Ringraziamo Andreas Schönle, Max-Plank-Institut di chimica biofisica, Germania e David J. Sandstrom, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA per un parere tecnico. Ringraziamo Frank Kötting, European Neuroscience Institute di Gottinga per la costruzione della camera di imaging e il dispositivo di anestesia. Questo lavoro è stato sostenuto dalle concessioni dal Forschung Alzheimer Iniziativa per TMRYZ è stato sostenuto da una borsa di studio della borsa di studio in Cina Consiglio, SBH da una borsa di studio della Graduate School per Cellulare e Molecolare Neuroscienze, Università di Tubinga.

A) Assemblea della camera di imaging <ol><li> Seleziona una larva di fase scelto (ad esempio, all&#39;inizio del 3 ° larve instar lasciando un intervallo di osservazione di circa 24 ore a 25 ° C fino errante stadio). </li><li> Sciacquare la larva con acqua per pulire il terreno di coltura e tamponare asciugare. </li><li> Rivestire il centro dell&#39;elemento fondo della camera, la regione ad affrontare la larva, con un sottile strato di olio alocarburi. </li><li> Mettere la larva con il lato ventrale rivolto verso l&#39;obiettivo microscopio nella camera (consente di giunzione neuromuscolare (NMJ) 26 e 27 per essere ripreso) (Figura 1 AE). </li><li> Posizionare il distanziatore in plastica sullo strato di petrolio, con la prese d&#39;aria del viso verso l&#39;alto della griglia (Figura 1 A). Si prega di verificare a questo punto: L&#39;altezza del distanziatore è circa la metà del diametro larvale, la larghezza della fessura dovrebbe essere circa il doppio del diametro della larva. </li><li> Posizionare la camera di immagini al microscopio </li></ol> B) anestesia della larva <ol start="7"><li> Collegare i due ingressi della camera con un appropriato dispositivo di anestesia / vaporizzatore. Si prega di verificare up-front: La concentrazione efficace di desflurane nella camera d&#39;aria non deve mai superare quella indicata dalle norme di sicurezza! Solo un piccolissimo volume totale di desflurane è necessaria per anestetizzare le larve. L&#39;applicazione del 15% (v / v) di desflurano 1 ha dimostrato di essere un buon punto di partenza per determinare la concentrazione ideale per essere usato in un esperimento. Per motivi di sicurezza si consiglia che il vaporizzatore non dovrebbe contenere più del necessario desflurano per 2-4 ore di imaging in vivo. </li><li> Immergere l&#39;altra estremità del tubo collegato alla uscita della camera in un bicchiere d&#39;acqua e poi aprire le valvole che controllano il flusso dei anestetico nella camera per circa cinque secondi. Si prega di verificare in questa fase: Fare le bolle d&#39;aria salire in acqua? Se la camera non è che perde. </li><li> Chiudere le valvole per circa tre secondi. </li><li> Monitorare i movimenti residui larvale al microscopio. Verificare sia il battito cardiaco e movimenti muscolari. Se necessario le valvole aprono e si chiudono come descritto al punto 8 e 9 fino anestesia della larva è completa, quindi chiudere tutte le valvole e iniziare imaging. Si prega di verificare in questa fase: Movimento muscolare residua o di battito cardiaco indica che la larva non viene adeguatamente anestetizzato. Anestesia completa è di vitale importanza per le immagini ad alta risoluzione. La larva normalmente non dovrebbero essere anestetizzati per più di 15-20 minuti in un dato momento. </li></ol> C) Imaging <ol start="11"><li> Identificare la corretta posizione e l&#39;immagine della struttura di interesse (Figura 2-4). </li></ol> D) Il recupero da anestesia <ol start="12"><li> Dopo l&#39;imaging è completato entrare aria nella camera. Si prega di verificare in questa fase: Controllare il battito cardiaco e contrazioni muscolari della larva di luce alogena trasmessa. Come i muscoli comincerà a contrarsi, è possibile rimuovere la larva dalla camera di imaging. </li><li> Staccare la camera dal dispositivo di anestesia e rimuoverlo dal microscopio. Smontare la camera con attenzione e posto la larva nel medio purè di coltivazione volare. </li><li> Conservare il piatto in un incubatore alla temperatura appropriata. </li></ol> E) Tempo di serie <ol start="15"><li> Ripetere i passaggi 2-14 punti fino a un tempo sufficiente sono stati ottenuti. Alternative protocollo: Se la larva è quello di essere ripreso più di una volta all&#39;interno di un intervallo di 30 minuti potrebbe essere pratico di lasciarlo nella camera di imaging fino al punto successivo momento anestesia. Ripetere i passaggi 7-14 punti fino a un tempo sufficiente sono stati ottenuti. Si prega di verificare in questa fase: La larva non deve essere conservato nella camera di imaging per più di due ore alla volta, né è di essere anestetizzati per più di 15-20 minuti alla volta. </li></ol><img src="/files/ftp_upload/2249/2249fig1.jpg" alt="Figura 1" /> Figura 1 Assemblea della camera di imaging. (A) Posizionare la larva e il distanziatore in plastica sullo strato di olio. (B) Mettere un 22 x 22 mm sul vetrino il distanziale e inserire l&#39;anello di guida in plexiglas nella camera accanto (C) fissare la posizione della larva con l&#39;anello in metallo e (D) nei pressi della camera. (E) Ora la camera è pronto per essere montato sul microscopio. <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2249/2249fig2.jpg" alt="Figura 2" /> Figura 2 Body-muro muscoli larve di Drosophila. Muscoli e NMJs sono stati visualizzati mediante espressione di un CD8-GFP-Sh proteina di fusione 8. I muscoli sono mostrati come osservato quando concentrandosi sul lato ventrale attraverso la cuticola nella larva. In (CA) il muscolo più superficiale, 27 anni, è dimostrato, in (KL), i muscoli più interna, 6 e 7, sono mostrati. Scala Bar: 100 micron, ΔZ tra le sezioni è di 2 micron. <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2249/2249fig3.jpg" alt="Figura 3" /> Figura 3 Identità del corpo parete muscoli larve di Drosophila. L&#39;identità dei muscoli larve L3 Drosophila, A3 segmento, viene visualizzato. Muscoli e NMJs sono stati visualizzati mediante espressione di un CD8-GFP-Sh proteina di fusione 8. I muscoli vengono visualizzati come osservato quando concentrandosi sul lato ventrale attraverso la cuticola in larve. In AC il muscolo più superficiale, 27 anni, è dimostrato, nel KL i muscoli più interno, 6 e 7, sono mostrati. Scala Bar: 100 micron, ΔZ tra le sezioni è di 2 micron. <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2249/2249fig4.jpg" alt="Figura 4" /> Figura 4 Identità di giunzioni neuromuscolari di larve di Drosophila. (AD) NMJs sono state visualizzate da espressione di un DGluRIIA-MRFP proteina di fusione 1. Il NMJs sono mostrate come osservato quando concentrandosi sul lato ventrale attraverso la cuticola in larva. In (AB) il più superficiale NMJ, 27 anni, è dimostrato, CD NMJs più interno, 6 e 7, sono mostrati. Scala Bar: 100 micron, ΔZ tra le sezioni è di 5 micron. (E) e (F) l&#39;identità del superficiale (E) e più interni (F) NMJs è dato per riferimento.

