著者は、郵便局バカロレア学者プログラムそしてノバルティス バイオメディカル研究本研究を資金調達のための全体として感謝したいと思います。

1. 細胞の調製
注: このプロトコルは、データの生成を含むエンコーディング NR1 と NR2A 細胞バキュロ ウイルスで導入した HEK293 細胞を使用します。
<ol><li>HEK293 細胞の適切な数をシードし、適切な最終濃度 (各 1.00 μ L) で NR1 および NR2A のウイルスを追加します。384 ウェル プレート 10,000 30 μ L の最終巻で細胞/ウェルを使用します。</li>
	<li>また、適切な細胞数と (384 ウェル プレート使用 10,000 細胞/ウェル 30 μ L の最終巻で) のためのボリュームで HEK293 NR1 NR2A 細胞をシードします。NR2A 式を誘導する化合物の保護を追加する 2 μ G/ml の濃度でテトラサイクリンを追加 (100 μ M MDL105、519 または 5 μ M CGP07066724)。</li>
	<li>注: エンコード NR1 と NR2 バキュロ ウイルス 5 x 109 - 10 x 109感染単位ミリリットル24間概算価が必要です。</li>
</ol>2. NMDA 受容体活性の測定
<ol><li>いずれかの保護化合物存在下での NR1/NR2 HEK293 NR1 NR2A セル増殖型 HEK293 細胞で 384 ウェル プレートを準備します。透明な底、黒フレーム、ポリ-D-リジン コーティング プレートを使用します。 注: 保護 100 μ m MDL105, 519 5 μ M 中のグリシンに感度を与えるため CGP070667 グルタミン酸感受性を付与するために使用します。</li>
	<li>16 時間 (夜間) 37 ° C および 5% の CO2でプレートを孵化させなさい。</li>
	<li>インキュベーターからプレートを削除し、優しくプレートをひっくり返す互換性存在コンテナーを遅くことによって携帯メディアを破棄します。プレートの端から媒体をきれいにし、残りのメディアをドレイン紙タオルの上にプレートを軽くたたきます。</li>
	<li>Calcium6 色素 (1 プレート サイズ) の 1 つのバイアルを可でインキュベーション バッファー (HBSS pH 7.5、20 mM HEPES、1 mM MgCl2、1 mM プロベネシド) 10 mL に calcium6 染料を準備します。プレートを 37 ° C、5% CO2で 2 時間インキュベートします。</li>
	<li>インキュベーターからプレートを削除し、10 分間部屋の温度に調整する細胞。</li>
	<li>優しく 2.3 の手順で説明されているように calcium6 染料を注ぐ、アッセイバッファー (HBSS pH 7.5、20 mM HEPES、CaCl2、1.8 mM 1 mM プロベネシド) の 30 μ L を追加します。</li>
	<li>3 洗浄の合計のために二度 2.6 手順を繰り返します。最後の洗浄後、セルにアッセイバッファーの 30 μ L を残します。</li>
	<li>室温で 5 分間、残りの細胞ができます。</li>
	<li>400 μ M のグリシンと 400 μ M グルタミン酸 (最終濃度 100 μ m; 下記のとおり決定する配位子の最適濃度) の 4 倍在庫することによって配位子板を準備します。V 底 384 ウェル プレートにリガンド株式の 25 μ L の最小値を転送します。</li>
	<li>フリーダイヤル (機能薬物スクリーニング システム) にリガンド板とセル板を読み込みます。</li>
