We gratefully acknowledge financial support for this project by the Volkswagen Stiftung (grant no. 89 883) and the European Research Council (grant agreement no. 694410 - AEDNA). M.S.-S. acknowledges support by the DFG through GRK 2062.

NOTE: A time schedule for the steps in the different sections is given in the supplementary information (section 1).
1. Chip Fabrication
NOTE: As substrates, use silicon wafers (100 mm diameter, 0.525 mm thickness) with a 50 nm thick layer of silicon dioxide or glass slides (24 mm x 24 mm, no. 1.5; 22 mm x 50 mm, no. 4). Depending on the application, other sizes and thicknesses may be more suitable.
<ol>
	<li>Cleaning the substrates via an RCA clean proce...

<ol>
	<li>Heyman, Y., Buxboim, A., Wolf, S. G., Daube, S. S., Bar-Ziv, R. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell-free+protein+synthesis+and+assembly+on+a+biochip.">Cell-free protein synthesis and assembly on a biochip.</a> Nature Nanotechnology. 7 (6), 374-378 (2012).</li><li>Jaehme, M., Michel, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+cell-free+protein+synthesis+for+the+crystallization+of+membrane+proteins+-+a+case+study+on+a+member+of+the+glutamate+transporter+family+from+Staphylothermus+marinus.">Evaluation of cell-free protein synthesis for the crystallization of membrane proteins - a case study on a member of the glutamate transporter family from Staphylothermus marinus.</a> The FEBS Journal. 280 (4), 1112-1125 (2013).</li><li>Nirenberg, M. W., Matthaei, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+dependence+of+cell-free+protein+synthesis+in+E.+coli+upon+naturally+occurring+or+synthetic+polyribonucleotides.">The dependence of cell-free protein synthesis in E. coli upon naturally occurring or synthetic polyribonucleotides.</a> Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences Of The United States Of America. 47, 1588-1602 (1961).</li><li>Harris, D. C., Jewett, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell-free+biology:+exploiting+the+interface+between+synthetic+biology+and+synthetic+chemistry.">Cell-free biology: exploiting the interface between synthetic biology and synthetic chemistry.</a> Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 23 (5), 672-678 (2012).</li><li>Hodgman, C. E., Jewett, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell-free+synthetic+biology:+Thinking+outside+the+cell.">Cell-free synthetic biology: Thinking outside the cell.</a> Metabolic Engineering. 14 (3), 261-269 (2012).</li><li>Smith, M. T., Wilding, K. M., Hunt, J. M., Bennett, A. M., Bundy, B. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+emerging+age+of+cell-free+synthetic+biology.">The emerging age of cell-free synthetic biology.</a> FEBS Letters. 588 (17), 2755-2761 (2014).</li><li>Est&#233;vez-Torres, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sequence-independent+and+reversible+photocontrol+of+transcription/expression+systems+using+a+photosensitive+nucleic+acid+binder.">Sequence-independent and reversible photocontrol of transcription/expression systems using a photosensitive nucleic acid binder.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (30), 12219-12223 (2009).</li><li>Opgenorth, P. H., Korman, T. P., Bowie, J. U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+synthetic+biochemistry+molecular+purge+valve+module+that+maintains+redox+balance.">A synthetic biochemistry molecular purge valve module that maintains redox balance.</a> Nature Communications. 5 (1), 4113 (2014).</li><li>Sun, Z. Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protocols+for+implementing+an+Escherichia+coli+based+TX-TL+cell-free+expression+system+for+synthetic+biology.">Protocols for implementing an Escherichia coli based TX-TL cell-free expression system for synthetic biology.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (79), e50762 (2013).</li><li>Karzbrun, E., Shin, J., Bar-Ziv, R. H., Noireaux, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Coarse-Grained+Dynamics+of+Protein+Synthesis+in+a+Cell-Free+System.">Coarse-Grained Dynamics of Protein Synthesis in a Cell-Free System.</a> Physical Review Letters. 106 (4), 048104 (2011).</li><li>Shin, J., Jardine, P., Noireaux, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genome+replication,+synthesis,+and+assembly+of+the+bacteriophage+T7+in+a+single+cell-free+reaction.">Genome replication, synthesis, and assembly of the bacteriophage T7 in a single cell-free reaction.</a> ACS Synthetic Biology. 1 (9), 408-413 (2012).</li><li>Maeda, Y. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assembly+of+MreB+filaments+on+liposome+membranes:+a+synthetic+biology+approach.">Assembly of MreB filaments on liposome membranes: a synthetic biology approach.</a> ACS Synthetic Biology. 1 (2), 53-59 (2012).</li><li>Shin, J., Noireaux, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+E.+coli+Cell-Free+Expression+Toolbox:+Application+to+Synthetic+Gene+Circuits+and+Artificial+Cells.">An E. coli Cell-Free Expression Toolbox: Application to Synthetic Gene Circuits and Artificial Cells.</a> ACS Synthetic Biology. 1 (1), 29-41 (2012).</li><li>Niederholtmeyer, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+cell-free+forward+engineering+of+novel+genetic+ring+oscillators.">Rapid cell-free forward engineering of novel genetic ring oscillators.