Electron microscope imaging was conducted at the Electron Microscopy Unit of the Weizmann Institute of Science, supported in part by the Irving and Cherna Moskowitz Center for Nano and Bio-Nano Imaging. This research was also supported by the ISF I-CORE grant 152/1, Mr. and Mrs. Dan Kane, Ms. Lois Rosen, by a Yeda-Sela research grant, by the Larson Charitable Foundation, by Ruth and Herman Albert Scholars Program for New Scientists, by the Ilse Katz Institute for Materials Sciences and Magnetic Resonance Research grant, by the Ministry of Health grant for alternative research methods, and by the France-Israel Cooperation - Maimonide-Israel Research Program. IKG is a recipient of the Rowland and Sylvia Career Development Chair.

The authors have nothing to disclose.

枯草菌フォーム堅牢で高度に構造化されたバイオフィルムの両方の液体中（ペリクル）と固体培地上（コロニー）。したがって、特定のバイオフィルム阻害剤の作用の様式を特徴付けるための理想的なモデル生物として働きます。固形培地に、細胞は、エッジに、中心から放射状にシワのようなペリクルにおいて明らかではない独特の機能を持ったものと多細胞構造を形成します。し...

多細胞細菌群集は、自然と人為的な環境で重要な役割を果たし、かつ有益であるか、または非常に有害であり得ます。これらの多細胞コロニーを、個々の細胞が自己生産細胞外ポリマー物質（EPS）マトリックス中に埋め込まれている前記バイオフィルムとして知られています。 EPSは強く、彼らが植民地化の表面に細胞を接着します。彼らは、機械的および化学的な力に対するシールドとして機能し、セルラー通信1を容易に 、隣接するセルの間の密接な接触を作成します。バイオフィルムは、細胞が高度に制御使用差別コミュニティ、と見ることができる、コミュニティ内だけでなく、種2-5全体で彼らの活動を調整するためのプロセスを画策。バイオフィルム状態への成長のプランクトン、自由生活モードからの移行は、多くの場合、発達過程と関連しています。良い例は、グラム陽性土壌細菌の枯草菌（Bacillus subtilis）、したがってundomeですsticated株は、バイオフィルム形成につながる発達段階を研究するための堅牢なモデル生物としての役割を果たす。この細菌では、運動性の細胞は、特殊なタスク4を実行目立つ多細胞構造に自分自身を整理します。細胞の一つのグループは、マトリックス・プロデューサーはエキソポリサッカライド6を分泌し 、アミロイドタンパク質TASA 7,8、および表面疎水性タンパク質BslA 9,10;これらの全ては、EPS 11-13の組み立てに参加しています。 自然と人為的ニッチでのバイオフィルムの豊かさと、彼らが引き起こす可能性が推定される致命的なダメージを考えると、それらの形成を防止するための方法を見つけることが急務です。小分子阻害剤は、バイオフィルム形成に関与する新たな調節経路、酵素および構造タンパク質の発見を補助し、それによって多コミュニティアセンブリの複雑なプロセスにおける洞察を促進することができます。 B.として枯草菌バイオのためのよく研究モデルであります成膜14,15は、様々なバイオフィルム阻害剤の効果を評価するために使用することができます。この研究は、小分子阻害剤に対するバイオフィルムの反応を評価するための主要な4つの基本的な方法に取り組みます。まず、これらの阻害剤はバイオフィルム特有の目標を持っていることを確認するために、バイオフィルム形成に及ぼす影響からプランクトンの成長への影響の分離が重要です。ほとんどの抗菌剤は、それらのプランクトン増殖期の細胞を標的とするが、バイオフィルムのライフスタイルをターゲット分子はまれです。プランクトンの成長に影響を及ぼさない分子は毒性がないとして加えて、彼らは抗生物質耐性変異体16に有利な選択圧を減らすことができます。バイオフィルムは、D-アミノ酸または他の特定の細胞壁干渉分子で処理した場合、例えば、それらは、いずれの乱れまたは分解が、これらの阻害剤は、軽度に浮遊成長12,17に影響を及ぼす。これとは対照的に、多くの抗生物質は劇的リットルで、プランクトンの成長を損ないますittleまたはバイオフィルム形成17に影響はありません。 第二に、小分子の効果を研究するための一貫性と堅牢な実験的な枠組みを確立することが重要です。我々は、小分子阻害剤の有効濃度範囲は、前培養条件およびこれらの小分子阻害剤の効果を研究するために使用される実験に感受性であったことを観察しました。各種レポート、Bを勉強特に浮遊細菌のバイオフィルム12,17-19 - 枯草菌は、D-アミノ酸がペリクルの形成を阻害する濃度範囲の変化を明らかにしました。ここに示された結果は、以下の要因が活性濃度範囲の差を考慮することを示唆している：前培養条件（後期静止20増殖期対対数12,17）、前培養の条件で使用される増殖培地は、（リッチ、定義された対未定義[ルリアブロス、LB] [グルタミン酸ナトリウム- グリセロール、MSgg]）、接種率、特に接種前に前培養培地を除去します。静的ペリクル成長の温度は、小分子阻害剤D-ロイシン、本研究で使用した代表D-アミノ酸の活性範囲においてそれほど重要な役割を示しました。 最後に、一度バイオフィルムは、特定のバイオフィルム阻害剤は、堅牢かつ有益な方法は、バイオフィルムのフィットネスにこれらの阻害剤の効果を特徴付けるために必要とされるで処理されます。ここでは、独立して小分子阻害剤の効果を特徴づけるための2つの方法が詳細に記載されている：（1）バイオフィルムコロニー中で単一細胞に作用し、抗菌剤に対する耐性。自由生活細菌21-23と比較した場合、バイオフィルム中の細胞は、典型的には、抗生物質に対してより耐性があります。この現象は多因子ですが、抗生物質の侵入を低減するためのEPSの能力は、多くの場合、魅力的な説明を24としました</suP&gt;。この方法は、抗菌性物質への曝露後の予め確立されたバイオフィルム細胞の生存率を評価します。 （2）バイオフィルムコロニーアーキテクチャへの影響を、大から小スケールへ。バイオフィルムコロニーは、それらの三次元構造およびEPSの存在によって特徴付けられます。小スケール（μm）とし、走査型電子顕微鏡を利用して、細胞形態、バイオフィルムコロニー構造とEPSのアーキテクチャ及び存在量の変化が大きい（ミリメートル）から可視化することができます。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="897">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:301px;">Luria Broth, Lennox</td>
			<td style="width:305px;">Difco</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">240230</td>
			<td style="width:165px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Bacto Agar</td>
			<td>Difco</td>
			<td>214010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">potassium phosphate monobasic&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma, 136.09 g/mol</td>
			<td>P0662-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">potassium phosphate dibasic&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific, 174.18 g/mol</td>
			<td>BP363-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific, 209.27 g/mol</td>
			<td>BP308-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">magnesium chloride hexahydrate&#160;</td>
