La ricerca sostenuta da un finanziamento della Midwestern University Ufficio di programmi di ricerca e sponsorizzati. Grazie anche al Fondo Midwestern University animali e Erik Warren.

<ol>
	<li>Butler, P. J., Jones, D. R., Lowenstein, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Advances in Comparative Physiology and Biochemistry. 8, 179-364 (1982).</li><li>Butler, P. J., Jones, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physiology+of+diving+birds+and+mammals).">Physiology of diving birds and mammals).</a> Physiol. Rev. 77, 837-899 (1997).</li><li>Butler, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metabolic+regulation+in+diving+birds+and+mammals.">Metabolic regulation in diving birds and mammals.</a> Resp. Physiol. Neurobiol. 141, 297-315 (2004).</li><li>Foster, G. E., Sheel, A. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+human+diving+response,+its+function,+and+its+control.">The human diving response, its function, and its control.</a> Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports. 15, 3-12 (2005).</li><li>Lindholm, P., Lundgren, C. E. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+physiology+and+pathophysiology+of+human+breath-hold+diving.">The physiology and pathophysiology of human breath-hold diving.</a> J. Appl. Physiol. 106, 284-292 (2009).</li><li>McCulloch, P. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Animal+models+for+investigating+the+central+control+of+the+mammalian+diving+response.">Animal models for investigating the central control of the mammalian diving response.</a> Front. Physiol. 3, 1-16 (2012).</li><li>Krogh, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+progress+of+physiology.">The progress of physiology.</a> Am. J. Physiol. 90, 243-251 (1929).</li><li>Panneton, W. M., Gan, Q., Juric, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+rat:+a+laboratory+model+for+studies+of+the+diving+response.">The rat: a laboratory model for studies of the diving response.</a> J. Appl. Physiol. 108, 811-820 (2010).</li><li>Lin, Y. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autonomic+nervous+control+of+cardiovascular+responses+during+diving+in+the+rat.">Autonomic nervous control of cardiovascular responses during diving in the rat.</a> Am. J. Physiol. 227, 601-605 (1974).</li><li>Lin, Y. C., Baker, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cardiac+output+and+its+distribution+during+diving+in+the+rat.">Cardiac output and its distribution during diving in the rat.</a> Am. J. Physiol. 228, 733-737 (1975).</li><li>Huang, T. F., Peng, Y. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+the+chemoreceptors+in+diving+bradycardia+in+the+rat.">Role of the chemoreceptors in diving bradycardia in the rat.</a> Jap. J. Physiol. 26, 395-401 (1976).</li><li>Fahlman, A., Bostrom, B. L., Dillon, K. H., Jones, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+genetic+component+of+the+forced+diving+bradycardia+response+in+mammals.">The genetic component of the forced diving bradycardia response in mammals.</a> Front. Physiol. 2, 1-7 (2011).</li><li>Blix, A. S., Folkow, B., Shepher, J. T., Abboud, F. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Handbook of Physiology. , 917-944 (1984).</li><li>Kooyman, G. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diverse+Divers.">Diverse Divers.</a> 200, (1989).</li><li>MacArthur, R. A., Karpan, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heart+rates+of+muskrats+diving+under+simulated+field+conditions:+persistence+of+the+bradycardia+response+and+factors+modifying+its+expression.">Heart rates of muskrats diving under simulated field conditions: persistence of the bradycardia response and factors modifying its expression.</a> Can. J. Zool. 67, 1783-1792 (1989).</li><li>McCulloch, P. F., Jones, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cortical+influences+on+diving+bradycardia+in+muskrats+(Ondatra+zibethicus).">Cortical influences on diving bradycardia in muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus).</a> Physiol. Zool. 63, 1098-1117 (1990).</li><li>McCulloch, P. F., Dinovo, K. M., Connolly, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cardiovascular+and+endocrine+responses+to+voluntary+and+forced+diving+in+trained+and+untrained+rats.">The cardiovascular and endocrine responses to voluntary and forced diving in trained and untrained rats.</a> Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 298, 224-234 (2010).</li><li>Panneton, W. M., Gan, Q., Dahms, T. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cardiorespiratory+and+neural+consequences+of+rats+brought+past+their+aerobic+dive+limit.">Cardiorespiratory and neural consequences of rats brought past their aerobic dive limit.</a> J. Appl. Physiol. 109, 1256-1269 (2010).</li><li>Chotiyanonta, J. S., DiNovo, K. M., McCulloch, P. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bilateral+sectioning+of+the+anterior+ethmoidal+nerves+does+not+eliminate+the+diving+response+in+voluntarily+diving+rats.">Bilateral sectioning of the anterior ethmoidal nerves does not eliminate the diving response in voluntarily diving rats.</a> Physiol. Reports. 1, (2013).</li><li>Panneton, W. M., Anch, A. M., Panneton, W. M., Gan, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Parasympathetic+preganglionic+cardiac+motoneurons+labeled+after+voluntary+diving.">Parasympathetic preganglionic cardiac motoneurons labeled after voluntary diving.</a> Front. Physiol. 5, 1-10 (2014).</li><li>McCulloch, P. F., Ollenberger, G. P., Bekar, L. K., West, N. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trigeminal+and+chemoreceptor+contributions+to+bradycardia+during+voluntary+dives+in+rats.">Trigeminal and chemoreceptor contributions to bradycardia during voluntary dives in rats.</a> Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 273, 814-822 (1997).</li><li>Ollenberger, G. P., Matte, G., Wilkinson, A. A., West, N. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Relative+distribution+of+blood+flow+in+rats+during+surface+and+submerged+swimming.">Relative distribution of blood flow in rats during surface and submerged swimming.</a> Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A. 119, 271-277 (1998).</li><li>Ollenberger, G. P., West, N. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distribution+of+regional+cerebral+blood+flow+in+voluntarily+diving+rats.">Distribution of regional cerebral blood flow in voluntarily diving rats.</a> J. Exp. Biol. 201, 549-558 (1998).</li><li>McCulloch, P. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+the+trigeminal+medullary+dorsal+horn+during+voluntary+diving+in+rats.">Activation of the trigeminal medullary dorsal horn during voluntary diving in rats.</a> Brain Res. 1051, 194-198 (2005).</li><li>Panneton, W. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+brainstem+neurons+by+underwater+diving+in+the+rat.">Activation of brainstem neurons by underwater diving in the rat.</a> Front. Physiol. 3, 1-13 (2012).</li><li>McCulloch, P. F., Panneton, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+brainstem+catecholaminergic+neurons+during+voluntary+diving+in+rats.">Activation of brainstem catecholaminergic neurons during voluntary diving in rats.</a> Brain Res. 984, 42-53 (2003).</li><li>McCulloch, P. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Globosa+neurons:+a+distinct+subgroup+of+noradrenergic+neurons+in+the+caudal+pons+of+rats.">Globosa neurons: a distinct subgroup of noradrenergic neurons in the caudal pons of rats.</a> Brain Res. 964, 164-167 (2003).</li><li>Panneton, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mammalian+diving+response:+an+enigmatic+reflex+to+preserve+life.">The mammalian diving response: an enigmatic reflex to preserve life.</a> Physiology. 28, 284-297 (2013).</li></ol>