<ol>
	<li>Rasse, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glutamate+receptor+dynamics+organizing+synapse+formation+in+vivo.">Glutamate receptor dynamics organizing synapse formation in vivo.</a> Nat Neurosci. 8, 898-905 (2005).</li><li>Rasse, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> In vivo imaging of long-term changes in the Drosophila neuromuscular system [dissertation]. , (1988).</li><li>Fuger, P., Behrends, L. B., Mertel, S., Sigrist, S. J., Rasse, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Live+imaging+of+synapse+development+and+measuring+protein+dynamics+using+two-color+fluorescence+recovery+after+photo-bleaching+at+Drosophila+synapses.">Live imaging of synapse development and measuring protein dynamics using two-color fluorescence recovery after photo-bleaching at Drosophila synapses.</a> Nat Protoc. 2, 3285-3298 (2007).</li><li>Wang, X., Schwarz, T. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+axonal+transport+of+mitochondria.">Imaging axonal transport of mitochondria.</a> Methods in enzymology. 457, 319-333 (2009).</li><li>Vinegoni, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mesoscopic+fluorescence+tomography+for+in-vivo+imaging+of+developing+Drosophila.">Mesoscopic fluorescence tomography for in-vivo imaging of developing Drosophila.</a> J Vis Exp. , (2009).</li><li>Lin, C. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Label-free+imaging+of+Drosophila+larva+by+multiphoton+autofluorescence+and+second+harmonic+generation+microscopy.">Label-free imaging of Drosophila larva by multiphoton autofluorescence and second harmonic generation microscopy.</a> Journal of biomedical optics. 13, 050502-050502 (2008).</li><li>Levitan, E. S., Lanni, F., Shakiryanova, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+imaging+of+vesicle+motion+and+release+at+the+Drosophila+neuromuscular+junction.">In vivo imaging of vesicle motion and release at the Drosophila neuromuscular junction.</a> Nat Protoc. 2, 1117-1125 (2007).</li><li>Zito, K., Parnas, D., Fetter, R. D., Isacoff, E. Y. &. a. m. p. ;. a. m. p., Goodman, C. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Watching+a+synapse+grow:+noninvasive+confocal+imaging+of+synaptic+growth+in+Drosophila.">Watching a synapse grow: noninvasive confocal imaging of synaptic growth in Drosophila.</a> Neuron. 22, 719-729 (1999).</li></ol>