			<td>Merck, 203.30 g/mol&#160;</td>
			<td>1.05833.0250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">calcium chloride anhydrous</td>
			<td>J.T. Baker, 110.98 g/mol</td>
			<td>1311-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">manganese(II) chloride tetrahydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma, 197.91 g/mol</td>
			<td>31422-250G-R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">iron(III) chloride hexahydrate&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma, 270.30 g/mo)</td>
			<td>F2877-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">zinc chloride anhydrous&#160;</td>
			<td>Acros Organics, 136.29 g/mol</td>
			<td>424592500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">thiamine hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Sigma, 337.27 g/mol</td>
			<td>T1270-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">L-tryptophan</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific, 204.1 g/mol</td>
			<td>BP395-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">L-phenylalanine</td>
			<td>Sigma, 165.19 g/mol</td>
			<td>P5482-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">L-threonine</td>
			<td>Sigma, 119.12 g/mol</td>
			<td>T8625-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">glycerol anhydrous</td>
			<td>Bio-Lab Itd</td>
			<td>712022300</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">L-glutamic acid monosodium salts hydrate&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma, 169.11 g/mol</td>
			<td>G1626-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">D-leucine</td>
			<td>Sigma, 169.11 g/mol</td>
			<td>855448-10G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ethanol anhydrous</td>
			<td>Gadot</td>
			<td>830000054</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">razor blade</td>
			<td>Eddison</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td style="width:165px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">circular cellulose filter papers</td>
			<td>Whatman, 90 mm</td>
			<td>1001-090</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">glutaraldehyde</td>
			<td>EMS (Electron Micoscopy Science), 25% in water</td>
			<td>16220</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">paraformaldehyde&#160;</td>
			<td>EMS, 16% in water</td>
			<td>15710</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">sodium cacodylate</td>
			<td>Merck, 214.05 g/mol&#160;</td>
			<td>8.2067</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">calcium chloride 2-hydrate</td>
			<td>Merck, 147.02 g/mol&#160;</td>
			<td>1172113</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">stub-aluminium mount</td>
			<td>EMS, sloted head</td>
			<td>75230</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">carbon adhesive tape</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>77825-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Shaker 37&#176;C</td>
			<td>New Brunswick Scientific Innowa42</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Eppendorf table top centrifuge 5424</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:301px;">Digital Sonifier, Model 250, used with Double Step Microtip</td>
			<td>Branson</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Incubator 30 &#176;C</td>
			<td>Binder</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Incubator 23 &#176;C</td>
			<td>Binder</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Filter System, 500 ml, polystyrene</td>
			<td>Cornig Incorporated</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Rotary Shaker - Orbitron Rotatory II</td>
			<td>Boekel</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">S150 Sputter Coater&#160;</td>
			<td>Edwards</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">CPD 030 Critical Point Dryer</td>
			<td>BAL-TEC</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope</td>
			<td>XL30 ESEM FEG Philips (FEI)</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

