This work was supported by a CIHR operating grant (MOP-102624) to Q. Y. We thank Dr Carolyn Harley for helpful discussions throughout the study, Dr. Qinlong Hou, Amin Shakhawat, and Andrea Darby-King for technical support.

남녀의 스프 라그 돌리 쥐 (찰스 리버) 새끼가 사용된다. 새끼는 (출생 PD0 인) PD1에 12 도태된다. 댐은 음식과 물에 대한 광고 무제한으로 액세스 할 수있는 12 시간 명 / 암주기에 유지됩니다. 실험 절차는 기념 대학의 기관 동물 관리위원회에 의해 승인되었습니다. 1 코 플러그 건설 참고 :.이 절차는 적응 커밍스 외로부터 수정 (1997) 35. <ol><li> Aquire 폴리에틸렌 20 튜브 3-0 실크 봉합사 실. </li><li> 약 0.8 mm에 폴리에틸렌 20 튜브의 작은 조각을 잘라. </li><li> 스레드는 튜브 섹션의 양쪽에 존재하도록 제조 된 튜브를 통해 달기 실크 봉합사. </li><li> 플러그의 외부 실의 한쪽 끝에서 스레드에서 매듭을 묶어. </li><li> 실의 매듭을 통해 아래로 튜브의 섹션을 당깁니다. 매듭은 튜브 내부에 제출해야한다.</li><li> 스레드 ~ 2mm가 튜브의 일단 부로부터 돌출되도록 실의 양단을 트림 (도 1a 참조). </li></ol> 교육 전에 2 나리스 폐쇄 <ol><li> 일반 침구로 덮여 안전한 접시에 댐과 장소에서 강아지를 제거합니다. </li><li> 콧 구멍에 국소 마취제 젤리, 2 % Xylocaine을 가볍게 두 드리하는면 팁 응용 프로그램을 사용하는 폐색합니다. </li><li> 강아지가 ~ 3 분 동안 접시에 휴식을 허용합니다. </li><li> 비 지배적 인 손에 부드럽게 안전하게 강아지를 잡으십시오. </li><li> 지배적 인 손을 사용하여, 코 플러그를 픽업 스레드가 돌출되어 있지 않은부터 팁 주위 같은​​ 국소 마취제 젤리를 두드려. 이 플러그 삽입과 관련된 약간의 통증이 모두 마취제 역할을하고 콧 구멍 안쪽에 윤활제 역할을합니다. 참고 : Xylocaine의 효과는 몇 분 내에 시작하고 20 ~ 30 분 동안 지속됩니다. xylocaine 젤리 사용 후 플러그 삽입의 일반적인 쇼 좋은 내성 새끼 (minimum 어려움을 겪고와 발성). </li><li> 조심스럽게 단단히 강아지를 들고와 플러그가 완전히 삽입 만 2mm 스레드가 콧 구멍에서 돌출 될 때까지 천천히 아주 부드러운 푸시와 플러그를 회전하여 코 플러그를 삽입합니다 (그림 1B 참조). 이 과정에서 두 콧 구멍에서 더 출혈이 없어야합니다. 코 플러그 삽입시 출혈 새끼 제외하고 댐으로 돌아갑니다 </li><li> 동물이 플러그에 길들하기 위해 5 분 동안이 접시에 휴식을 허용합니다. </li><li> 습관화 요리에서 강아지를 제거하고 에어컨 패러다임 (24)를 시작합니다. </li></ol><img alt="그림 1" fo:content-width="5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/51808/51808fig1highres.jpg" width="500" /> 코 플러그의 그림 1 건설. A) 회로도 코 플러그의 제조 단계를 도시. 