Nessun conflitto di interessi dichiarati.

Il metodo proposto è stato inizialmente sviluppato per studiare le sinapsi glutammatergica sui muscoli della parete del corpo delle larve di Drosophila melanogaster. La Drosophila giunzione neuromuscolare (NMJ) è caratterizzato da una stereotipata cito-architettura dei muscoli e neuroni ed è quindi ideale per l&#39;imaging in vivo. Tuttavia, il protocollo di anestesia descritto non è limitata alle immagini del NMJ, la trasparenza delle larve di Drosophila facilita l&#39;adattamento del protocollo descritto per studiare lo sviluppo degli organi, la migrazione delle cellule, il trasporto di merci assonale e sub-cellulare riorganizzazione all&#39;interno delle cellule.

Reagenti: <ul><li> Desflurano (Suprane, Baxter, Unterschleißheim, Germania) </li><li> Halocarbon olio (ad esempio Voltalef H10S olio / Atofina, Puteaux, Francia) </li><li> Vola terreno di coltura </li></ul> Attrezzatura: <ul><li> Invertito microscopio confocale </li><li> Microscopio binoculare (ad esempio Stemi 2000, Carl Zeiss, Jena, Germania) </li><li> Pennello piccolo utilizzato per ordinare le mosche </li><li> Incubatrice </li><li> Costruito su misura da camera per immagini (Per i disegni meccanici vedere rif. 3) </li><li> Vaporizzatore / anestesia periferica (Per i dettagli vedi rif. 3) </li></ul>

in vivo imaging of intact drosophila larvae at sub-cellular resolution

Recenti miglioramenti nel campo dell&#39;imaging ottico, fluorofori geneticamente codificato e strumenti genetici permettono stabilimento efficiente delle desiderato linee di animali transgenici hanno permesso i processi biologici da studiare nel contesto di una vita, e in alcuni casi anche comportarsi, organismo. In questo protocollo verrà descritto come anestetizzare intatte le larve di Drosophila, utilizzando il anestetico volatile desflurano, per seguire lo sviluppo e la plasticità sinaptica delle popolazioni a una risoluzione 1-3 sub-cellulare. Mentre gli altri metodi utili per anestetizzare le larve di Drosophila melanogaster sono stati precedentemente descritti 4,5,6,7,8, il protocollo presentato nel presente documento dimostra miglioramenti significativi per le seguenti caratteristiche combinate principali: (1) Un elevato grado di anestesia, anche il battito cardiaco viene arrestato consentendo risoluzione laterale fino a 150 nm 1, (2) un elevato tasso di sopravvivenza del&gt; 90% per ciclo di anestesia, che consentono la registrazione di oltre cinque punti-tempo in un periodo di ore o giorni 2 e ( 3) una sensibilità elevata che ci permette in 2 casi per studiare la dinamica delle proteine ​​espresse a livelli fisiologici. Nel dettaglio, siamo stati in grado di visualizzare i post-sinaptica subunità del recettore del glutammato GluR-IIA espresso tramite il promotore endogeno 1 in stabile linee transgeniche e la linea trappola FasII esone-GFP 1. (4) A differenza di altri metodi di 4,7 le larve possono essere esposte non solo vivo, ma anche interi (cioè non sezionato) che consente l&#39;osservazione che si verifichi un certo numero di giorni 1. I dettagli del video che accompagna la funzione delle singole parti della camera di imaging in vivo 2,3, il corretto montaggio delle larve, la procedura di anestesia, come ri-identificare le posizioni specifiche all&#39;interno di una larva e la rimozione sicura delle larve dalle immagini da camera.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In vivo Imaging of Intact Drosophila Larvae at Sub-cellular Resolution at JoVE.com