methodologies for studying b. subtilis biofilms as a model for characterizing small molecule biofilm inhibitors

This work assesses different methodologies to study the impact of small molecule biofilm inhibitors, such as D-amino acids, on the development and resilience of Bacillus subtilis biofilms. First, methods are presented that select for small molecule inhibitors with biofilm-specific targets in order to separate the effect of the small molecule inhibitors on planktonic growth from their effect on biofilm formation. Next, we focus on how inoculation conditions affect the sensitivity of multicellular, floating B. subtilis cultures to small molecule inhibitors. The results suggest that discrepancies in the reported effects of such inhibitors such as D-amino acids are due to inconsistent pre-culture conditions. Furthermore, a recently developed protocol is described for evaluating the contribution of small molecule treatments towards biofilm resistance to antibacterial substances. Lastly, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques are presented to analyze the three-dimensional spatial arrangement of cells and their surrounding extracellular matrix in a B. subtilis biofilm. SEM facilitates insight into the three-dimensional biofilm architecture and the matrix texture. A combination of the methods described here can greatly assist the study of biofilm development in the presence and absence of biofilm inhibitors, and shed light on the mechanism of action of these inhibitors.

ペリクルアッセイは、Bの高度に制御し、動的プロセスを研究するための1つの方法であります枯草菌の多細胞。この他にも、ペリクルアッセイは、1つの実験において、単一の細胞培養multidishプレートに予め始動条件または小分子のいずれかの濃度の範囲を試験するのに適しています。しかし、B.枯草菌ペリクルの形成は前培養条件に敏感である（ 例えば 、前培養の...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Methodologies for Studying B. subtilis Biofilms as a Model for Characterizing Small Molecule Biofilm Inhibitors at JoVE.com

Methodologies for Studying B. subtilis Biofilms as a Model for Characterizing Small Molecule Biofilm Inhibitors

This study presents the development of reproducible methodologies to study biofilm inhibitors and their effects on Bacillus subtilis multicellularity.

研究のための方法論<em&gt; B。枯草菌</em小分子バイオフィルム阻害剤を特徴付けるためのモデルとしての&gt;バイオフィルム

This work assesses different methodologies to study the impact of small molecule biofilm inhibitors, such as D-amino acids, on the development and ...

methodologies-for-studying-b-subtilis-biofilms-as-model-for

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Methodologies for Studying B. subtilis Biofilms as a Model for Characterizing Small Molecule Biofilm Inhibitors

15.0K ビュー.  Weizmann Institute of Science. This study presents the development of reproducible methodologies to study biofilm inhibitors and their effects on Bacillus subtilis multicellularity.

