bio-signaling molecules is frequently studied to overcome the existing problems in peripheral nerve regeneration. Accordingly, the production of injectable systems, such as hydrogels, or implantable conduit structures formed by various bioprinting methods has gained importance in peripheral neuro-engineering. Under normal conditions, stem cells are the regenerative cells of the body, and their number and functions do not decrease with time to protect their populations; these are not specialized cells but can differentiate upon appropriate stimulation in response to injury. The stem cell system is under the influence of its microenvironment, called the stem cell niche. In peripheral nerve injuries, especially in neurotmesis, this microenvironment cannot be fully rescued even after surgically binding severed nerve endings together. The composite biomaterials and combined cellular therapies approach increases the functionality and applicability of materials in terms of various properties such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, and processability. Accordingly, this study aims to demonstrate the preparation and use of graphene-based biohybrid hydrogel patterning and to examine the differentiation efficiency of stem cells into nerve cells, which can be an effective solution in nerve regeneration.

In this manuscript, we demonstrate the preparation of a biohybrid hydrogel bioink containing graphene for use in peripheral tissue engineering. Using this 3D biohybrid material, the neural differentiation protocol of stem cells is performed. This can be an important step in bringing similar biomaterials to the clinic.

Peripheral neuropathies can occur as a result of axonal damage, and occasionally due to demyelinating diseases. Peripheral nerve damage is a global ...

Gelatin Methacryloyl Granular Hydrogel Scaffolds: High-throughput Microgel Fabrication, Lyophilization, Chemical Assembly, and 3D Bioprinting

The emergence of granular hydrogel scaffolds (GHS), fabricated via assembling hydrogel microparticles (HMPs), has enabled microporous scaffold formation in situ. Unlike conventional bulk hydrogels, interconnected microscale pores in GHS facilitate degradation-independent cell infiltration as well as oxygen, nutrient, and cellular byproduct transfer. Methacryloyl-modified gelatin (GelMA), a (photo)chemically crosslinkable, protein-based biopolymer containing cell adhesive and biodegradable moieties, has widely been used as a cell-responsive/instructive biomaterial. Converting bulk GelMA to GHS&#160;may open a plethora of opportunities for tissue engineering and regeneration. In this article, we demonstrate the procedures of high-throughput GelMA microgel fabrication, conversion to resuspendable dry microgels (micro-aerogels), GHS formation via the chemical assembly of microgels, and granular bioink fabrication for extrusion bioprinting. We show how a sequential physicochemical treatment via cooling and photocrosslinking enables the formation of mechanically robust GHS.&#160;When light is inaccessible (e.g., during deep tissue injection), individually crosslinked GelMA HMPs may be bioorthogonally assembled via enzymatic crosslinking using transglutaminases. Finally, three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting of microporous GHS&#160;at low HMP packing density is demonstrated via the interfacial self-assembly of heterogeneously charged nanoparticles.

This article describes protocols for high-throughput gelatin methacryloyl microgel fabrication using microfluidic devices, converting microgels to resuspendable powder (micro-aerogels), the chemical assembly of microgels to form granular hydrogel scaffolds, and developing granular hydrogel bioinks with preserved microporosity for 3D bioprinting.

The emergence of granular hydrogel scaffolds (GHS), fabricated via assembling hydrogel microparticles (HMPs), has enabled microporous scaffold formation ...

Phototunable Bioprinted Hydrogels to Probe Cellular Responses to ECM Stiffening

3D Bioprinting Phototunable Hydrogels to Study Fibroblast Activation

Phototunable hydrogels can transform spatially and temporally in response to light exposure. Incorporating these types of biomaterials in cell-culture platforms and dynamically triggering changes, such as increasing microenvironmental stiffness, enables researchers to model changes in the extracellular matrix (ECM) that occur during fibrotic disease progression. Herein, a method is presented for 3D bioprinting a phototunable hydrogel biomaterial capable of two sequential polymerization reactions within a gelatin support bath. The technique of Freeform Reversible Embedding of Suspended Hydrogels (FRESH) bioprinting was adapted by adjusting the pH of the support bath to facilitate a Michael addition reaction. First, the bioink containing poly(ethylene glycol)-alpha methacrylate (PEG&#945;MA) was reacted off-stoichiometry with a cell-degradable crosslinker to form soft hydrogels. These soft hydrogels were later exposed to photoinitator and light to induce the homopolymerization of unreacted groups and stiffen the hydrogel. This protocol covers hydrogel synthesis, 3D bioprinting, photostiffening, and endpoint characterizations to assess fibroblast activation within 3D structures. The method presented here enables researchers to 3D bioprint a variety of materials that undergo pH-catalyzed polymerization reactions and could be implemented to engineer various models of tissue homeostasis, disease, and repair.

Author Spotlight: Understanding Chronic Lung Diseases Using 3D Printed Phototunable Hydrogels 

This article describes how to 3D bioprint phototunable hydrogels to study extracellular matrix stiffening and fibroblast activation.

Phototunable hydrogels can transform spatially and temporally in response to light exposure. Incorporating these types of biomaterials in cell-culture ...