In vivo Imaging of Intact Drosophila Larvae at Sub-cellular Resolution

Questo protocollo descrive un metodo affidabile per l&#39;anestesia e l&#39;imaging di intatta<em&gt; Drosophila melanogaster</em&gt; Larve. Abbiamo utilizzato il anestetico volatile desflurano per consentire immagini ripetitive a livello sub-cellulare risoluzione e re-identificazione di strutture fino a pochi giorni<sup&gt; 1</sup&gt;.

Imaging in vivo di intatto Larve di Drosophila a livello sub-cellulare Risoluzione

Recent improvements in optical imaging, genetically encoded fluorophores and genetic tools allowing efficient establishment of desired transgenic animal ...

in-vivo-imaging-of-intact-drosophila-larvae-at-sub-cellular-resolution

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

In vivo Imaging of Intact Drosophila Larvae at Sub-cellular Resolution

14.5K Views.  University of Tübingen. Questo protocollo descrive un metodo affidabile per l'anestesia e l'imaging di intatta Drosophila melanogaster Larve. Abbiamo utilizzato il anestetico volatile desflurano per consentire immagini ripetitive a livello sub-cellulare risoluzione e re-identificazione di strutture fino a pochi giorni 1.

Video: In vivo Imaging of Intact Drosophila Larvae at Sub-cellular Resolution

High-resolution Measurement of Odor-Driven Behavior in Drosophila Larvae

Olfactory responses in Drosophila larvae have been traditionally studied in Petri dishes comprising a single peripheral odor source. In this behavioral paradigm, the experimenter usually assumes that the rapid diffusion of odorant molecules from the source leads to the creation of a stable gradient in the dish. To establish a quantitative correlation between sensory inputs and behavioral responses, it is necessary to achieve a more thorough characterization of the odorant stimulus conditions. In this video article, we describe a new method allowing the construction of odorant gradients with stable and controllable geometries. We briefly illustrate how these gradients can be used to screen for olfactory defects (full and partial anosmia) and to study more subtle features of chemotaxis behavior.

In this video article, we describe a new method allowing the construction of odorant gradients with stable and controllable geometries. We briefly illustrate how these gradients can be used to screen for olfactory defects (full and partial anosmia) and to study more subtle features of chemotaxis behavior.

Ad alta risoluzione misurazione del comportamento Odor-Driven in Larve Drosophila

Olfactory responses in Drosophila larvae have been traditionally studied in Petri dishes comprising a single peripheral odor source. In this behavioral ...

Ricerca

Biologia

Labeling hESCs and hMSCs with Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Non-Invasive in vivo Tracking with MR Imaging

In recent years, stem cell research has led to a better understanding of developmental biology, various diseases and its potential impact on regenerative medicine. A non-invasive method to monitor the transplanted stem cells repeatedly in vivo would greatly enhance our ability to understand the mechanisms that control stem cell death and identify trophic factors and signaling pathways that improve stem cell engraftment. MR imaging has been proven to be an effective tool for the in vivo depiction of stem cells with near microscopic anatomical resolution. In order to detect stem cells with MR, the cells have to be labeled with cell specific MR contrast agents. For this purpose, iron oxide nanoparticles, such as superparamagnetic iron oxide particles (SPIO), are applied, because of their high sensitivity for cell detection and their excellent biocompatibility. SPIO particles are composed of an iron oxide core and a dextran, carboxydextran or starch coat, and function by creating local field inhomogeneities, that cause a decreased signal on T2-weighted MR images. This presentation will demonstrate techniques for labeling of stem cells with clinically applicable MR contrast agents for subsequent non-invasive in vivo tracking of the labeled cells with MR imaging.