ビデオ: Methodologies for Studying B. subtilis Biofilms as a Model for Characterizing Small Molecule Biofilm Inhibitors

Murine Model of CD40-activation of B cells

Research on B cells has shown that CD40 activation improves their antigen presentation capacity. When stimulated with interleukin-4 and CD40 ligand (CD40L), human B cells can be expanded without difficulties from small amounts of peripheral blood within 14 days to very large amounts of highly-pure CD40-B cells (&gt;109 cells per patient) from healthy donors as well as cancer patients1-4. CD40-B cells express important lymph node homing molecules and can attract T cells in vitro5. Furthermore they efficiently take up, process and present antigens to T cells6,7. CD40-B cells were shown to not only prime na&iacute;ve, but also expand memory T cells8,9. Therefore CD40-activated B cells (CD40-B cells) have been studied as an alternative source of immuno-stimulatory antigen-presenting cells (APC) for cell-based immunotherapy1,5,10. In order to further study whether CD40-B cells induce effective T cell responses in vivo and to study the underlying mechanism we established a cell culture system for the generation of murine CD40-activated B cells. Using splenocytes or purified B cells from C57BL/6 mice for CD40-activation, optimal conditions were identified as follows: Starting from splenocytes of C57BL/6 mice (haplotype H-2b) lymphocytes are purified by density gradient centrifugation and co-cultured with HeLa cells expressing recombinant murine CD40 ligand (tmuCD40L HeLa)11. Cells are recultured every 3-4 days and key components such as CD40L, interleukin-4, -Mercaptoethanol and cyclosporin A are replenished. In this protocol we demonstrate how to obtain fully activated murine CD40-B cells (mCD40B) with similar APC-phenotype to human CD40-B cells (Fig 1a,b). CD40-stimulation leads to a rapid outgrowth and expansion of highly pure (&gt;90%) CD19+ B cells within 14 days of cell culture (Fig 1c,d). To avoid contamination with non-transfected cells, expression of the murine CD40 ligand on the transfectants has to be controlled regularly (Fig 2). Murine CD40-activated B cells can be used to study B-cell activation and differentiation as well as to investigate their potential to function as APC in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, they represent a promising tool for establishing therapeutic or preventive vaccination against tumors and will help to answer questions regarding safety and immunogenicity of this approach12.

In this video, we demonstrate the procedure of CD40-activation and expansion of murine B cells from splenocytes of C57BL/6 mice, which can be used as a model antigen-presenting cell (APC) to study induction of immunity.

B細胞のCD40 -活性化のモデルマウス

Research on B cells has shown that CD40 activation improves their antigen presentation capacity. When stimulated with interleukin-4 and CD40 ligand ...

免疫・感染学

In vitro Biofilm Formation in an 8-well Chamber Slide

The chronic nature of many diseases is attributed to the formation of bacterial biofilms which are recalcitrant to traditional antibiotic therapy. Biofilms are community-associated bacteria attached to a surface and encased in a matrix. The role of the extracellular matrix is multifaceted, including facilitating nutrient acquisition, and offers significant protection against environmental stresses (e.g. host immune responses). In an effort to acquire a better understanding as to how the bacteria within a biofilm respond to environmental stresses we have used a protocol wherein we visualize bacterial biofilms which have formed in an 8-well chamber slide. The biofilms were stained with the BacLight Live/Dead stain and examined using a confocal microscope to characterize the relative biofilm size, and structure under varying incubation conditions. Z-stack images were collected via confocal microscopy and analyzed by COMSTAT. This protocol can be used to help elucidate the mechanism and kinetics by which biofilms form, as well as identify components that are important to biofilm structure and stability.

In vitro Biofilm Formation in an 8-well Chamber Slide

This article describes the procedure for the formation and visualization of a bacterial biofilm grown within an 8-well chamber slide

8ウェルチャンバースライドを用いたin vitro のバイオフィルム形成における

The chronic nature of many diseases is attributed to the formation of bacterial biofilms which are recalcitrant to traditional antibiotic therapy. ...