	<li>30 秒間セル板のベースライン蛍光 (Fo) を測定します。5 分間 calcium6 色素蛍光を記録することによってフリーダイヤル調剤機能と測定カルシウム フラックスを使用して細胞板にリガンド株式の 10 μ L を転送します。</li>
	<li>最大蛍光比を計算する、ベースラインの蛍光 (F最大/Fo) によって得られる最大の蛍光を割る。</li>
</ol>3. NMDAR 発現レベルの最適化
<ol><li>使用するバキュロ ウイルスの量を調べるには、滴定、NR1 および NR2A のウイルスを実行します。HEK293 細胞 (10,000 細胞/ウェルの推薦、メディアの 30 μ L) で 384 ウェル プレートを準備し、手順 2.1 保護化合物が含まれます。</li>
	<li>プレートの異なる行の NR1 ウイルスの様々 な量を追加 (例: 行 A E 0 μ L、2 μ、1 μ L、0.5 μ L、0.25 μ L をそれぞれ追加)。データの正確性の重複を追加します。</li>
	<li>プレートの別の列に NR2A ウイルスの様々 な量を追加 (例: 行 A E 0 μ L、2 μ、1 μ L、0.5 μ L、0.25 μ L をそれぞれ追加)。データの正確性の重複を追加します。</li>
	<li>16 時間 (夜間) 37 ° C および 5% の CO2でプレートを孵化させなさい。</li>
	<li>フリーダイヤル (上記参照) にカルシウム フラックス測定を実行することによって、最適な比率と NR1 および NR2A のウイルスの量を決定します。</li>
</ol>4. 配位子の滴定
<ol><li>2.3 の手順で説明するように、セルを準備します。</li>
	<li>4 倍原液として他の配位子の飽和濃度 (100 μ M) の存在下でそれぞれの ligand の希釈液を準備します。たとえば: グリシン最終試験濃度 10 μ M、40 μ M の原液 400 μ M グルタミン酸を含むグリシンの準備します。</li>
	<li>フリーダイヤル測定 2.11 の手順で説明するように進みます。</li>
</ol>5. 複合試験
<ol><li>手順 1 で説明したように、セルを準備します。</li>
	<li>アッセイ バッファーに最終的なリガンド濃度の 5-fold 株式を持つリガンド プレートを準備します。</li>
	<li>アッセイ バッファーにおける化合物の所望の最終濃度の 4 倍の株式を持つ化合物のプレートを準備します。最終的な化合物の濃度、アッセイバッファーで 10 μ m、40 μ M の原液を準備します。<ol>
<li>ジメチルスルホキシド (DMSO) の濃度を一定に保つすべてのサンプル測定バッファーにさらに希薄化前に、の DMSO の化合物の前希釈を準備することによって。</li>
		<li>3 と 30 μ M の間で及ぶ最終試金の化合物の線量応答を 1 から 10 の mM まで及ぶ DMSO の化合物の前希釈を準備します。4 倍のストック濃度にアッセイバッファーで希釈します。DMSO の最終濃度 0.5% を超えてはなりません。 注: トリプリケートで各サンプルをテストすることをお勧めします。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>フリーダイヤルにリガンド、化合物、及び細胞板を読み込みます。</li>
	<li>30 秒のベースライン蛍光を測定します。</li>
	<li>化合物の在庫の 10 μ L を追加し、5 分の蛍光を測定します。</li>
	<li>リガンド株式の 10 μ L を追加し、5 分の蛍光を測定します。</li>
	<li>蛍光比の積分を測定の最後の 5 分間蛍光比の曲線下面積を計算することによって決定します。 注: また、蛍光リガンド添加後の最大比使用できます分析のため。</li>
</ol>