For the evaluation of new stem cell therapies it is important to non-invasively track the injected cells in vivo. This video will show you how to label human mesenchymal and embryonic stem cells with iron oxide based contrast agents in vivo for subsequent MR imaging in vivo.

Etichettatura hESC e hMSCs con nanoparticelle di ossido di ferro per i non-invasiva in vivo inseguimento con la RM

In recent years, stem cell research has led to a better understanding of developmental biology, various diseases and its potential impact on regenerative ...

High-Resolution Video Tracking of Locomotion in Adult Drosophila Melanogaster

Flies provide an important model for studying complex behavior due to the plethora of genetic tools available to researchers in this field. Studying locomotor behavior in Drosophila melanogaster relies on the ability to be able to quantify changes in motion during or in response to a given task. For this reason, a high-resolution video tracking system, such as the one we describe in this paper, is a valuable tool for measuring locomotion in real-time. Our protocol involves the use of an initial air pulse to break the flies momentum, followed by a thirty second filming period in a square chamber. A tracking program is then used to calculate the instantaneous speed of each fly within the chamber in 10 msec increments. Analysis software then compiles this data, and outputs a variety of parameters such as average speed, max speed, time spent in motion, acceleration, etc. This protocol will discuss proper feeding and management of flies for behavioral tasks, handling flies without anesthetization or immobilization, setting up a controlled environment, and running the assay from start to finish.

The study of complex locomotor behavior in Drosophila melanogaster is dependent upon the ability to quantify changes in a given fly's movement. This article demonstrates how to do this using a high-resolution tracking system.

Monitoraggio ad alta risoluzione video di locomozione per adulti in Drosophila melanogaster

Flies provide an important model for studying complex behavior due to the plethora of genetic tools available to researchers in this field.  Studying ...

Mesoscopic Fluorescence Tomography for In-vivo Imaging of Developing Drosophila

Visualizing developing organ formation as well as progession and treatment of disease often heavily relies on the ability to optically interrogate molecular and functional changes in intact living organisms. Most existing optical imaging methods are inadequate for imaging at dimensions that lie between the penetration limits of modern optical microscopy (0.5-1mm) and the diffusion-imposed limits of optical macroscopy (&gt;1cm) [1]. Thus, many important model organisms, e.g. insects, animal embryos or small animal extremities, remain inaccessible for in-vivo optical imaging. 
Although there is increasing interest towards the development of nanometer-resolution optical imaging methods, there have not been many successful efforts in improving the imaging penetration depth. The ability to perform in-vivo imaging beyond microscopy limits is in fact met with the difficulties associated with photon scattering present in tissues. Recent efforts to image entire embryos for example [2,3] require special chemical treatment of the specimen, to clear them from scattering, a procedure that makes them suitable only for post-mortem imaging. These methods however evidence the need for imaging larger specimens than the ones usually allowed by two-photon or confocal microscopy, especially in developmental biology and in drug discovery.
We have developed a new optical imaging technique named Mesoscopic Fluorescence Tomography [4], which appropriate for non-invasive in-vivo imaging at dimensions of 1mm-5mm. The method exchanges resolution for penetration depth, but offers unprecedented tomographic imaging performance and it has been developed to add time as a new dimension in developmental biology observations (and possibly other areas of biological research) by imparting the ability to image the evolution of fluorescence-tagged responses over time. As such it can accelerate studies of morphological or functional dependencies on gene mutations or external stimuli, and can importantly, capture the complete picture of development or tissue function by allowing longitudinal time-lapse visualization of the same, developing organism.
The technique utilizes a modified laboratory microscope and multi-projection illumination to collect data at 360-degree projections. It applies the Fermi simplification to Fokker-Plank solution of the photon transport equation, combined with geometrical optics principles in order to build a realistic inversion scheme suitable for mesoscopic range. This allows in-vivo whole-body visualization of non-transparent three-dimensional structures in samples up to several millimeters in size.
We have demonstrated the in-vivo performance of the technique by imaging three-dimensional structures of developing Drosophila tissues in-vivo and by following the morphogenesis of the wings in the opaque Drosophila pupae in real time over six consecutive hours.