L&#39;autore è un consulente per Stoelting Società, e ha fornito la progettazione e le specifiche del McCulloch Dive serbatoio Maze complessiva a loro per fini commerciali.

Ratti nella loro forma selvatici possono e sfruttare gli ambienti semi-acquatici, e spesso tuffarsi sott&#39;acqua, mentre alla ricerca di cibo 6. Così non è troppo sorprendente che i ratti possono essere facilmente addestrati a tuffarsi volontariamente sott&#39;acqua. Le procedure di formazione descritte possono durare fino a 6 settimane, che porteranno i ratti appena svezzati ad una dimensione del corpo utilizzato nella maggior parte atlanti del cervello di ratto adulto (~ 300 g). Così i cervelli di ques...

The diving response consists of a suite of autonomic reflexes seen in animals of all vertebrate classes 1. In response to submersion under water, this reflexly-induced response consists of apnea, bradycardia and an alteration of blood flow that maintains flow to the heart, brain and exercising muscles while limiting flow to viscera and non-exercising muscles 2. Many of the metabolic and cardiorespiratory aspects of the mammalian diving response have been well investigated 2,3, including those in humans 4,5. However, what has been relatively lacking, until recently, is investigation of the central integrative aspects of the diving response. What happens within the brainstem, and what is the neuronal step-by-step pathway, that connects afferent inputs to efferent outputs during this autonomic reflex? Answering these questions will require an appropriate animal model 6. An adage in comparative physiology, the Krogh principle 7, is that for every research question there is some animal of choice on which the problem can be most conveniently studied. A most appropriate animal for studying the central aspects of the diving response is the rat 6,8. In large part this is due to the fact that the brains of rats have been very well characterized, both anatomically and functionally, and many rat brain atlases are available 6. Additionally the rat is particularly useful in cardiorespiratory research, because the physiology of the rat is well known across all major organ systems, and the rat is well regarded as an animal model in systems biology 6. Finally, the laboratory rat is the domesticated version of the wild Rattus norvegicus, an animal that routinely swims and dives underwater 6. Based on these considerations, the rat is a good choice for studies investigating the central aspects of the mammalian diving response. In comparison, using marine animals to investigate the central aspects of the mammalian diving response would be much more difficult. This is due in large part to marine animals having comparatively large and non-uniformly sized brains, and the relative difficulty and high cost of housing these animals.
Rats have previously been used to investigate many aspects of the mammalian diving response, primarily in situations involving forced underwater submergence 9-12. However many studies in marine and aquatic animals have shown that there can be a differential response to diving based upon whether the submergence was forced or voluntary 2,13. Diving animals may show an extremely intense bradycardia during forced diving but a much less intense bradycardia during voluntary diving. The &#8220;stress&#8221; of forced submergence can significantly change the cardiovascular responses of diving in many animals 14. Small rodents such as muskrats also show a more intense diving response during forced submergence than during voluntary diving 15,16. Thus, if rats are to be used to investigate the central aspects of the mammalian diving response, investigators should be aware that a rat forcibly submerged underwater may produce a response different from that of a voluntarily diving rat. 
The goal of this article is to provide detailed instructions on how to train rats to voluntarily dive underwater. These procedures are not technically difficult, but can be time-consuming. The training is conducted in such a way as to reduce the stressfulness that could otherwise be associated with forced underwater submergence. This voluntary diving technique should minimize activation of central stress pathways and thus better allow investigation of the central aspects of the diving response. By itself, training rats to voluntarily dive underwater generates no data that can be used to investigate the central aspects of the mammalian diving response. Therefore examples of how voluntarily diving rats have been used in conjunction with other physiological and neuroanatomical research techniques, and how the basic dive training may need to be modified to accommodate theses other techniques, are also provided.

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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:247px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">1 in internal diameter tubing&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">14-169-63</td>
			<td>Used to fill or drain tank</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">N95 mask - Moldex #2300N Series</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">19-003-246D</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Used to limit inhalation of rat allergens</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:247px;">Plexiglas rodent restraint device (Economy flat bottomed restrainer)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Braintree</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">FB-M/L&#160;</td>
			<td>For forced dives</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Telemetric transmitters&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">DSI</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Model PA-C40 (270-0040-008)</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Used to transmit pulsatile arterial blood pressure</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="105">
			<td height="105" style="height:105px;">Hand-held antenna wand</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">DSI</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Model RLA 3000 (272-5007)</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Used to ensure radio antenna is near to transmitter while rat is negotiating underwater maze</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Intramedic PE50, 0.023&#34; ID</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">14-170-12B</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Used as trailing arterial cannula</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

training rats to voluntarily dive underwater: investigations of the mammalian diving response