</a> eLife. 4, e09771 (2015).</li><li>Shimizu, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell-free+translation+reconstituted+with+purified+components.">Cell-free translation reconstituted with purified components.</a> Nature Biotechnology. 19 (8), 751-755 (2001).</li><li>Shimizu, Y., Kanamori, T., Ueda, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+synthesis+by+pure+translation+systems.">Protein synthesis by pure translation systems.</a> Methods. 36 (3), 299-304 (2005).</li><li>Pohorille, A., Deamer, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Artificial+cells:+prospects+for+biotechnology.">Artificial cells: prospects for biotechnology.</a> Trends In Biotechnology. 20 (3), 123-128 (2002).</li><li>Adamala, K. P., Martin-Alarcon, D. A., Guthrie-Honea, K. R., Boyden, E. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Engineering+genetic+circuit+interactions+within+and+between+synthetic+minimal+cells.">Engineering genetic circuit interactions within and between synthetic minimal cells.</a> Nature Chemistry. 9 (5), 431-439 (2017).</li><li>Tan, C., Saurabh, S., Bruchez, M. P., Schwartz, R., Leduc, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+crowding+shapes+gene+expression+in+synthetic+cellular+nanosystems.">Molecular crowding shapes gene expression in synthetic cellular nanosystems.</a> Nature Nanotechnology. 8 (8), 602-608 (2013).</li><li>van Nies, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Self-replication+of+DNA+by+its+encoded+proteins+in+liposome-based+synthetic+cells.">Self-replication of DNA by its encoded proteins in liposome-based synthetic cells.</a> Nature Communications. 9 (1), 1583 (2018).</li><li>Buxboim, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+single-step+photolithographic+interface+for+cell-free+gene+expression+and+active+biochips.">A single-step photolithographic interface for cell-free gene expression and active biochips.</a> Small. 3 (3), 500-510 (2007).</li><li>Bracha, D., Karzbrun, E., Daube, S. S., Bar-Ziv, R. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Emergent+properties+of+dense+DNA+phases+toward+artificial+biosystems+on+a+surface.">Emergent properties of dense DNA phases toward artificial biosystems on a surface.</a> Accounts Of Chemical Research. 47 (6), 1912-1921 (2014).</li><li>Bracha, D., Bar-Ziv, R. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dendritic+and+nanowire+assemblies+of+condensed+DNA+polymer+brushes.">Dendritic and nanowire assemblies of condensed DNA polymer brushes.</a> Journal of the American Chemical Society. 136 (13), 4945-4953 (2014).</li><li>Daube, S. S., Bracha, D., Buxboim, A., Bar-Ziv, R. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Compartmentalization+by+directional+gene+expression.">Compartmentalization by directional gene expression.</a> Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences Of The United States Of America. 107 (7), 2836-2841 (2010).</li><li>Karzbrun, E., Tayar, A. M., Noireaux, V., Bar-Ziv, R. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Programmable+on-chip+DNA+compartments+as+artificial+cells.">Programmable on-chip DNA compartments as artificial cells.</a> Science. 345 (6198), 829-832 (2014).</li><li>Tayar, A. M., Karzbrun, E., Noireaux, V., Bar-Ziv, R. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Propagating+gene+expression+fronts+in+a+one-dimensional+coupled+system+of+artificial+cells.">Propagating gene expression fronts in a one-dimensional coupled system of artificial cells.</a> Nature Physics. 11 (12), 1037-1041 (2015).</li><li>Pardatscher, G., Schwarz-Schilling, M., Daube, S. S., Bar-Ziv, R. H., Simmel, F. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gene+Expression+on+DNA+Biochips+Patterned+with+Strand-Displacement+Lithography.">Gene Expression on DNA Biochips Patterned with Strand-Displacement Lithography.</a> Angewandte Chemie-International Edition In English. 57 (17), 4783-4786 (2018).</li><li>Huang, F., Xu, H., Tan, W., Liang, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multicolor+and+Erasable+DNA+Photolithography.">Multicolor and Erasable DNA Photolithography.</a> ACS Nano. 8 (7), 6849-6855 (2014).</li><li>Huang, F., Zhou, X., Yao, D., Xiao, S., Liang, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+Polymer+Brush+Patterning+through+Photocontrollable+Surface-Initiated+DNA+Hybridization+Chain+Reaction.">DNA Polymer Brush Patterning through Photocontrollable Surface-Initiated DNA Hybridization Chain Reaction.</a> Small. 11 (43), 5800-5806 (2015).</li><li>McDonald, J. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fabrication+of+microfluidic+systems+in+poly(dimethylsiloxane).">Fabrication of microfluidic systems in poly(dimethylsiloxane).</a> Electrophoresis. 21 (1), 27-40 (2000).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Bephore lithography is a robust and versatile technique for the patterned immobilization of DNA or RNA. Yet, the procedure includes several steps, which - if changed - may be a source for failure or reduced performance of the system.
A crucial step in the fabrication of Bephore chips is the PEGylation of the substrate, which provides the biocompatibility of the surface. Here, the cleaning step with an RCA procedure is important, since it also activates the surface for the subsequent silanizati...