Introducing Shear Stress in the Study of Bacterial Adhesion

During bacterial infections a sequence of interactions occur between the pathogen and its host. Bacterial adhesion to the host cell surface is often the initial and determining step of the pathogenesis. Although experimentally adhesion is mostly studied in static conditions adhesion actually takes place in the presence of flowing liquid. First encounters between bacteria and their host often occur at the mucosal level, mouth, lung, gut, eye, etc. where mucus flows along the surface of epithelial cells. Later in infection, pathogens occasionally access the blood circulation causing life-threatening illnesses such as septicemia, sepsis and meningitis. A defining feature of these infections is the ability of these pathogens to interact with endothelial cells in presence of circulating blood. The presence of flowing liquid, mucus or blood for instance, determines adhesion because it generates a mechanical force on the pathogen. To characterize the effect of flowing liquid one usually refers to the notion of shear stress, which is the tangential force exerted per unit area by a fluid moving near a stationary wall, expressed in dynes/cm2. Intensities of shear stress vary widely according to the different vessels type, size, organ, location etc. (0-100 dynes/cm2). Circulation in capillaries can reach very low shear stress values and even temporarily stop during periods ranging between a few seconds to several minutes 1. On the other end of the spectrum shear stress in arterioles can reach 100 dynes/cm2 2. The impact of shear stress on different biological processes has been clearly demonstrated as for instance during the interaction of leukocytes with the endothelium 3. To take into account this mechanical parameter in the process of bacterial adhesion we took advantage of an experimental procedure based on the use of a disposable flow chamber 4. Host cells are grown in the flow chamber and fluorescent bacteria are introduced in the flow controlled by a syringe pump. We initially focused our investigations on the bacterial pathogen Neisseria meningitidis, a Gram-negative bacterium responsible for septicemia and meningitis. The procedure described here allowed us to study the impact of shear stress on the ability of the bacteria to: adhere to cells 1, to proliferate on the cell surface 5and to detach to colonize new sites 6 (Figure 1). Complementary technical information can be found in reference 7. Shear stress values presented here were chosen based on our previous experience1 and to represent values found in the literature. The protocol should be applicable to a wide range of pathogens with specific adjustments depending on the objectives of the study.

During the infection process, a key step is the adhesion of pathogens with host cells. In most instances this adhesion step occurs in the presence of mechanical stress generated by flowing liquid. We describe a technique that introduces shear stress as an important parameter in the study of bacterial adhesion.

細菌付着の研究ではせん断応力を導入する

During bacterial infections a sequence of interactions occur between the pathogen and its host. Bacterial adhesion to the host cell surface is often the ...

Use of the EpiAirway Model for Characterizing Long-term Host-pathogen Interactions

Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) are human-adapted Gram-negative bacteria that can cause recurrent and chronic infections of the respiratory mucosa 1; 2. To study the mechanisms by which these organisms survive on and inside respiratory tissues, a model in which successful long-term co-culture of bacteria and human cells can be performed is required. We use primary human respiratory epithelial tissues raised to the air-liquid interface, the EpiAirway model (MatTek, Ashland, MA). These are non-immortalized, well-differentiated, 3-dimensional tissues that contain tight junctions, ciliated and nonciliated cells, goblet cells that produce mucin, and retain the ability to produce cytokines in response to infection. 
This biologically relevant in vitro model of the human upper airway can be used in a number of ways; the overall goal of this method is to perform long-term co-culture of EpiAirway tissues with NTHi and quantitate cell-associated and internalized bacteria over time. As well, mucin production and the cytokine profile of the infected co-cultures can be determined. This approach improves upon existing methods in that many current protocols use submerged monolayer or Transwell cultures of human cells, which are not capable of supporting bacterial infections over extended periods3. For example, if an organism can replicate in the overlying media, this can result in unacceptable levels of cytotoxicity and loss of host cells, arresting the experiment. The EpiAirway model allows characterization of long-term host-pathogen interactions. Further, since the source for the EpiAirway is normal human tracheo-bronchial cells rather than an immortalized line, each is an excellent representation of actual human upper respiratory tract tissue, both in structure and in function4.
For this method, the EpiAirway tissues are weaned off of anti-microbial and anti-fungal compounds for 2 days prior to delivery, and all procedures are performed under antibiotic-free conditions. This necessitates special considerations, since both bacteria and primary human tissues are used in the same biosafety cabinet, and are co-cultured for extended periods.