Mesoscopic Fluorescence Tomography for In-vivo Imaging of Developing Drosophila

Mesoscopic fluorescence tomography operates beyond the penetration limits of tissue-sectioning fluorescence microscopy. The technique is based on multi-projection illumination and a photon transport description. We demonstrate in-vivo whole-body 3D visualization of the morphogenesis of GFP-expressing wing imaginal discs in Drosophila melanogaster.

Mesoscopici fluorescenza per Tomografia In-vivo Imaging di sviluppo Drosophila</em

Visualizing  developing organ formation as well as progession and treatment of disease often  heavily relies on the ability to optically interrogate ...

In-vivo Centrifugation of Drosophila Embryos

A major strategy for purifying and isolating different types of intracellular organelles is to separate them from each other based on differences in buoyant density. However, when cells are disrupted prior to centrifugation, proteins and organelles in this non-native environment often inappropriately stick to each other. Here we describe a method to separate organelles by density in intact, living Drosophila embryos. Early embryos before cellularization are harvested from population cages, and their outer egg shells are removed by treatment with 50% bleach. Embryos are then transferred to a small agar plate and inserted, posterior end first, into small vertical holes in the agar. The plates containing embedded embryos are centrifuged for 30 min at 3000g. The agar supports the embryos and keeps them in a defined orientation. Afterwards, the embryos are dug out of the agar with a blunt needle. Centrifugation separates major organelles into distinct layers, a stratification easily visible by bright-field microscopy. A number of fluorescent markers are available to confirm successful stratification in living embryos. Proteins associated with certain organelles will be enriched in a particular layer, demonstrating colocalization. Individual layers can be recovered for biochemical analysis or transplantation into donor eggs. This technique is applicable for organelle separation in other large cells, including the eggs and oocytes of diverse species.

In-vivo Centrifugation of Drosophila Embryos

We describe a method to separate organelles by density in living Drosophila embryos. Embryos are embedded in agar and centrifuged. This technique yields reproducible separation of major organelles along the anterior-posterior embryo axis. This method facilitates colocalization experiments and yields organelle fractions for biochemical analysis and transplantation experiments.

In vivo centrifugazione di embrioni di Drosophila

A major strategy for purifying and isolating different types of intracellular organelles is to separate them from each other based on differences in ...

Imaging Cell Shape Change in Living Drosophila Embryos

The developing Drosophila melanogaster embryo undergoes a number of cell shape changes that are highly amenable to live confocal imaging. Cell shape changes in the fly are analogous to those in higher organisms, and they drive tissue morphogenesis. So, in many cases, their study has direct implications for understanding human disease (Table 1)1-5. On the sub-cellular scale, these cell shape changes are the product of activities ranging from gene expression to signal transduction, cell polarity, cytoskeletal remodeling and membrane trafficking. Thus, the Drosophila embryo provides not only the context to evaluate cell shape changes as they relate to tissue morphogenesis, but also offers a completely physiological environment to study the sub-cellular activities that shape cells.
The protocol described here is designed to image a specific cell shape change called cellularization. Cellularization is a process of dramatic plasma membrane growth, and it ultimately converts the syncytial embryo into the cellular blastoderm. That is, at interphase of mitotic cycle 14, the plasma membrane simultaneously invaginates around each of ~6000 cortically anchored nuclei to generate a sheet of primary epithelial cells. Counter to previous suggestions, cellularization is not driven by Myosin-2 contractility6, but is instead fueled largely by exocytosis of membrane from internal stores7. Thus, cellularization is an excellent system for studying membrane trafficking during cell shape changes that require plasma membrane invagination or expansion, such as cytokinesis or transverse-tubule (T-tubule) morphogenesis in muscle.
Note that this protocol is easily applied to the imaging of other cell shape changes in the fly embryo, and only requires slight adaptations such as changing the stage of embryo collection, or using "embryo glue" to mount the embryo in a specific orientation (Table 1)8-19. In all cases, the workflow is basically the same (Figure 1). Standard methods for cloning and Drosophila transgenesis are used to prepare stable fly stocks that express a protein of interest, fused to Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) or its variants, and these flies provide a renewable source of embryos. Alternatively, fluorescent proteins/probes are directly introduced into fly embryos via straightforward micro-injection techniques9-10. Then, depending on the developmental event and cell shape change to be imaged, embryos are collected and staged by morphology on a dissecting microscope, and finally positioned and mounted for time-lapse imaging on a confocal microscope.