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著者があるない利益相反とは何を開示します。

この試金の成功は、使用される HEK 細胞の状態によって大きく異なります。細胞の急激な増加を受けて、低通過数を使用する必要があります。このアッセイ多く転送と警告を使用して、ソリューションの追加はその結果で高い精度を確保します。化合物およびその他のすべての試薬の濃度は、エラーを最小限に抑えるためにクロス チェックもする必要があります。アッセイバッファー カルシ...

医学の現在の進歩、平均寿命が大幅に増加します。しかし、加齢に伴う疾患の有病率がのであります。中枢神経系 (CNS)、他の中で、パーキンソン病、アルツハイマー病、筋萎縮性側索硬化症 (ALS) 統合失調症などの疾患は例外ではありません、次の十年1,で増加する予測されています。2,3N メチル D アスパラギン酸塩の受容器 (NMDAR) として知られているイオン型グルタミン酸受容体の機能不全は、アルツハイマー病、統合失調症、外傷性脳損傷、脳卒中、糖尿病、緑内障等保証のにリンクされている、。効果的な疾患修飾療法4,5,6、7の開発のための生物を勉強する必要があります。
NMDARs は、4 つのモノマーまたはサブユニット4,8,9で構成されます。NMDAR の構造は、脳7,10内の発達と地域の変動を示しています。NMDARs は、シナプス可塑性と認知及び呼吸と歩行11,12,13のリズムの生成に関与しています。電位依存性チャネルとしてそれは、安静時の膜電位伝導非主 (-70 mV) し、さらにイオンの透過を防ぐためにマグネシウムによってブロックします。2 配位子、グルタミン酸およびグリシン/D-セリン、バインドによってチャネルがアクティブになるし、シナプス膜に同時脱分極は AMPA 受容体、イオン型グルタミン酸受容体の別のサブクラスによって仲介されます。分極防止作用は、特にカルシウム14,,1516陽イオンの流入を有効にする、NMDAR のマグネシウム閉塞を削除します。にもかかわらず NMDAR の活性化は細胞の生存に不可欠な過剰な活性化は細胞死17,18,19応需型につながります。これは、受容体の複雑な性質に加えて難しく研究を実施する効果的な治療法を開発するために必要です。
別の方法は、NMDAR の研究に開発されています。ただし、それぞれの注意事項が付属しています。たとえば、1 つの広く使われている技術は安定したセルライン テトラサイクリン誘導性プロモーター (テトの)20の制御の下での細胞内カルシウム NMDAR 依存性の変化を測定する蛍光ベースの試金であります。ただし、このシステムに必要な配位子の激濃度と NMDAR の阻害剤が測定中に存在している要件不可能になります競争力の拮抗筋の活動を検出します。他の同様のシステムは、機能的受容体の発現は、ケタミン21,22細胞培養を維持するなどの拮抗を必要とする毒性を引き起こします。これらのチャネルのブロッカーは、受容体のコアに座るし、受容体の機能解析と干渉すること特にプレート ベースの形式で、洗いにくい。最後に、パッチなどの電気生理学的計測、スループットの制限があるし、大規模な研究は、非常に高価な23。にもかかわらず、上記のシステムはグリシンの刺激に敏感したがって、課題となる、NMDAR のグリシン依存性活性を勉強します。
ここでは、議論の制限を克服 NMDAR の勉強への新しいアプローチについて述べる。バキュロ ウイルス発現系としてはほとんど 16 時間で受容体のサブユニットの最適比の機能レベルを表現する技術を使用します。さらに、バキュロ ウイルスの使用によりシンプルかつコンビナトリアル アプローチは、異なる組換え NMDAR のサブタイプの広範な評価を提供します。他のアッセイとは異なり、このプロトコルには弱いアンタゴニストの使用のためチャネル遮断薬は必要ありません。メソッドの最も強い利点は弱い拮抗薬の後のウォッシュ アウトはグリシン/D-セリン、グルタミン酸の両方のデュアルの変調に加えて個々 グリシンとグルタミン酸結合部位の変調に敏感で受容体リガンド結合サイト。試金は NMDAR 受容体の既知の薬理学とその既知の正と負の変調器の効果を繰り返します。最後に、この生体外細胞アッセイの生成過剰なカルシウムの流入によって引き起こされる細胞毒性を克服でき、NMDAR の変調器の発見を加速することができます高スループット方法で受容体の機能解析病にある州。

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>HEK-293</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CRL-1573</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Human NMDA (NR1/NR2A) Receptor Cell Line</td>
			<td>ChanTest Corporation</td>
			<td>CT6120</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pFastBac Dual Expression Vector</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10712-024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corning 384-well Clear Flat Bottom Microplate</td>
			<td>Corning Life Sciences</td>
			<td>3844</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FLIPR Calcium 6-QF Assay Kit</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>R8192</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycine</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G7126</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutamate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>49621</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-serine</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S4250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L701,324</td>
			<td>Tocris</td>
			<td>907</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES Buffer</td>
			<td>Boston Bio Product</td>
			<td>BB-103</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Chloride Solution</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>63069</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium Chloride</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>E506</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HBSS</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14025-092</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Probenecid</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>P36400</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM/F-12, GlutaMAX media</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10565018</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MDL105,519</td>
			<td>NIBR</td>
			<td>Synthesized in house</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NVP-AAM077</td>
			<td>NIBR</td>
			<td>Synthesized in house</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CGP070667</td>
			<td>NIBR</td>
			<td>Synthesized in house</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a high-throughput calcium-flux assay to study nmda-receptors with sensitivity to glycine/d-serine and glutamate