스레드는 폴리에틸렌 튜브를 당겨; 매듭이 만들어 PUL된다이를 차단하는 튜브 중앙으로 이끄는; 두 끝)가 호스. B 중 한 쪽 끝에서 2mm의 잔류와 함께 전면 및 한 콧 구멍에 코 플러그가있는 쥐의 측면보기를 잘립니다. 3 향기 침구 준비 <ol><li> 새 장갑을 착용하고, 악취 오염을 방지 비닐 봉지에 우드 칩 침구 500 ㎖에 배치 할 흄 후드. </li><li> 0.3 ml의 박하 추출물을 그릴 주사기를 사용하고, 비닐 봉투에있는 침구를 통해이 스프레이. </li><li> , 가방 차단 타이 적극적으로 가방을 흔들어 침구는 5 분 동안 가방에 휴식을 할 수 있습니다. </li><li> 사용하기 전에 5 분 동안 흄 후드에서 발견 명확한, 얕은, 아크릴 훈련 상자 (20 × 20 × 5cm 3, 그림 2A)에서 냄새가 침대를 배치합니다. 침구가​​ 준비되면,이 장갑을 폐기하고,이 장갑은 동물과 접촉하지 않도록하십시오. </li><li> 동일한 투명한 플라스틱 상자에 무향 침대를 놓고 엉이 향수 침구 또는 사용 장갑에 접촉하지 않는지 확인하십시오. </li></ol> 4 냄새 컨디셔닝 패러다임 (그림 2A에서 그림 참조) 새끼는 PD 6, 또는 여러 시험 세션 (하루에 하나의 세션, PD 3-6)에, 하나 하나의 조화 세션을받을. <ol><li> 냄새가 침대에 길들여 강아지를 놓습니다. 제어 냄새 만 (O / S -)의 경우 새끼, 다음 4.5 단계로 이동, 10 분 동안 침대에서이 새끼를 둡니다. 실험 냄새 + 스트로크 (O / S +) 새끼는,이 섹션에서 다음 단계를 계속합니다. </li><li> 스트로크 30 초 동안 강아지는 작은 붓을 사용. 주로 강아지의 뒷다리 지역 주위에 빠른 원형 동작을 사용합니다. </li><li> 강아지가 30 초 동안 휴식을 허용합니다. </li><li> 반복 4.2 및 10 분의 총 4.3 (쓰다듬어 + 냄새 즉, 10 페어링) 단계를 반복합니다. </li><li> 컨디셔닝 상자에서 강아지를 제거 코 플러그를 제거하고 댐에 강아지를 반환합니다. </li></ol> &lt;P 클래스 = &quot;jove_title&quot;&gt; 5. 편측 냄새 환경 테스트 (그림 2B에서 그림 참조) 테스트는 최종 트레이닝 세션 다음 다양한 시점 (예를 들면, 24 또는 48 시간)에서 발생한다. 테스트는 2cm 중성 영역으로 구분이 훈련 박스 (훈련 박스 3.4에서 설명된다)의 상단에 배치되는 스테인리스 테스트 실 (30 X 20 X 18cm 3)에서 수행된다. 다른 상자가 깨끗하고, 무향의 침대를 포함하는 동안 하나의 훈련 상자가 박하 향기 침구가 포함되어 있습니다. 테스트 챔버의 바닥은 플라스틱 메쉬 분리형 시트 (도 2b)에 의해 커버되는 금속 격자이다. <ol><li> 한 박하와 제 3 당 한 무향 침구를 준비하고, 2cm 간격 테스트 챔버의 양측에서 각 상자를 배치합니다. 테스트 챔버의 금속 격자 층에있는 플라스틱 메시를 놓습니다. </li><li> 댐에서 강아지를 제거하고 콧 구멍에 무취 실리콘 그리스의 회사 명인를 배치그는 훈련 기간 동안 폐색된다. 재 적용 필요에 따라 제 1 검사 절차 내내 그리스. 참고 : 교육 및 테스트하는 동안 임의 콧 구멍 폐쇄는 편견을 피하기 위해 고려 될 수있다. </li><li> 테스트 챔버의 중립 영역에 강아지를 놓습니다. </li><li> 강아지가 챔버의 양측 지출 한 시간을 기록, 강아지가 1 분 동안 챔버를 탐험 할 수 있도록 허용 (예 : 박하 또는 중립적 향기 침구 이상). </li><li> 강아지가 덮여 플라스틱 보유 챔버에서 1 분 동안 휴식을 허용합니다. </li><li> 반복은 10 분의 총 5.2 &amp; 5.3 단계 (즉, 5 나머지 실험에 의해 분리 실험 5 실험) 방향 선호도에 대해 제어하기 위해 챔버 내에서 강아지의 초기 방향 전환. </li><li> 즉시 시험 다음, 콧 구멍에서 그리스를 닦아. </li><li> 2 절에 따라 반대 콧 구멍에 폴리에틸렌 noseplug를 삽입하고 동물이 10 분 동안 휴식을 할 수 있습니다. </li><li> 에서와 같이 다시 한번 강아지를 테스트<html> 5.3 -5.6는 플러그를 제거하고 댐에 강아지를 반환합니다. 