This method allows characterization of extended bacterial co-culture with EpiAirways, primary human respiratory epithelial tissue grown at the air-liquid interface, a biologically relevant in vitro model. The approach can be used with any microbe that is amenable to long-term co-culture.

長期宿主 - 病原体相互作用を特徴付けるためのEpiAirwayモデルの利用

Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae  (NTHi) are human-adapted Gram-negative bacteria that can cause recurrent and chronic infections of the respiratory ...

Single-cell Analysis of Bacillus subtilis Biofilms Using Fluorescence Microscopy and Flow Cytometry

Biofilm formation is a general attribute to almost all bacteria 1-6. When bacteria form biofilms, cells are encased in extracellular matrix that is mostly constituted by proteins and exopolysaccharides, among other factors 7-10. The microbial community encased within the biofilm often shows the differentiation of distinct subpopulation of specialized cells 11-17. These subpopulations coexist and often show spatial and temporal organization within the biofilm 18-21.
Biofilm formation in the model organism Bacillus subtilis requires the differentiation of distinct subpopulations of specialized cells. Among them, the subpopulation of matrix producers, responsible to produce and secrete the extracellular matrix of the biofilm is essential for biofilm formation 11,19. Hence, differentiation of matrix producers is a hallmark of biofilm formation in B. subtilis.
We have used fluorescent reporters to visualize and quantify the subpopulation of matrix producers in biofilms of B. subtilis 15,19,22-24. Concretely, we have observed that the subpopulation of matrix producers differentiates in response to the presence of self-produced extracellular signal surfactin 25. Interestingly, surfactin is produced by a subpopulation of specialized cells different from the subpopulation of matrix producers 15.
We have detailed in this report the technical approach necessary to visualize and quantify the subpopulation of matrix producers and surfactin producers within the biofilms of B. subtilis. To do this, fluorescent reporters of genes required for matrix production and surfactin production are inserted into the chromosome of B. subtilis. Reporters are expressed only in a subpopulation of specialized cells. Then, the subpopulations can be monitored using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry (See Fig 1).
The fact that different subpopulations of specialized cells coexist within multicellular communities of bacteria gives us a different perspective about the regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes. This protocol addresses this phenomenon experimentally and it can be easily adapted to any other working model, to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying phenotypic heterogeneity within a microbial community.

Single-cell Analysis of Bacillus subtilis Biofilms Using Fluorescence Microscopy and Flow Cytometry

Microbial biofilms are generally constituted by distinct subpopulations of specialized cells. Single-cell analysis of these subpopulations requires the use of fluorescent reporters. Here we describe a protocol to visualize and monitor several subpopulationswithin B. subtilis biofilms using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry.

の単一細胞解析枯草菌</em蛍光顕微鏡とフローサイトメトリーを用いて>バイオフィルム

Biofilm formation is a general attribute to almost all bacteria 1-6. When bacteria form biofilms, cells are encased in extracellular matrix that is mostly ...

Recurrent Herpetic Stromal Keratitis in Mice, a Model for Studying Human HSK

Herpetic eye disease, termed herpetic stromal keratitis (HSK), is a potentially blinding infection of the cornea that results in over 300,000 clinical visits each year for treatment. Between 1 and 2 percent of those patients with clinical disease will experience loss of vision of the infected cornea. The vast majority of these cases are the result of reactivation of a latent infection by herpes simplex type I virus and not due to acute disease. Interestingly, the acute infection is the model most often used to study this disease. However, it was felt that a recurrent model of HSK would be more reflective of what occurs during clinical disease. The recurrent animal models for HSK have employed both rabbits and mice. The advantage of rabbits is that they experience reactivation from latency absent any known stimulus. That said, it is difficult to explore the role that many immunological factors play in recurrent HSK because the rabbit model does not have the immunological and genetic resources that the mouse has. We chose to use the mouse model for recurrent HSK because it has the advantage of there being many resources available and also we know when reactivation will occur because reactivation is induced by exposure to UV-B light. Thus far, this model has allowed those laboratories using it to define several immunological factors that are important to this disease. It has also allowed us to test both therapeutic and vaccine efficacy.