N メチル D アスパラギン酸 (NMDA) 受容体 (NMDAR) はグルタミン酸に分類され、学習と記憶に重要な役割を持っています。表現としてどちらかに- または下-activity の突然変異、発現、人身売買、またはローカリゼーションによる NMDAR の故障は、中枢神経系を中心に、多数の病気に貢献できます。したがって、化合物と低分子化合物の探索を促進することと同様、受容体の生物学を理解することは、神経疾患と闘うための継続的な努力で重要です。現在の受容体の勉強方法低スループット、高コスト NMDAR 仲介された毒性を防ぐためにチャネル遮断薬の必要な存在のためにその機能能力を研究することができないなどの制限があります。また、既存のアッセイ系のみグルタミン酸による刺激に敏感である、グリシン、NMDAR の他の共同のリガンドによる刺激に対する感受性を欠いています。両方共配位子、グルタミン酸や D セリン ・ グリシンへの感受性と NMDA 受容体を研究する高スループット力と最初のプレート ベースのアッセイを紹介します。このアプローチ様々 な NMDAR サブユニット組成の研究でき、受容体の機能解析グリシンやグルタミン酸に敏感なモードで。また、メソッドでは、測定中の阻害剤の存在は必要がないです。正と負のアロステリック変調器の効果は、このアッセイで検出できるし、NMDAR の既知の薬理学は、私たちのシステムにレプリケートされています。この手法は既存の方法の限界を克服、経済的であります。この手法は NMDAR を介した病態の治療の発見を加速すると考えています。

小分子の効果をテストする前に、1 つは NMDARs として最適なリガンド濃度の最適な発現レベルを定めなければなりません。前述、HEK293 細胞/ウェルの 384 ウェル プレートで 10,000 細胞播種 5 μ M の存在下で CGP060667、その後導入 NR1 と NR2A の変化量とウイルス。孵化翌日、リガンド誘導性カルシウム後フラックスを測定した (図 1)。これらの実験の結?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A High-throughput Calcium-flux Assay to Study NMDA-receptors with Sensitivity to Glycine/D-serine and Glutamate at JoVE.com

A High-throughput Calcium-flux Assay to Study NMDA-receptors with Sensitivity to Glycine/D-serine and Glutamate

感受性グリシン/D-セリン、グルタミン酸と NMDA 受容体を研究する高スループット カルシウム変化分析

このプロトコルの目標より大きな規模での NMDA 受容器 (NMDAR) の研究と、低分子化合物の変調作用の検討と治療への応用です。

N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors (NMDAR) are classified as ionotropic glutamate receptors and have critical roles in learning and memory. NMDAR ...

a-high-throughput-calcium-flux-assay-to-study-nmda-receptors-with

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

9.1K ビュー.  Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research. このプロトコルの目標より大きな規模での NMDA 受容器 (NMDAR) の研究と、低分子化合物の変調作用の検討と治療への応用です。

ビデオ: A High-throughput Calcium-flux Assay to Study NMDA-receptors with Sensitivity to Glycine/D-serine and Glutamate

A Simple Way to Measure Ethanol Sensitivity in Flies

Low doses of ethanol cause flies to become hyperactive, while high doses are sedating. The sensitivity to ethanol-induced sedation of a given fly strain is correlated with that strain s ethanol preference, and therefore sedation is a highly relevant measure to study the genetics of alcohol responses and drinking. We demonstrate a simple way to expose flies to ethanol and measure its intoxicating effects. The assay we describe can determine acute sensitivity, as well as ethanol tolerance induced by repeat exposure. It does not require a technically involved setup, and can therefore be applied in any laboratory with basic fly culture tools.

A simple assay to measure the sedating effects of ethanol on Drosophila flies, based on the loss of righting reflex, is described.