Underwater submergence produces autonomic changes that are observed in virtually all diving animals. This reflexly-induced response consists of apnea, a parasympathetically-induced bradycardia and a sympathetically-induced alteration of vascular resistance that maintains blood flow to the heart, brain and exercising muscles. While many of the metabolic and cardiorespiratory aspects of the diving response have been studied in marine animals, investigations of the central integrative aspects of this brainstem reflex have been relatively lacking. Because the physiology and neuroanatomy of the rat are well characterized, the rat can be used to help ascertain the central pathways of the mammalian diving response. Detailed instructions are provided on how to train rats to swim and voluntarily dive underwater through a 5 m long Plexiglas maze. Considerations regarding tank design and procedure room requirements are also given. The behavioral training is conducted in such a way as to reduce the stressfulness that could otherwise be associated with forced underwater submergence, thus minimizing activation of central stress pathways. The training procedures are not technically difficult, but they can be time-consuming. Since behavioral training of animals can only provide a model to be used with other experimental techniques, examples of how voluntarily diving rats have been used in conjunction with other physiological and neuroanatomical research techniques, and how the basic training procedures may need to be modified to accommodate these techniques, are also provided. These experiments show that voluntarily diving rats exhibit the same cardiorespiratory changes typically seen in other diving animals. The ease with which rats can be trained to voluntarily dive underwater, and the already available data from rats collected in other neurophysiological studies, makes voluntarily diving rats a good behavioral model to be used in studies investigating the central aspects of the mammalian diving response.

Il completamento delle procedure di formazione di nuoto e le immersioni descritte può diminuire lo stress sperimentato da ratti durante le immersioni sott&#39;acqua. I livelli di corticosterone nel sangue indicano che l&#39;allenamento quotidiano ripetitivo diminuisce la stressanti associati alle immersioni volontaria, e ratti addestrati a trovare le immersioni più stressante che essere gestito giornalmente da un essere umano (figura 2; 17). Al contrario, i ratti non addestrati nel protocol...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Training Rats to Voluntarily Dive Underwater: Investigations of the Mammalian Diving Response at JoVE.com

Training Rats to Voluntarily Dive Underwater: Investigations of the Mammalian Diving Response

Detailed instructions are provided on how to train rats to voluntarily dive underwater through a 5 m long Plexiglas maze. Because the brains of rats have been very well characterized, voluntarily diving rats may help elucidate the central pathways of the mammalian diving response.

I ratti di formazione per immersione subacquea volontariamente: Indagini della risposta Diving mammiferi

Underwater submergence produces autonomic changes that are observed in virtually all diving animals. This reflexly-induced response consists of apnea, a ...

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12.2K Views.  Midwestern University. Detailed instructions are provided on how to train rats to voluntarily dive underwater through a 5 m long Plexiglas maze. Because the brains of rats have been very well characterized, voluntarily diving rats may help elucidate the central pathways of the mammalian diving response.

Video: Training Rats to Voluntarily Dive Underwater: Investigations of the Mammalian Diving Response

The Successive Alleys Test of Anxiety in Mice and Rats

The plus-maze was derived from the early work of Montgomery. He observed that rats tended to avoid the open arms of a maze, preferring the enclosed ones. Handley, Mithani and File et al. performed the first studies on the plus-maze design we use today, and in 1987 Lister published a design for use with mice. 
Time spent on, and entries into, the open arms are an index of anxiety; the lower these indices, the more anxious the mouse is. Alternatively, a mouse that spends most of its time in the closed arms is classed as anxious. 
One of the problems of the plus-maze is that, while time spent on, and entries into, the open arms is a fairly unambiguous measure of anxiety, time in the central area is more difficult to interpret, although time spent here has been classified as &#x201C;decision making&#x201D;. In many tests central area time is a considerable part of the total test time.
Shepherd et al. produced an ingenious design to eliminate the central area, which they called the &#x201C;zero maze&#x201D;. However, although used by several groups, it has never been as widely adopted as the plus-maze. 
In the present article I describe a modification of the plus-maze design that not only eliminates the central area but also incorporates elements from other anxiety tests, such as the light-dark box and emergence tests. It is a linear series of four alleys, each having increasing anxiogenic properties. It has given similar results to the plus-maze in general. Although it may not be more sensitive than the plus-maze (more data is needed before a firm conclusion can be reached on this point), it provides a useful confirmation of plus-maze results which would be useful when, for example, only a single example of a mutant mouse was available, as, for example, in ENU-based mutagenesis programs.