Most studies of herpetic corneal disease use a primary infection model. However, primary infection with HSV-1 does not typically lead to human disease. Here we describe a recurrent model of herpetic corneal disease, which more closely mimics human disease.

マウスにおける再発性ヘルペス性間質性角膜炎、人間のHSKを研究するためのモデル

Herpetic eye disease, termed herpetic stromal keratitis (HSK), is a potentially blinding infection of the cornea that results in over 300,000 clinical ...

Experimental Infection with Listeria monocytogenes as a Model for Studying Host Interferon-&#947; Responses

L. monocytogenes is a gram-positive bacterium that is a cause of food borne disease in humans. Experimental infection of mice with this pathogen has been highly informative on the role of innate and adaptive immune cells and specific cytokines in host immunity against intracellular pathogens. Production of IFN-&#947; by innate cells during sublethal infection with L. monocytogenes is important for activating macrophages and early control of the pathogen1-3. In addition, IFN-&#947; production by adaptive memory lymphocytes is important for priming the activation of innate cells upon reinfection4. The L. monocytogenes infection model thus serves as a great tool for investigating whether new therapies that are designed to increase IFN-&#947; production have an impact on IFN-&#947; responses in vivo and have productive biological effects such as increasing bacterial clearance or improving mouse survival from infection. Described here is a basic protocol for how to conduct intraperitoneal infections of C57BL/6J mice with the EGD strain of L. monocytogenes and to measure IFN-&#947; production by NK cells, NKT cells, and adaptive lymphocytes by flow cytometry. In addition, procedures are described to: (1) grow and prepare the bacteria for inoculation, (2) measure bacterial load in the spleen and liver, and (3) measure animal survival to endpoints. Representative data are also provided to illustrate how this infection model can be used to test the effect of specific agents on IFN-&#947; responses to L. monocytogenes and survival of mice from this infection.

This protocol describes how to inoculate C57BL/6J mice with the EGD strain of Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes) and to measure interferon-&#947; (IFN-&#947;) responses by natural killer (NK) cells, natural killer T (NKT) cells, and adaptive T lymphocytes post-infection. This protocol also describes how to conduct survival studies in mice after infection with a modified LD50 dose of the pathogen.

と実験感染<em&gt;リステリア菌</em&gt;ホストインターフェロンγ応答を研究するためのモデルとして、

L. monocytogenes is a gram-positive bacterium that is a cause of food borne disease in humans. Experimental infection of mice with this pathogen has been ...

A Murine Model of Group B Streptococcus Vaginal Colonization

Streptococcus agalactiae (group B Streptococcus, GBS), is a Gram-positive, asymptomatic colonizer of the human gastrointestinal tract and vaginal tract of 10 - 30% of adults. In immune-compromised individuals, including neonates, pregnant women, and the elderly, GBS may switch to an invasive pathogen causing sepsis, arthritis, pneumonia, and meningitis. Because GBS is a leading bacterial pathogen of neonates, current prophylaxis is comprised of late gestation screening for GBS vaginal colonization and subsequent peripartum antibiotic treatment of GBS-positive mothers. Heavy GBS vaginal burden is a risk factor for both neonatal disease and colonization. Unfortunately, little is known about the host and bacterial factors that promote or permit GBS vaginal colonization. This protocol describes a technique for establishing persistent GBS vaginal colonization using a single &#946;-estradiol pre-treatment and daily sampling to determine bacterial load. It further details methods to administer additional therapies or reagents of interest and to collect vaginal lavage fluid and reproductive tract tissues. This mouse model will further the understanding of the GBS-host interaction within the vaginal environment, which will lead to potential therapeutic targets to control maternal vaginal colonization during pregnancy and to prevent transmission to the vulnerable newborn. It will also be of interest to increase our understanding of general bacterial-host interactions in the female vaginal tract.