ハエでエタノールの感度を測定するために簡単

Low doses of ethanol cause flies to become hyperactive, while high doses are sedating. The sensitivity to ethanol-induced sedation of a given fly strain ...

神経科学

In vivo Electroporation of Developing Mouse Retina

The functional characterization of genes expressed during mammalian retinal development remains a significant challenge. Gene targeting to generate constitutive or conditional loss of function knockouts remains cost and labor intensive, as well as time consuming. Adding to these challenges, retina expressed genes may have essential roles outside the retina leading to unintended confounds when using a knockout approach. Furthermore, the ability to ectopically express a gene in a gain of function experiment can be extremely valuable when attempting to identify a role in cell fate specification and/or terminal differentiation.
We present a method for the rapid and efficient incorporation of DNA plasmids into the neonatal mouse retina by electroporation. The application of short electrical impulses above a certain field strength results in a transient increase in plasma membrane permeability, facilitating the transfer of material across the membrane 1,2,3,4. Groundbreaking work demonstrated that electroporation could be utilized as a method of gene transfer into mammalian cells by inducing the formation of hydrophilic plasma membrane pores allowing the passage of highly charged DNA through the lipid bilayer 5. Continuous technical development has resulted in the viability of electroporation as a method for in vivo gene transfer in multiple mouse tissues including the retina, the method for which is described herein 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. 
DNA solution is injected into the subretinal space so that DNA is placed between the retinal pigmented epithelium and retina of the neonatal (P0) mouse and electrical pulses are applied using a tweezer electrode. The lateral placement of the eyes in the mouse allows for the easy orientation of the tweezer electrode to the necessary negative pole-DNA-retina-positive pole alignment. Extensive incorporation and expression of transferred genes can be identified by postnatal day 2 (P2). Due to the lack of significant lateral migration of cells in the retina, electroporated and non-electroporated regions are generated. Non-electroporated regions may serve as internal histological controls where appropriate. 
Retinal electroporation can be used to express a gene under a ubiquitous promoter, such as CAG, or to disrupt gene function using shRNA constructs or Cre-recombinase. More targeted expression can be achieved by designing constructs with cell specific gene promoters. Visualization of electroporated cells is achieved using bicistronic constructs expressing GFP or by co-electroporating a GFP expression construct. Furthermore, multiple constructs may be electroporated for the study of combinatorial gene effects or simultaneous gain and loss of function of different genes. Retinal electroporation may also be utilized for the analysis of genomic cis-regulatory elements by generating appropriate expression constructs and deletion mutants. Such experiments can be used to identify cis-regulatory regions sufficient or required for cell specific gene expression 11. Potential experiments are limited only by construct availability.

In vivo Electroporation of Developing Mouse Retina

A method for the incorporation of plasmid DNA into murine retinal cells for the purpose of performing either gain- or loss of function studies in vivo is presented. This method capitalizes on the transient increase in permeability of cell plasma membranes induced by the application of an external electrical field.

開発マウス網膜の in vivoエレクトロポレーションで

The functional characterization of genes expressed during mammalian retinal development remains a significant challenge.  Gene targeting to generate ...

Light Preference Assay to Study Innate and Circadian Regulated Photobehavior in Drosophila Larvae

Light acts as environmental signal to control animal behavior at various levels. The Drosophila larval nervous system is used as a unique model to answer basic questions on how light information is processed and shared between rapid and circadian behaviors. Drosophila larvae display a stereotypical avoidance behavior when exposed to light. To investigate light dependent behaviors comparably simple light-dark preference tests can be applied. In vertebrates and arthropods the neural pathways involved in sensing and processing visual inputs partially overlap with those processing photic circadian information. The fascinating question of how the light sensing system and the circadian system interact to keep behavioral outputs coordinated remains largely unexplored. Drosophila is an impacting biological model to approach these questions, due to a small number of neurons in the brain and the availability of genetic tools for neuronal manipulation. The presented light-dark preference assay allows the investigation of a range of visual behaviors including circadian control of phototaxis.

Light Preference Assay to Study Innate and Circadian Regulated Photobehavior in Drosophila Larvae

Here we describe a light-dark preference test for Drosophila larva. This assay provides information about innate and circadian regulation of light sensing and processing photobehavior.