Cell-free gene expression reactions are of great interest for various applications in biochemistry, biotechnology, and synthetic biology. Cell-free expression of proteins was instrumental for the preparation of pure protein samples, which were the basis for numerous studies in structural biology. For instance, cell-free systems were successfully used for the expression of protein complexes1 or membrane proteins2, which are difficult to produce using cell-based expression. Notably, cell-free gene expression reactions were also used to elucidate the structure of the genetic code, starting with the groundbreaking experiments by Nirenberg and Matthaei in 19613.
Recently, there has been a renewed interest in cell-free methods in biotechnology and synthetic biology4,5,6. Cell-free systems can be augmented with non-biological compounds, and components of diverse biological origin can be combined more easily7. Even though cell-free systems have the apparent disadvantage that they do not &#34;grow and divide&#34;, it is conceivable to prepare open cell-free bioreactors with basic metabolic functions and let them synthesize metabolites when provided with simple carbon and energy inputs8. Within the emerging field of synthetic biology, cell-free systems promise to be a more predictable &#34;chassis&#34; for the implementation of synthetic biological functions.
Currently, cell-free gene expression reactions are carried out either using cell extracts (from different sources such as bacteria, yeast, insects), or transcription/translation systems which were optimized for different applications (e.g., prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic gene expression, production of membrane proteins, etc.). A popular protocol for the preparation of bacterial cell extract (commonly termed TXTL) was provided recently by V. Noireaux and coworkers9. Its biophysical properties have been thoroughly characterized10, and the TXTL system has been already used successfully to perform a series of complex biochemical tasks: e.g., the assembly of functional bacteriophages via cell-free expression of the phage genome11, the synthesis of bacterial protein filaments12, or the implementation of cell-free gene circuits13,14.
Another system popular in cell-free synthetic biology is the PURE system, which is reconstituted from purified components15,16. Compared to the TXTL system, it does not contain nucleases or protein degradation machinery. While degradation of linear DNA, RNA molecules or proteins is less of an issue in the PURE system, decay pathways are actually important for the implementation of dynamical functions. In order to reduce the effect of exonuclease degradation of linear gene templates in the TXTL system (through RecBCD), the end-protecting GamS protein has to be added. Both the TXTL and the PURE system are commercially available.
A topic closely related to cell-free biology concerns the study of the effect of compartmentalization on biochemical reactions, and further the creation of artificial cell-like structures or protocells17,18,19,20. Research on artificial cells typically involves the encapsulation of a biochemical reaction system inside of vesicular compartments made from phospholipids or other amphiphiles. While such systems help to explore fundamental aspects of compartmentalization, or the emergence of cellularity and self-replicating structures, they face the typical problems of closed systems: in the absence of a functioning metabolism and appropriate membrane transport mechanisms, it is difficult to keep compartmentalized reactions running for extended periods of time - fuel molecules are used up and waste products accumulate.
An interesting alternative to compartmentalization inside of such cell-mimicking compartments is the spatial organization of genetic material using photolithographic methods. Immobilization of &#34;genes on a chip&#34; was pioneered by the Bar-Ziv group at the Weizmann Institute more than ten years ago21. Among the major issues that had to be resolved were the non-specific adsorption of DNA and the potential denaturation of proteins on the chip surface. Bar-Ziv et al. developed a dedicated photolithography resist termed &#34;Daisy&#34;, which was composed of a reactive terminal silane for immobilization of the resist molecules on silicon dioxide surfaces, a long polyethylene glycol (PEG) spacer that assured biocompatibility, and a photocleavable headgroup, which was converted into a reactive amine upon irradiation with ultraviolet (UV) light. It has been shown that Daisy can be used to immobilize gene-length DNA molecules (with lengths of several kilo base-pairs (kbp)) on a chip surface. From a polymer physics point of view, the systems represented polymer brushes grafted onto a solid substrate. Due to the polyelectrolyte nature of DNA, the conformation of these brushes is strongly affected by osmotic and other ion-specific effects22,23.
Most importantly, it has been shown that substrate-immobilized genes are still functional and can be transcribed and translated into RNA and protein. Gene brushes are accessible for RNA polymerases from solution24, and the complex macromolecular mixture of the transcription/translation is not denatured at the surface. One of the advantages of immobilization of genetic components on a substrate is that they can be operated in an open microfluidic reactor system that is continuously supplied with small precursor molecules and from which waste products can be removed25,26.
We recently developed a variant of this method termed Bephore (for Biocompatible electron-beam and photoresist)27, which was based exclusively on commercially available components and utilized sequence-specific DNA strand invasion reactions for the realization of a simple-to-implement multistep lithography procedure for the creation of chip-based artificial cells. A schematic overview of the procedure is shown in Figure 1. It is based on DNA hairpin molecules containing a photocleavable group, which are immobilized on a biocompatible PEG&#160;layer. Photocleavage of the hairpin exposes a single-stranded toehold sequence, through which DNA molecules of interest (containing the &#34;displacing&#34; DIS sequence) can be attached via toehold-mediated strand invasion.