The plus-maze measures anxiety-like behaviour in rodents. There are two opposite closed and two opposite open arms; anxious rodents avoid the open arms. The central area is neither completely open nor closed, so time spent here is ambiguous and difficult to interpret. Here a modification of the plus-maze protocol eliminating this area is described.

Le successive Vicoli test di ansia nei topi e nei ratti

The plus-maze was derived from the early work of Montgomery. He observed that rats tended to avoid the open arms of a maze, preferring the enclosed ones.  ...

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A Method for Evaluating the Reinforcing Properties of Ethanol in Rats without Water Deprivation, Saccharin Fading or Extended Access Training

Operant oral self-administration methods are commonly used to study the reinforcing properties of ethanol in animals. However, the standard methods require saccharin/sucrose fading, water deprivation and/or extended training to initiate operant responding in rats. This paper describes a novel and efficient method to quickly initiate operant responding for ethanol that is convenient for experimenters and does not require water deprivation or saccharin/sucrose fading, thus eliminating the potential confound of using sweeteners in ethanol operant self-administration studies. With this method, Wistar rats typically acquire and maintain self-administration of a 20% ethanol solution in less than two weeks of training. Furthermore, blood ethanol concentrations and rewards are positively correlated for a 30 min self-administration session. Moreover, naltrexone, an FDA-approved medication for alcohol dependence that has been shown to suppress ethanol self-administration in rodents, dose-dependently decreases alcohol intake and motivation to consume alcohol for rats self-administering 20% ethanol, thus validating the use of this new method to study the reinforcing properties of alcohol in rats.

This protocol describes a novel and efficient method to quickly initiate operant responding for ethanol in rats that, contrary to standard methods, does not require water deprivation or saccharin/sucrose fading to initiate responding.

Un metodo per valutare le proprietà di rinforzo di etanolo in ratti senza acqua privazione, Saccarina dissolvenza o di formazione accesso esteso

Operant oral self-administration methods are commonly used to study the reinforcing properties of ethanol in animals. However, the standard methods ...

Pavlovian Conditioned Approach Training in Rats

Cues that are contingently paired with unconditioned, rewarding stimuli can acquire rewarding properties themselves through a process known as the attribution of incentive salience, or the transformation of neutral stimuli into attractive, &#34;wanted&#39; stimuli capable of motivating behavior. Pavlovian conditioned approach (PCA) develops after the response-independent presentation of a conditioned stimulus (CS; e.g., a lever) that predicts the delivery of an unconditioned stimulus (US; e.g., a food pellet) and can be used to measure incentive salience. During training, three patterns of conditioned responses (CRs) can develop: sign-tracking behavior (CS-directed CR), goal-tracking behavior (US-directed CR), and an intermediate response (both CRs). Sign-trackers attribute incentive salience to reward-related cues and are more vulnerable to cue-induced reinstatement of drug-seeking as well as other addiction-related behaviors, making PCA a potentially valuable procedure for studying addiction vulnerability. Here, we describe materials and methods used to elicit PCA behavior from rats as well as analyze and interpret PCA behavior in individual experiments.

Here, we present a protocol to elicit Pavlovian conditioned approach behavior in rats. This procedure can be used to measure individual differences in the tendency to approach and attribute incentive salience to reward-related cues and investigate addiction vulnerability.

Pavloviano Training Approach condizionati in Rats

Cues that are contingently paired with unconditioned, rewarding stimuli can acquire rewarding properties themselves through a process known as the ...