に自然免疫とサーカディアン規制Photobehaviorを勉強する光プアッセイ<em&gt;ショウジョウバエ</em&gt;幼虫

Light acts as environmental signal to control animal behavior at various levels. The Drosophila larval nervous system is used as a unique model to answer ...

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of the dendritic tree, which eventually leads to neuronal output of action potentials at the axon. The influence of diverse spatial and temporal parameters of specific synaptic input on neuronal output is currently under investigation, e.g. the distance-dependent attenuation of dendritic inputs, the location-dependent interaction of spatially segregated inputs, the influence of GABAergig inhibition on excitatory integration, linear and non-linear integration modes, and many more.
With fast micro-iontophoresis of glutamate and GABA it is possible to precisely investigate the spatial and temporal integration of glutamatergic excitation and GABAergic inhibition. Critical technical requirements are either a triggered fluorescent lamp, light-emitting diode (LED), or a two-photon scanning microscope to visualize dendritic branches without introducing significant photo-damage of the tissue. Furthermore, it is very important to have a micro-iontophoresis amplifier that allows for fast capacitance compensation of high resistance pipettes. Another crucial point is that no transmitter is involuntarily released by the pipette during the experiment.
Once established, this technique will give reliable and reproducible signals with a high neurotransmitter and location specificity. Compared to glutamate and GABA uncaging, fast iontophoresis allows using both transmitters at the same time but at very distant locations without limitation to the field of view. There are also advantages compared to focal electrical stimulation of axons: with micro-iontophoresis the location of the input site is definitely known and it is sure that only the neurotransmitter of interest is released. However it has to be considered that with micro-iontophoresis only the postsynapse is activated and presynaptic aspects of neurotransmitter release are not resolved. In this article we demonstrate how to set up micro-iontophoresis in brain slice experiments.

In this article we introduce fast micro-iontophoresis of neurotransmitters as a technique to investigate integration of postsynaptic signals with high spatial and temporal precision.

グルタミン酸とGABAの高速マイクロイオン導入：シナプス統合を調査するために便利なツール

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of ...

Deriving the Time Course of Glutamate Clearance with a Deconvolution Analysis of Astrocytic Transporter Currents

The highest density of glutamate transporters in the brain is found in astrocytes. Glutamate transporters couple the movement of glutamate across the membrane with the co-transport of 3 Na+ and 1 H+ and the counter-transport of 1 K+. The stoichiometric current generated by the transport process can be monitored with whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from astrocytes. The time course of the recorded current is shaped by the time course of the glutamate concentration profile to which astrocytes are exposed, the kinetics of glutamate transporters, and the passive electrotonic properties of astrocytic membranes. Here we describe the experimental and analytical methods that can be used to record glutamate transporter currents in astrocytes and isolate the time course of glutamate clearance from all other factors that shape the waveform of astrocytic transporter currents. The methods described here can be used to estimate the lifetime of flash-uncaged and synaptically-released glutamate at astrocytic membranes in any region of the central nervous system during health and disease.

We describe an analytical method to estimate the lifetime of glutamate at astrocytic membranes from electrophysiological recordings of glutamate transporter currents in astrocytes.

アストロサイトトランスポーター電流のデコンボリューション解析グルタミン酸クリアランスの時間経過の導出

The highest density of glutamate transporters in the brain is found in astrocytes. Glutamate transporters couple the movement of glutamate across the ...

Functional Interrogation of Adult Hypothalamic Neurogenesis with Focal Radiological Inhibition