While Bephore is potentially simpler to implement, Daisy allows the realization of very dense and clean &#34;gene brushes&#34;, which has advantages in certain applications. In principle, however, Daisy and Bephore lithography could be easily combined. A related lithography method utilizing DNA strand displacement for structuring DNA brushes on gold was previously developed by Huang et al., but was not utilized in the context of cell-free gene expression28,29.
In the following protocol we provide a detailed description of the production of DNA brushes for cell-free gene expression using the Bephore method. We describe how the gene chips are fabricated and demonstrate the use of multi-step photo-lithography for the spatially structured immobilization of genes on a chip. We also discuss the fabrication of reaction chambers and the application of microfluidics for the performance of on-chip gene expression reactions.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon wafer with 50 nm silicon dioxide (Bephore substrate)</td>
			<td>Siegert Wafer</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Thickness (&#181;m): 525 &#177;25, Diameter (mm): 100</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon wafer (for PDMS master mold)</td>
			<td>Siegert Wafer</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Thickness (&#181;m): 525 &#177;25, Diameter (mm): 76.2 (3&#8221;)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass slides no. 4</td>
			<td>Menzel</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>22 mm x 50 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass slides no. 1.5</td>
			<td>Assistent</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>24 mm x 24 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotin-PEG-Silane</td>
			<td>Laysan Bio</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>MW 5,000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anhydrous toluene</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich (Merck)</td>
			<td>244511</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Streptavidin</td>
			<td>Thermo-Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S888</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNA</td>
			<td>Integrated DNA Technologies (IDT)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phusion High-Fidelity PCR Master Mix with HF Buffer</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>M0531S</td>
			<td>PCR kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wizard SV Gel and PCR Clean-Up System&#160;</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>A9281</td>
			<td>Spin-column PCR clean-up kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PURExpress</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>E6800S</td>
			<td>Cell-free expression system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PDMS&#160;</td>
			<td>Dow Corning</td>
			<td>Slygard 184</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FluoSpheres</td>
			<td>Thermo-Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>F8771</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PTFE tubing (ID: 0.8mm, OD: 1.6 mm)</td>
			<td>Bola</td>
			<td>S 1810-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EpoCore 20</td>
			<td>micro resist technology&#160;GmbH</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Photoresist</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mr-Dev 600</td>
			<td>micro resist technology&#160;GmbH</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Photoresist developer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ti-Prime</td>
			<td>MicroChemicals</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Adhesion promoter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Two-component silicon glue</td>
			<td>Picodent</td>
			<td>Twinsil&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV-protection yellow foil</td>
			<td>Lithoprotect (via MicroChemicals)</td>
			<td>Y520E212</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Masks for photolithography</td>
			<td>Zitzmann GmbH</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>64.000 dpi, 180x240 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Upright microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>BX51</td>
			<td>Photolithography and fluorescence imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>60x water immersion objective</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>LumPlanFl</td>
			<td>Used with Olympus BX51, NA 0.9</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>20x water immersion objective</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>LumPlanFl</td>
			<td>Used with Olympus BX51, NA 0.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Camera</td>
			<td>Photometrics</td>
			<td>Coolsnap HQ</td>
			<td>Used with Olympus BX51</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ligtht source</td>
			<td>EXFO</td>
			<td>X-Cite 120Q</td>
			<td>Used with Olympus BX51</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>Ti2-E</td>
			<td>Fluorescence imaging of gene expression</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4x objective</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>CFI P-Apo 4x Lambda</td>
			<td>Used with Nikon Ti2-E</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Camera</td>
			<td>Andor</td>
			<td>Neo5.5</td>
			<td>Used with Nikon Ti2-E</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Light source</td>
			<td>Lumencor</td>
			<td>SOLA SM II</td>
			<td>Used with Nikon Ti2-E</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cage incubator</td>
			<td>Okolab</td>
			<td>bold line</td>
			<td>Used with Nikon Ti2-E</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pressure Controller</td>
			<td>Elveflow</td>
			<td>OB1 MK3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NanoPhotometer</td>
			<td>Implen</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>DNA concentration measurement</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plasma cleaner</td>
			<td>Diener</td>
			<td>Femto</td>
			<td>200 W, operated at 0.8 mbar with the sample in a Faraday cage</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