A Murine Model of Group B Streptococcus Vaginal Colonization

The purpose of this protocol is to imitate human group B Streptococcus (GBS) vaginal colonization in a murine model. This method may be used to investigate host immune responses and bacterial factors contributing to GBS vaginal persistence, as well as to test therapeutic strategies.

グループBのマウスモデル<em&gt;連鎖球菌</em&gt;膣植民地化

Streptococcus agalactiae (group B Streptococcus, GBS), is a Gram-positive, asymptomatic colonizer of the human gastrointestinal tract and vaginal tract of ...

Visualizing the Effects of Sputum on Biofilm Development Using a Chambered Coverglass Model

Biofilms consist of groups of bacteria encased in a self-secreted matrix. They play an important role in industrial contamination as well as in the development and persistence of many health related infections. One of the most well described and studied biofilms in human disease occurs in chronic pulmonary infection of cystic fibrosis patients. When studying biofilms in the context of the host, many factors can impact biofilm formation and development. In order to identify how host factors may affect biofilm formation and development, we used a static chambered coverglass method to grow biofilms in the presence of host-derived factors in the form of sputum supernatants. Bacteria are seeded into chambers and exposed to sputum filtrates. Following 48 hr of growth, biofilms are stained with a commercial biofilm viability kit prior to confocal microscopy and analysis. Following image acquisition, biofilm properties can be assessed using different software platforms. This method allows us to visualize key properties of biofilm growth in presence of different substances including antibiotics.

This protocol describes the visualization of biofilm development following exposure to host-factors using a slide chamber model. This model allows for direct visualization of biofilm development as well as analysis of biofilm parameters using computer software programs.

チェンカバーガラスモデルを用いたバイオフィルム開発に関する痰の効果を可視化

Biofilms consist of groups of bacteria encased in a self-secreted matrix. They play an important role in industrial contamination as well as in the ...

Arbovirus Infections As Screening Tools for the Identification of Viral Immunomodulators and Host Antiviral Factors

RNA interference- and genome editing-based screening platforms have been widely used to identify host cell factors that restrict virus replication. However, these screens are typically conducted in cells that are naturally permissive to the viral pathogen under study. Therefore, the robust replication of viruses in control conditions may limit the dynamic range of these screens. Furthermore, these screens may be unable to easily identify cellular defense pathways that restrict virus replication if the virus is well-adapted to the host and capable of countering antiviral defenses. In this article, we describe a new paradigm for exploring virus-host interactions through the use of screens that center on naturally abortive infections by arboviruses such as vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV). Despite the ability of VSV to replicate in a wide range of dipteran insect and mammalian hosts, VSV undergoes a post-entry, abortive infection in a variety of cell lines derived from lepidopteran insects, such as the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar). However, these abortive VSV infections can be &#34;rescued&#34; when host cell antiviral defenses are compromised. We describe how VSV strains encoding convenient reporter genes and restrictive L. dispar cell lines can be paired to set-up screens to identify host factors involved in arbovirus restriction. Furthermore, we also show the utility of these screening tools in the identification of virally encoded factors that rescue VSV replication during coinfection or through ectopic expression, including those encoded by mammalian viruses. The natural restriction of VSV replication in L. dispar cells provides a high signal-to-noise ratio when screening for the conditions that promote VSV rescue, thus enabling the use of simplistic luminescence- and fluorescence-based assays to monitor the changes in VSV replication. These methodologies are valuable for understanding the interplay between host antiviral responses and viral immune evasion factors.

Here, we present the protocols to identify 1) virus-encoded immunomodulators that promote arbovirus replication and 2) eukaryotic host factors that restrict arbovirus replication. These fluorescence- and luminescence-based methods allow researchers to rapidly obtain quantitative readouts of arbovirus replication in simplistic assays with low signal-to-noise ratios.

アルボ ウイルス感染症ウイルス免疫調節剤およびホスト抗ウイルス因子の同定のためのスクリーニング ツールとして

RNA interference- and genome editing-based screening platforms have been widely used to identify host cell factors that restrict virus replication. ...