The functional characterization of adult-born neurons remains a significant challenge. Approaches to inhibit adult neurogenesis via invasive viral delivery or transgenic animals have potential confounds that make interpretation of results from these studies difficult. New radiological tools are emerging, however, that allow one to noninvasively investigate the function of select groups of adult-born neurons through accurate and precise anatomical targeting in small animals. Focal ionizing radiation inhibits the birth and differentiation of new neurons, and allows targeting of specific neural progenitor regions. In order to illuminate the potential functional role that adult hypothalamic neurogenesis plays in the regulation of physiological processes, we developed a noninvasive focal irradiation technique to selectively inhibit the birth of adult-born neurons in the hypothalamic median eminence. We describe a method for Computer tomography-guided focal irradiation (CFIR) delivery to enable precise and accurate anatomical targeting in small animals. CFIR uses three-dimensional volumetric image guidance for localization and targeting of the radiation dose, minimizes radiation exposure to nontargeted brain regions, and allows for conformal dose distribution with sharp beam boundaries. This protocol allows one to ask questions regarding the function of adult-born neurons, but also opens areas to questions in areas of radiobiology, tumor biology, and immunology. These radiological tools will facilitate the translation of discoveries at the bench to the bedside.

The function of adult-born mammalian neurons remains an active area of investigation. Ionizing radiation inhibits the birth of new neurons. Using computer tomography-guided focal irradiation (CFIR), three-dimensional anatomical targeting of specific neural progenitor populations can now be used to assess the functional role of adult neurogenesis.

焦点放射線阻害と大人の視床下部ニューロン新生の機能的な尋問

The functional characterization of adult-born neurons remains a significant challenge. Approaches to inhibit adult neurogenesis via invasive viral ...

Organotypic Slice Cultures to Study Oligodendrocyte Dynamics and Myelination

NG2 expressing cells (polydendrocytes, oligodendrocyte precursor cells) are the fourth major glial cell population in the central nervous system. During embryonic and postnatal development they actively proliferate and generate myelinating oligodendrocytes. These cells have commonly been studied in primary dissociated cultures, neuron cocultures, and in fixed tissue. Using newly available transgenic mouse lines slice culture systems can be used to investigate proliferation and differentiation of oligodendrocyte lineage cells in both gray and white matter regions of the forebrain and cerebellum. Slice cultures are prepared from early postnatal mice and are kept in culture for up to 1 month. These slices can be imaged multiple times over the culture period to investigate cellular behavior and interactions. This method allows visualization of NG2 cell division and the steps leading to oligodendrocyte differentiation while enabling detailed analysis of region-dependent NG2 cell and oligodendrocyte functional heterogeneity. This is a powerful technique that can be used to investigate the intrinsic and extrinsic signals influencing these cells over time in a cellular environment that closely resembles that found in vivo.

A technique to study NG2 cells and oligodendrocytes using a slice culture system of the forebrain and cerebellum is described. This method allows examination of the dynamics of proliferation and differentiation of cells within the oligodendrocyte lineage where the extracellular environment can be easily manipulated while maintaining tissue cytoarchitecture.

オリゴデンドロサイトダイナミクスと髄鞘形成を研究するための器官型スライス培養

NG2 expressing cells (polydendrocytes, oligodendrocyte precursor cells) are the fourth major glial cell population in the central nervous system. During ...

High Throughput Assay to Examine Egg-Laying Preferences of Individual Drosophila melanogaster

Recently, egg-laying preference of Drosophila has emerged as a genetically tractable model to study the neural basis of simple decision-making processes. When selecting sites to deposit their eggs, female flies are capable of ranking the relative attractiveness of their options and choosing the &#34;greater of two goods.&#34; However, most egg-laying preference assays are not practical if one wants to take a systematic genetic screening approach to search for the circuit basis underlying this simple decision-making process, as they are population-based and laborious to set up. To increase the throughput of studying of egg-laying preferences of single females, we developed custom chambers that each can simultaneously assay egg-laying preferences of up to thirty individual flies as well as a protocol that ensures each female has a high egg-laying rate (so that their preference is readily discernable and more convincing). Our approach is simple to execute and produces very consistent results. Additionally, these chambers can be equipped with different attachments to allow video recording the egg-laying animals and to deliver light for optogenetics studies. This article provides the blueprints for fabricating these chambers and the procedure for preparing the flies to be assayed in these chambers.

High Throughput Assay to Examine Egg-Laying Preferences of Individual Drosophila melanogaster

This protocol describes a high throughput assay for testing egg-laying preferences of Drosophila melanogaster at single-animal resolution. This assay provides a simple, efficient, and scalable platform to identify genes and circuit components that control a simple decision-making process.