Paradigms of Lower Extremity Electrical Stimulation Training After Spinal Cord Injury

Skeletal muscle atrophy, increased adiposity and reduced physical activity are key changes observed after spinal cord injury (SCI) and are associated with numerous cardiometabolic health consequences. These changes are likely to increase the risk of developing chronic secondary conditions and impact the quality of life in persons with SCI. Surface neuromuscular electrical stimulation evoked resistance training (NMES-RT) was developed as a strategy to attenuate the process of skeletal muscle atrophy, decrease ectopic adiposity, improve insulin sensitivity and enhance mitochondrial capacity. However, NMES-RT is limited to only a single muscle group. Involving multiple muscle groups of the lower extremities may maximize the health benefits of training. Functional electrical stimulation-lower extremity cycling (FES-LEC) allows for the activation of 6 muscle groups, which is likely to evoke greater metabolic and cardiovascular adaptation. Appropriate knowledge of the stimulation parameters is key to maximizing the outcomes of electrical stimulation training in persons with SCI. Adopting strategies for long-term use of NMES-RT and FES-LEC during rehabilitation may maintain the integrity of the musculoskeletal system, a pre-requisite for clinical trials aiming to restore walking after injury. The current manuscript presents a combined protocol using NMES-RT prior to FES-LEC. We hypothesize that muscles conditioned for 12 weeks prior to cycling will be capable of generating greater power, cycle against higher resistance and result in greater adaptation in persons with SCI.

Spinal cord injury is a traumatic medical condition that may result in elevated risks of chronic secondary metabolic disorders. Here, we presented a protocol using surface neuromuscular electrical stimulation-resistance training in conjunction with functional electrical stimulation-lower extremities cycling as a strategy to ameliorate several of these medical problems.

Paradigmi della formazione di stimolazione elettrica dell'arto inferiore dopo la ferita del midollo spinale

Skeletal muscle atrophy, increased adiposity and reduced physical activity are key changes observed after spinal cord injury (SCI) and are associated with ...

Using Clicker Training and Social Observation to Teach Rats to Voluntarily Change Cages

Cage cleaning is a routinely performed husbandry procedure and is known to induce stress in laboratory rats. As stress can have a negative impact on well-being and can affect the comparability and reproducibility of research results, the amount of stress experienced by laboratory animals should be minimized and avoided when possible. Further, the direct contact between the rat and animal caretaker during the cage change bears hygiene risks and therefore possibly negatively impacts the well-being of the rats and the quality of the research. 
Our protocol aims to improve the routinely performed cage changing procedure. For this reason, we present a feasible protocol that enables rats to learn via clicker training and observation to voluntarily change to a clean cage. This training helps to reduce stress caused by the physical disturbance and handling associated with the cage changes and concurrently enables a reduction in direct contact between animal and animal caretaker after the training phase is completed.
The implementation of clicker training to rats is fast and easy. Rats are generally interested in the training and efficiently learn the desired behavior, which entails changing cages through a pipe. Even without training, the rats learn to perform the desired behavior by observation, as 80% of the observational learning group successfully changed cages when tested. The training further helps to establish a relationship of trust between trainer and animal. As hygiene and well-being are both very important in animal experiments, this protocol might also help to improve high-quality research.

This protocol introduces a method of cage change for rats via clicker training. Rats learn the desired behavior not only by direct training but also by observational learning. The implementation of this fast and easy protocol might help to improve well-being and hygiene in rodent facilities.

Utilizzando Clicker Training e osservazione sociale per insegnare ratti volontariamente cambiare gabbie

Cage cleaning is a routinely performed husbandry procedure and is known to induce stress in laboratory rats. As stress can have a negative impact on ...

Simultaneous Recordings of Cortical Local Field Potentials and Electrocorticograms in Response to Nociceptive Laser Stimuli from Freely Moving Rats