Imaging Cell Shape Change in Living Drosophila Embryos

Early development of the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, is characterized by a number of cell shape changes that are well suited for imaging approaches. This article will describe basic tools and methods required for live confocal imaging of Drosophila embryos, and will focus on a cell shape change called cellularization.

Imaging Forma Modifica cella in Living Drosophila Embrioni

The developing Drosophila melanogaster embryo undergoes a number of cell shape changes that are highly amenable to live confocal imaging.  Cell shape ...

Microgavage of Zebrafish Larvae

The zebrafish has emerged as a powerful model organism for studying intestinal development1-5, physiology6-11, disease12-16, and host-microbe interactions17-25. Experimental approaches for studying intestinal biology often require the in vivo introduction of selected materials into the lumen of the intestine. In the larval zebrafish model, this is typically accomplished by immersing fish in a solution of the selected material, or by injection through the abdominal wall. Using the immersion method, it is difficult to accurately monitor or control the route or timing of material delivery to the intestine. For this reason, immersion exposure can cause unintended toxicity and other effects on extraintestinal tissues, limiting the potential range of material amounts that can be delivered into the intestine. Also, the amount of material ingested during immersion exposure can vary significantly between individual larvae26. Although these problems are not encountered during direct injection through the abdominal wall, proper injection is difficult and causes tissue damage which could influence experimental results. We introduce a method for microgavage of zebrafish larvae. The goal of this method is to provide a safe, effective, and consistent way to deliver material directly to the lumen of the anterior intestine in larval zebrafish with controlled timing. Microgavage utilizes standard embryo microinjection and stereomicroscopy equipment common to most laboratories that perform zebrafish research. Once fish are properly positioned in methylcellulose, gavage can be performed quickly at a rate of approximately 7-10 fish/ min, and post-gavage survival approaches 100% depending on the gavaged material. We also show that microgavage can permit loading of the intestinal lumen with high concentrations of materials that are lethal to fish when exposed by immersion. To demonstrate the utility of this method, we present a fluorescent dextran microgavage assay that can be used to quantify transit from the intestinal lumen to extraintestinal spaces. This test can be used to verify proper execution of the microgavage procedure, and also provides a novel zebrafish assay to examine intestinal epithelial barrier integrity under different experimental conditions (e.g. genetic manipulation, drug treatment, or exposure to environmental factors). Furthermore, we show how gavage can be used to evaluate intestinal motility by gavaging fluorescent microspheres and monitoring their subsequent transit. Microgavage can be applied to deliver diverse materials such as live microorganisms, secreted microbial factors/toxins, pharmacological agents, and physiological probes. With these capabilities, the larval zebrafish microgavage method has the potential to enhance a broad range of research fields using the zebrafish model system.

We present a novel method for microgavage of larval zebrafish utilizing standard embryo microinjection and stereomicroscopy equipment. We demonstrate that microgavage is a safe and efficient technique useful for delivering controlled amounts of diverse materials specifically into the larval zebrafish intestinal lumen.

Microgavage di larve Zebrafish

The zebrafish has emerged as a powerful model organism for studying intestinal development1-5, physiology6-11, disease12-16, and host-microbe ...

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

The proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal development in all metazoan organisms. Apoptotic cell clearance is a highly dynamic process intimately associated with cell death; unengulfed apoptotic cells are barely seen in vivo under normal conditions. In order to understand the different steps of apoptotic cell clearance and to compare 'professional' phagocytes - macrophages and dendritic cells to 'non-professional' - tissue-resident neighboring cells, in vivo live imaging of the process is extremely valuable. Here we describe a protocol for studying apoptotic cell clearance in live Drosophila embryos. To follow the dynamics of different steps in phagocytosis we use specific markers for apoptotic cells and phagocytes. In addition, we can monitor two phagocyte systems in parallel: 'professional' macrophages and 'semi-professional' glia in the developing central nervous system (CNS). The method described here employs the Drosophila embryo as an excellent model for real time studies of apoptotic cell clearance.