個々の産卵環境を調べるために、ハイスループットアッセイ<em&gt;キイロショウジョウバエ</em

Recently, egg-laying preference of Drosophila has emerged as a genetically tractable model to study the neural basis of simple decision-making processes. ...

Correlative Light and Electron Microscopy to Study Microglial Interactions with &#946;-Amyloid Plaques

A detailed protocol is provided here to identify amyloid A&#946; plaques in brain sections from Alzheimer&#39;s disease mouse models before pre-embedding immunostaining (specifically for ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (IBA1), a calcium binding protein expressed by microglia) and tissue processing for electron microscopy (EM). Methoxy-X04 is a fluorescent dye that crosses the blood-brain barrier and selectively binds to &#946;-pleated sheets found in dense core A&#946; plaques. Injection of the animals with methoxy-X04 prior to sacrifice and brain fixation allows pre-screening and selection of the plaque-containing brain sections for further processing with time-consuming manipulations. This is particularly helpful when studying early AD pathology within specific brain regions or layers that may contain very few plaques, present in only a small fraction of the sections. Post-mortem processing of tissue sections with Congo Red, Thioflavin S, and Thioflavin T (or even with methoxy-X04) can label &#946;-pleated sheets, but requires extensive clearing with ethanol to remove excess dye and these procedures are incompatible with ultrastructural preservation. It would also be inefficient to perform labeling for A&#946; (and other cellular markers such as IBA1) on all brain sections from the regions of interest, only to yield a small fraction containing A&#946; plaques at the right location. Importantly, A&#946; plaques are still visible after tissue processing for EM, allowing for a precise identification of the areas (generally down to a few square millimeters) to examine with the electron microscope.

This article describes a protocol for visualizing amyloid A&#946; plaques in Alzheimer&#39;s disease mouse models using methoxy-X04, which crosses the blood-brain barrier and selectively binds to &#946;-pleated sheets found in dense core A&#946; plaques. It allows pre-screening of plaque-containing tissue sections prior to immunostaining and processing for electron microscopy.

βアミロイド斑とミクログリアの相互作用を研究するために相関光と電子顕微鏡

A detailed protocol is provided here to identify amyloid A&#946; plaques in brain sections from Alzheimer&#39;s disease mouse models before pre-embedding ...

Stripe Assay to Study the Attractive or Repulsive Activity of a Protein Substrate Using Dissociated Hippocampal Neurons

Growing axons develop a highly motile structure at their tip, termed the growth cone. The growth cone contacts extracellular environmental cues to navigate axonal growth. Netrin, slit, semaphorin, and ephrins are known guidance molecules that can attract or repel axons upon binding to receptors and co-receptors on the axon. The activated receptors initiate various signaling molecules in the growth cone that alter the structure and movement of the neuron. Here, we describe the detailed protocol for a stripe assay to assess the ability of a guidance molecule to attract or repel neurons. In this method, dissociated hippocampal neurons from E15.5 mice are cultured on laminin-coated dishes processed with alternating stripes of ectodomain of fibronectin and leucine-rich transmembrane protein-2 (FLRT2) and control immunoglobulin G (IgG) fragment crystallizable region (Fc) protein. Both axons and cell bodies were strongly repelled from the FLRT2-coated stripe regions after 24 h of culture. Immunostaining with tau1 showed that ~90% of the neurons were distributed on the Fc-coated stripes compared to the FLRT2-Fc-coated stripes (~10%). This result indicates that FLRT2 has a strong repulsive effect on these neurons. This powerful method is applicable not only for primary cultured neurons but also for a variety of other cells, such as neuroblasts.

Axon guidance molecules regulate neuronal migration and targeted growth-cone navigation. We present a powerful method, the stripe assay, to assess the ability of guidance molecules to attract or repulse neurons. In this protocol, we demonstrate the stripe assay by showing FLRT2's ability to repel cultured hippocampal neurons.

感受性グリシン/D-セリン、グルタミン酸と NMDA 受容体を研究する高スループット カルシウム変化分析

感受性グリシン/D-セリン、グルタミン酸と NMDA 受容体を研究する高スループットカルシウム変化分析