functional surface-immobilization of genes using multistep strand displacement lithography

Immobilization of genes on lithographically structured surfaces allows the study of compartmentalized gene expression processes in an open microfluidic bioreactor system. In contrast to other approaches towards artificial cellular systems, such a setup allows for a continuous supply with gene expression reagents and simultaneous draining of waste products. This facilitates the implementation of cell-free gene expression processes over extended periods of time, which is important for the realization of dynamic gene regulatory feedback systems. Here we provide a detailed protocol for the fabrication of genetic biochips using a simple-to-use lithographic technique based on DNA strand displacement reactions, which exclusively uses commercially available components. We also provide a protocol on the integration of compartmentalized genes with a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based microfluidic system. Furthermore, we show that the system is compatible with total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, which can be used for the direct observation of molecular interactions between DNA and molecules contained in the expression mix.

Two-step lithography: Figure 5 shows the result of a two-step lithographic process on a glass slide with overlapping patterns of fluorescently labeled DIS strands.
Expression of a fluorescent protein from a gene brush: Figure 6 demonstrates the expression of the fluorescent protein YPet from immobilized DNA. At several points in time we assessed the gene expression rate...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Functional Surface-immobilization of Genes Using Multistep Strand Displacement Lithography at JoVE.com

Functional Surface-immobilization of Genes Using Multistep Strand Displacement Lithography

We describe a simple lithographic procedure for the immobilization of gene-length DNA molecules on a surface, which can be used to perform cell-free gene expression experiments on biochips.

Immobilization of genes on lithographically structured surfaces allows the study of compartmentalized gene expression processes in an open microfluidic ...