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

Here we describe an effective method for studying dynamics of apoptotic cell clearance in vivo. This method employs live Drosophila embryos as a powerful model for monitoring phagocytosis of apoptotic cells using specific labeling of apoptotic cells and phagocytes.

Vivere Imaging di apoptotica delle cellule libera nel corso<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Embriogenesi

The  proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and  subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal  ...

Ex vivo Method for High Resolution Imaging of Cilia Motility in Rodent Airway Epithelia

An ex vivo technique for imaging mouse airway epithelia for quantitative analysis of motile cilia function important for insight into mucociliary clearance function has been established. Freshly harvested mouse trachea is cut longitudinally through the trachealis muscle and mounted in a shallow walled chamber on a glass-bottomed dish. The trachea sample is positioned along its long axis to take advantage of the trachealis muscle to curl longitudinally. This allows imaging of ciliary motion in the profile view along the entire tracheal length. Videos at 200 frames/sec are obtained using differential interference contrast microscopy and a high speed digital camera to allow quantitative analysis of cilia beat frequency and ciliary waveform. With the addition of fluorescent beads during imaging, cilia generated fluid flow also can be determined. The protocol time spans approximately 30 min, with 5 min for chamber preparation, 5-10 min for sample mounting, and 10-15 min for videomicroscopy.

Ex vivo Method for High Resolution Imaging of Cilia Motility in Rodent Airway Epithelia

An easy and reliable technique for visualizing and quantifying airway cilia motility and cilia generated flow using mouse trachea is described. This technique can be modified to determine how a wide range of factors influence cilia motility, including pharmacological agents, genetic factors, environmental exposures, and/or mechanical factors such as mucus load.

Metodo ex vivo per l&#39;imaging ad alta risoluzione di Cilia Motilità in roditori Airway epiteli

An ex vivo technique for imaging mouse airway epithelia for quantitative  analysis of motile cilia function important for insight into mucociliary  ...

Confocal Imaging of Single Mitochondrial Superoxide Flashes in Intact Heart or In Vivo

Mitochondrion is a critical intracellular organelle responsible for energy production and intracellular signaling in eukaryotic systems. Mitochondrial dysfunction often accompanies and contributes to human disease. Majority of the approaches that have been developed to evaluate mitochondrial function and dysfunction are based on in vitro or ex vivo measurements. Results from these experiments have limited ability in determining mitochondrial function in vivo. Here, we describe a novel approach that utilizes confocal scanning microscopy for the imaging of intact tissues in live aminals, which allows the evaluation of single mitochondrial function in a real-time manner in vivo. First, we generate transgenic mice expressing the mitochondrial targeted superoxide indicator, circularly permuted yellow fluorescent protein (mt-cpYFP). Anesthetized mt-cpYFP mouse is fixed on a custom-made stage adaptor and time-lapse images are taken from the exposed skeletal muscles of the hindlimb. The mouse is subsequently sacrificed and the heart is set up for Langendorff perfusion with physiological solutions at 37 &deg;C. The perfused heart is positioned in a special chamber on the confocal microscope stage and gentle pressure is applied to immobilize the heart and suppress heart beat induced motion artifact. Superoxide flashes are detected by real-time 2D confocal imaging at a frequency of one frame per second. The perfusion solution can be modified to contain different respiration substrates or other fluorescent indicators. The perfusion can also be adjusted to produce disease models such as ischemia and reperfusion. This technique is a unique approach for determining the function of single mitochondrion in intact tissues and in vivo.

Confocal Imaging of Single Mitochondrial Superoxide Flashes in Intact Heart or In Vivo

Confocal scanning microscopy is applied for imaging single mitochondrial events in perfused heart or skeletal muscles in live animal. Real-time monitoring of single mitochondrial processes such as superoxide flashes and membrane potential fluctuations enables the evaluation of mitochondrial function in a physiologically relevant context and during pathological perturbations.

Imaging confocale delle singole mitocondriali superossido illumina di cuore intatto o<em&gt; In Vivo</em

Mitochondrion is a critical intracellular organelle responsible for energy production and intracellular signaling in eukaryotic systems. Mitochondrial ...