제거하고 95 % 에탄올로 테스트 챔버의 플라스틱 메쉬를 청소하고 액체가 증발 할 수있다. 다음 강아지를 테스트하기 전에 다시 메시를 놓습니다. 참고 : 테스트 중 첫 번째 콧 구멍 폐쇄에 실리콘 그리스를 적용 출혈과 코의 플러그 삽입과 관련된 스트레스의 가능성을 방지 할 수 있습니다. </li></ol><img alt="그림이" fo:content-width="5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/51808/51808fig2highres.jpg" width="500" /> 그림 2 초기 악취 환경 교육 및 테스트. 패러다임을 쓰다듬어 + 냄새를 사용하여 A) 초기 악취 환경 교육. B) 한면에 박하 침구와 함께 두 개의 선택 냄새 환경 테스트, 반대편에 무향 침대를 제어 할 수 있습니다. 2cm 중립 영역은 사이에 배치됩니다. (6) 단일 나리스 폐쇄의 효과를 테스트 NT는 &quot;&gt;이 실험은 하나의 콧 구멍 폐쇄가 후각 시스템의 편측 활성화로 연결 여부를 결정하기 위해 수행된다. <ol><li> 2 절에 설명 된대로 PD 6 또는 7 새끼에 일방적 콧 구멍의 폐색을 수행합니다. </li><li> ~ 5 분의 습관화 후, 해당 플라스틱 용기에 강아지를 배치하고 10 분 동안 조직의 조각에 담가 30 ㎕의 순수 박하유에 노출. </li><li> 즉시 박하 냄새에 노출 된 후, 복강 내 (IP) 클로 랄 전신 마취로 수화물 (400 ㎎ / ㎏), 또는 pentobarbitol (150 ㎎ / ㎏)와 강아지를 주입. </li><li> 완전히 (꼬리 부분 또는 발 핀치에 대한 응답을 보여주는) 마취 후 transcardially 0.1 M 인산 완충 용액, PBS에 용해 파라 포름 알데히드 (4 % 다음에 ~ 1 분 식염수 (0.9 %)의 얼음처럼 차가운 솔루션 강아지, 관류 ). </li><li> 다음 트랜스, 파라 포름 알데히드 관류 10 분 후 뇌를 수집하고 4 ° C에서 하룻밤 파라 포름 알데히드에 배치추가로 24 시간 동안 자당 용액 (PBS에서 20 %)로 뇌를 FER. </li><li> 저온 유지 장치와 30 μm의 두께로 관상 뇌 조각을 잘라. OB와 PC 조각을 수집하고 pCREB 항체 21,25,30 표준 면역 조직 화학 염색 뒤에 젤라틴 코팅 슬라이드에 탑재합니다. </li></ol> 7 단일 나리스 폐쇄의 가역성 테스트 차단 효과는 코 플러그를 제거 다음 24 시간에서 뒤집을 수 있는지 여부를이 실험 테스트합니다. <ol><li> 2 절에 설명 된대로 PD 6 또는 7 새끼에 일방적 콧 구멍의 폐색을 수행합니다. </li><li> (훈련 중에 콧 구멍 폐쇄의 기간에 해당 - 5 분​​의 습관화 + 10 분 교육) 15 분 후, 코 플러그를 제거하고 댐에 강아지를 반환합니다. </li><li> 6.2에 설명 된대로 24 시간 후, 10 분 동안 덮여 플라스틱 용기에 박하 냄새에 강아지를 노출합니다. </li><li> 종파에서 동일한 단계를 수행6.3-6.6를 이온. </li></ol>

<ol>
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The authors have nothing to disclose.

중요한 시간 창 내 쥐 새끼의 편측 냄새 학습과 기억 모델은 첫번째 홀과 동료들에 의해 설립되었습니다. 연구 33,34,36의 시리즈, 그들은 냄새 기본 메모리가 쥐 새끼에서 PD 6에 하나의 콧 구멍으로 냄새 + 우유 짝에 의해 편측 될 수 있음을 보여 주었다. 기본 설정 메모리는 같은 콧 구멍 교육 및 시험 동안 열려있을 때 강력한했지만, 폐쇄 된 콧 구멍이 차단을 해제하고 테스트 때 관찰되지....