DNA biochips are an attractive research platform for self re-synthetic biology, originally developed by the BASF group, which allows for the operation of in vitro gene circuits over extended periods of time. With this protocol, we hope to make this technology available to a wider range of researchers. Our method, termed bephore lithography, represents a strategy for the immobilization of DNA based on the DNA strand displacement reaction.The strength of this technique lie in its multi-step lithographic capabilities, its simple reproducibility, and the commercial availability of all the components. Similar to other biochip solutions, bephore can be combined with different technologies. For example, functional gene brushes can be assembled within micro-compartments for protein expression.To begin, prepare an RCA mixture by mixing five parts water with one part of a 30%ammonia solution in a glass beaker. Heat the mixture to 70 degrees Celsius on a hot plate while stirring. Once it reaches 70 degrees Celsius, add one part 30%hydrogen peroxide.Then place a 100 millimeter diameter silicon wafer into the solution, to remove organic material and particles from it. After 30 minutes, take out the substrate, rinse it thoroughly with water from a wash bottle, and dry it with a nitrogen gun. Immediately proceed with the PEGylation of the substrate.To accomplish this, first dilute biotin-PEG-Silane in dry toluene to 5 milligrams per milliliter, and vortex the solution until it is well mixed. With the substrate placed in a glass Petri dish, slowly pipette the solution onto the substrate, covering the whole surface, but avoid allowing the solution to flow over the edge. Once the surface is covered, close the Petri dish, and then add an additional cover.After 30 minutes, remove the cover, and add approximately 40 milliliters of isopropyl alcohol to the Petri dish. Then take out the substrate, rinse it again thoroughly with isopropyl alcohol, and dry it with a nitrogen gun. When dry, store the substrate in the dark until it is needed.Prepare a substrate by using a glass cutter or a scalpel to form one centimeter by one centimeter pieces. Then, add a simple alignment mark by making a short scratch from the center towards an edge of the substrate. Blow any small particles off the chip using a nitrogen gun.Next, mix two droplets of a two-component silicone glue, and apply the glue to the surface of the chip, leaving the area around the tip of the scratch blank. There the glue provides a hydrophobic barrier, keeping aqueous solutions on the chip. This facilitates subsequent washing steps, and reduces the amount of DNA required for incubations.In a later step, the glue can be easily peeled off. In the following steps, photocleavable DNA is handled only in a yellow light environment. Cover the chip with about 10 microliters of a bephore mixture at room temperature, and place the chip in a box partially filled with water to reduce evaporation.After one hour, wash the chip several times with PBS to remove any unbound bephore mix. Next, add 10 microliters of the passivation mix to the chip. After two hours, wash the chip several times with PBS to remove the unbound passivation agents.Cut a printed photo mask to the appropriate size in order to fit a suitable mask holder. Insert it at the position of the field stop, and use the alignment marks to align the mask in the holder. With the substrate placed on the microscopy stage, insert a red filter into the illumination path, and focus onto the substrate surface.Then, navigate to the region of the substrate which will be exposed. Next, insert the mask holder, block the illumination, and change to the UV filter. At a low light intensity, open the shutter, and use the camera to quickly focus the mask on the substrate.With the substrate now aligned and the mask in focus, block the light path to the camera, and illuminate the substrate at a high light intensity for the desired exposure time. After exposure, remove the sample from the microscope, and carefully remove as much buffer as possible from the substrate without drying it. Then, add 10 to 20 microliters of DNA with the sequence for attachment to the surface.Place the substrate in a wet box to keep it from drying, and incubate the DNA on the substrate for two hours at room temperature. In order to observe the compartmentalized gene expression on an inverted microscope, first separately prepare the two parts of the sample holder. Start by gluing a bephore chip with an immobilized gene