Electrocortical responses, elicited by laser heat pulses that selectively activate nociceptive free nerve endings, are widely used in many animal and human studies to investigate the cortical processing of nociceptive information. These laser-evoked brain potentials (LEPs) consist of several transient responses that are time-locked to the onset of laser stimuli. However, the functional properties of the LEP responses are still largely unknown, due to the lack of a sampling technique that can simultaneously record neural activities at the surface of the cortex (i.e., electrocorticogram [ECoG] and scalp electroencephalogram [scalp EEG]) and inside the brain (i.e., local field potential [LFP]). To address this issue, we present here an animal protocol using freely moving rats. This protocol is composed of three main procedures: (1) animal preparation and surgical procedures, (2) a simultaneous recording of ECoG and LFP in response to nociceptive laser stimuli, and (3) data analysis and feature extraction. Specifically, with the help of a 3D-printed protective shell, both ECoG and LFP electrodes implanted on the rat&#39;s skull were securely held together. During data collection, laser pulses were delivered on the rat&#39;s forepaws through gaps in the bottom of the chamber when the animal was in spontaneous stillness. Ongoing white noise was played to avoid the activation of the auditory system by the laser-generated ultrasounds. As a consequence, only nociceptive responses were selectively recorded. Using the standard analytical procedures (e.g., band-pass filtering, epoch extraction, and baseline correction) to extract stimulus-related brain responses, we obtained results showing that LEPs with a high signal-to-noise ratio were simultaneously recorded from ECoG and LFP electrodes. This methodology makes the simultaneous recording of ECoG and LFP activities possible, which provides a bridge of electrocortical signals at the mesoscopic and macroscopic levels, thereby facilitating the investigation of nociceptive information processing in the brain.

We developed a technique that simultaneously records both electrocorticography and local field potentials in response to nociceptive laser stimuli from freely moving rats. This technique helps establish a direct relationship of electrocortical signals at the mesoscopic and macroscopic levels, which facilitates the investigation of nociceptive information processing in the brain.

Registrazioni simultanee di potenziali di campo locale corticale ed Electrocorticograms in risposta a stimoli nocicettivi Laser da liberi di muoversi

Electrocortical responses, elicited by laser heat pulses that selectively activate nociceptive free nerve endings, are widely used in many animal and ...

Working Memory Training for Older Participants: A Control Group Training Regimen and Initial Intellectual Functioning Assessment

The efficacy of cognitive training interventions is recently highly debated. There is no consensus on what kind of training regimen is the most effective. Also, individual characteristics as predictors of training outcome are still being investigated. In this article, we show the attempt to address this issue by examining not only the impact of working memory (WM) training on cognitive effectiveness in older adults but also the influence of the initial WM capacity (WMC) on the training&#39;s outcome. We describe in detail how to perform 5 weeks of an adaptive dual n-back training with an active control group (memory quiz). We are focusing here on technical aspects of the training as well as on the initial assessment of participants&#39; WMC. The evaluation of pre and post training performance of other cognitive dimensions was based on the results of tests of memory updating, inhibition, attention shifting, short-term memory (STM) and reasoning. We have found that the initial level of WMC predicts the efficiency of the n-back training intervention. We have also noticed the post training improvement in almost all aspects of cognitive functioning we measured, but those effects were mostly intervention independent.

A cognitive training intervention in elderly population together with the assessment of the pre training cognitive abilities is presented. We show two versions of training - experimental and active control - and demonstrate their effects on the array of cognitive tests.

Formazione sulla memoria di lavoro per i partecipanti più anziani: un regime di formazione del gruppo di controllo e una valutazione iniziale del funzionamento intellettuale

The efficacy of cognitive training interventions is recently highly debated. There is no consensus on what kind of training regimen is the most effective. ...

Generating Acute and Chronic Experimental Models of Motor Tic Expression in Rats

Motor tics are sudden, rapid, recurrent movements that are the key symptoms of Tourette syndrome and other tic disorders. The pathophysiology of tic generation is associated with abnormal inhibition of the basal ganglia, particularly its primary input structure, the striatum. In animal models of both rodents and non-human primates, local application of GABAA antagonists, such as bicuculline and picrotoxin, into the motor parts of the striatum induces local disinhibition resulting in the expression of motor tics.
Here, we present acute and chronic models of motor tics in rats. In the acute model, bicuculline microinjections through a cannula implanted in the dorsal striatum elicit the expression of tics lasting for short time periods of up to an hour. The chronic model is an alternative enabling the extension of tic expression to periods of several days or even weeks, utilizing continuous infusion of bicuculline via a sub-cutaneous mini-osmotic pump.
The models enable the study of the behavioral and neural mechanisms of tic generation throughout the cortico-basal ganglia pathway. The models support the implantation of additional recording and stimulation devices in addition to the injection cannulas, thus allowing for a wide variety of usages such as electrical and optical stimulation and electrophysiological recordings. Each method has different advantages and shortcomings: the acute model enables the comparison of the kinematic properties of movement and the corresponding electrophysiological changes before, during and after tic expression and the effects of short-term modulators on tic expression. This acute model is simple to establish; however, it is limited to a short period of time. The chronic model, while more complex, makes feasible the study of tic dynamics and behavioral effects on tic expression over prolonged periods. Thus, the type of empirical query drives the choice between these two complementary models of tic expression.

We present protocols for generating acute and chronic experimental models of tic expression in freely behaving rats. The models are based on striatal cannula implantation and subsequent GABAA antagonist application. The acute model uses transient injections whereas the chronic model utilizes prolonged infusions via a subcutaneous implanted mini-osmotic pump.

Generazione di modelli sperimentali acuti e cronici di espressione tic motoria nei ratti

Motor tics are sudden, rapid, recurrent movements that are the key symptoms of Tourette syndrome and other tic disorders. The pathophysiology of tic ...

A Complex Diving-For-Food Task to Investigate Social Organization and Interactions in Rats

For many species, where status is a vital motivator that can affect health, social hierarchies influence behavior. Social hierarchies that include dominant-submissive relationships are common in both animal and human societies. These relationships can be affected by interactions with others and with their environment, making them difficult to analyze in a controlled study. Rather than a simple dominance hierarchy, this formation has a complicated presentation that allows rats to avoid aggression. Status can be stagnant or mutable, and results in complex societal stratifications. Here we describe a complex diving-for-food task to investigate rodent social hierarchy and behavioral interactions. This animal model may allow us to assess the relationship between a wide range of mental illnesses and social organization, as well as to study the effectiveness of therapy on social dysfunction.

This protocol describes a method of examining social hierarchy in a rat model. Rats perform a complex diving-for-food task in which they form a distinct hierarchy according to their willingness to dive underwater and swim to obtain a food pellet. This method is used to understand decision making and social relationships among highly social animals in small groups.

Un complesso compito subacqueo per il cibo per indagare l'organizzazione sociale e le interazioni nei ratti

For many species, where status is a vital motivator that can affect health, social hierarchies influence behavior. Social hierarchies that include ...

Behavioral Assessment of Visual Function via Optomotor Response and Cognitive Function via Y-Maze in Diabetic Rats

The optomotor response and the Y-maze are behavioral tests useful for assessing visual and cognitive function, respectively. The optomotor response is a valuable tool to track changes in spatial frequency (SF) and contrast sensitivity (CS) thresholds over time in a number of retinal disease models, including diabetic retinopathy. Similarly, the Y-maze can be used to monitor spatial cognition (as measured by spontaneous alternation) and exploratory behavior (as measured by a number of entries) in a number of disease models that affect the central nervous system. Advantages of the optomotor response and the Y-maze include sensitivity, speed of testing, the use of innate responses (training is not needed), and the ability to be performed on awake (non-anesthetized) animals. Here, protocols are described for both the optomotor response and the Y-maze and examples of their use shown in models of Type I and Type II diabetes. Methods include preparation of rodents and equipment, performance of the optomotor response and the Y-maze, and post-test data analysis.

Neural degeneration in both eyes and brain as a result of diabetes can be observed through behavioral tests carried out on rodents. The Y-maze, a measure of spatial cognition, and the optomotor response, a measure of visual function, both provide insight into potential diagnoses and treatments.

Valutazione comportamentale della funzione visiva tramite risposta optomotoria e funzione cognitiva tramite Y-Maze nei ratti diabetici

The optomotor response and the Y-maze are behavioral tests useful for assessing visual and cognitive function, respectively. The optomotor response is a ...