brush onto the chip holder, using double-sided adhesive tape.Next, add some vacuum grease around the central hole of the bottom part of the holder, and insert the chip holder. Now assemble the top part of the holder. Cut a thin PDMS chip with compartments as small as possible, leaving a channel open to one side to later allow for the exchange of waste and precursor molecules by diffusion Next, plasma-treat a glass cover slip in the back side of the PDMS chip with oxygen plasma.Immediately after treatment, place the PDMS chip at the center of the glass slide, with the compartments pointing upwards. Then, bake the glass with the PDMS for one hour at 70 degrees Celsius. Shortly before assembling the entire sample holder, plasma-treat the glass slide with the PDMS chip as before.Then, add some vacuum grease around the large hole of the top holder, and place the glass slide with the PDMS onto it. Gently press the glass onto the grease. Carefully remove the buffer from the chip, and wash it once with 10 microliters of self re-expression system.Next, add 60 microliters of self re-expression system onto the chip, and remove the two-component silicone glue from the edges. Now, add 20 microliters of the expression system onto the PDMS. After placing the droplet onto the PDMS, quickly check in the stereoscopic microscope that the compartments are well wet and without air bubbles.If there are air bubbles, try to wash them away. To assemble the two pieces of the holder, and to align chambers and DNA brushes, work under a stereoscopic microscope. Immobilize the bottom holder with a gripper arm so the two screws and wingnuts will be easily accessible with both hands.Insert the top holder into the bottom holder, and lower it until the cell-free expression system droplets fuse. Then, check to make sure the compartments and the alignment mark are in a similar region in the XY plane. From the bottom, screw up the wingnuts until they touch the bottom side of the holder.While aligning the compartments and the chip in the XY plane, gently tighten the wingnuts. This step requires some experience, and depends on the construction of the sample holder. The PDMS should be pressed onto the chip only with gentle force.Next, spray a sponge in the anti-evaporation enclosure with water, and insert the holder into the box. Then, fill a five milliliter syringe with two-component silicone glue, and use it to seal the box. Finally, transfer the box to a temperature-controlled microscope, and image the DNA brush and the reaction using fluorescence microscopy.A two-step lithographic process, here performed on a bephore glass slide, yields overlapping patterns of fluorescently labeled DNA strands. In this demonstration of on-chip gene expression, DNA is immobilized in the chamber on the left. When exposed to the expression mix, the yellow fluorescent protein YPet is synthesized from the immobilized DNA.To assess the activity of the gene expression system, the recovery of the fluorescence is observed after a bleaching step. At two hours, the fluorescence intensity recovered quickly. However, after four and six hours, it did not recover, indicating that without a fresh supply of the expression mix, the reaction terminated around hour four.Although gene expression is limited in a closed system, it can be sustained over longer periods of time by supplying the expression compartments with additional precursor molecules via micro-fluidics. The bephore method is used to immobilize oligonucleotides or gene length DNA, which can be applied to construct systems of interacting DNA brushes for self re-gene expression. The technique may also be used for other applications in biophysics, such as single molecule fluorescence studies.After watching this video, you should be able to fabricate bephore biochips from wafers or glass slides, and integrate them into your research projects.

functional-surface-immobilization-genes-using-multistep-strand

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

7.4K vues.  Technical University of Munich. Les biopuces d’ADN sont une plate-forme de recherche attrayante pour la biologie auto-resythique, développée à l’origine par le groupe BASF, qui permet l’exploitation de circuits génétiques in vitro sur de longues périodes de temps. Avec ce protocole, nous espérons mettre cette technologie à la disposition d’un plus large éventail de chercheurs. Notre méthode, appelé lithographie bephore, représente une stratégie pour l’immobilisation de l’ADN basée sur la réaction ...