후각은 성공적으로 탐색하거나 자신의 환경에서 살아남을 수 없을 것이다없이 설치류의 기본 감각 양상이다. 그것은 일을 공급하기 위해 자신의 어머니를 찾기 위해 후각을 사용하여, 첫번째 산후 주 동안 참조되지도들을 수 있습니다 둘 신생아 새끼에 특히 중요합니다. 결과적으로, 신생아 래트 새끼가 간단한 조작으로 실험을 선호하는 냄새 조절 될 수있다. 자극의 다양한 중첩 환경 2,3, 우유, 유아 4-6, 쓰다듬어 촉각 자극 7-을 포함하여 신생아에서 새로운 냄새에 대한 조건 반응 (조건 자극, CS)를 유도하는 무조건 자극 (UCS)로 사용되어왔다 12, 꼬리 핀치 (13), 산모의 타액 13, 가벼운 발 충격 14-18, 두개 내 뇌 자극 19. 본 연구는 잘 설립 초기 냄새 환경 패러다임을 고용하고있어서,이 경우 박하의 냄새,, 난박하 24 시간 후 10,11,20에 대한 선호를 생산하기 위해 촉각 자극과 결합 될 수있다. 이 냄새의 기억은 주로 후각 전구 (OB) 21 ~ 23과 전방 배 모양의 피질 (APC) (24, 25)를 포함하여, 그대로 후각 회로에 따라 달라집니다. 초기 냄새 환경 학습의 실험 연구 심화 및 포유 동물 메모리의 분자 및 생리 학적 토대에 대한 우리의 이해를 넓혔다. 이 포유 동물 모델은 메모리 메커니즘을 연구하는 여러 가지 장점이 있습니다. 먼저, UCS 신호의 소스는 신경 확인되었다. 위에서 언급 한 바와 같이 다양한 자극 차례로 22,27,28 학습 지원 세포 및 생리 학적 효과를 일으키는 원인이되는 OB와 APC에서 여러 아드레날린 수용체를 활성화 궤적 coeruleus 노르 에피네프린 릴리스 26를 자극한다. 둘째, 메모리지지 메커니즘은 잘 정의 된 층류 신경 구조에서 일어난다.신생아 쥐의 후각 회로의 단순 시냅스 가소성과 관련된 복잡한 프로세스를 발견 할 수와 이상적인 프레임 워크와 연구자를 제공합니다. 다른 구조 29 중 OB와 ipsilaterally 측면 후각 기관 (LOT)를 통해 배 모양의 피질 (PC) 차례 프로젝트에서 이러한 승모판 / 술 세포에서 승모판 / 술 세포 상에 후각 상피 프로젝트의 후각 감각 뉴런 (OSN). OSN의 OB (30, 31)에서 시냅스와 LOT는 APC에서 (24, 25)을 시냅스 모두 시냅스 학습 지원 변경 및 메모리에 중요한 서식처로 확인되었습니다. 셋째, 쥐의 초기 시대에, 후각 입력은 쉽게 편측 할 수 있습니다. 각 APC는 한 번이 흰색 물질이 완전히 산후 12 일 (PD12) (32)에 형성되고, 전방 교련을 통해 양국 간 냄새 정보에 액세스 할 수 있습니다. PD 12 전에 냄새 입력은 하나의 콧 구멍 폐쇄 24,25,31,33,34 &lt;을 통해 OB와 APC를 ipisilateral하기 위해 분리 할 수있다/ SUP&gt;. 단일 콧 구멍 폐쇄 오픈 콧 구멍에서 냄새가 기억 형성을 허용하고, 12 (33) PD하기 전에 가려 콧 구멍에서 동일한 메모리를 방지 할 수 있습니다. 냄새의 기억은 모두 OB 및 APC를 포함한 동측 반구에 격리됩니다. 따라서 각 쥐 강아지 학습 및 생리학의 토대에 대한 자신의 제어 할 수 있습니다. 본 연구에서는, 편측 이른 악취 기본 학습 프로토콜이 도입된다. 이 방법은 이에 필요한 동물의 수와 일반적인 편차 모두를 줄일 인트라 동물 24,25,31 제어를 제공하여 악취를 뒷받침 신경망 학습 메카니즘을 연구하기위한 강력한 도구로서 기능한다. 나리스 폐쇄는 그리스 나 코 플러그가 적용되는 최소한의 스트레스 또는 동물의 손상으로 제거 할 수 있다는 점에서 가역적이다. 여기에서, 첫째, 초기 악취 환경 교육 및 테스트의 자세한 절차는 번호와 함께 하나의 콧 구멍 폐쇄를 사용하여 편측 프로토콜을 중심으로 설명되어 있습니다전자 플러그. 그런 다음 결과는 냄새 입력을 분리하고 편측 냄새 메모리를 생산하는 하나의 콧 구멍 폐쇄의 효과를 보여주기 위해 제공됩니다. 마지막으로, 모두가 학습 및 지원 메모리 표현을 생성 후각 시스템의 생리적 변화를 연구하기 위해 편측 학습 모델을 사용의 가능성이 논의된다.

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			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">Polythylene 20 tubing</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Intramedic</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">427406</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Non radiopaque, Non toxic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">3-0 silk suture thread</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Syneture</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">Sofsilk</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Non absorbant&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">Silicone grease</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Warner Instrument</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">64-0378</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Odorless</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">2% xylocaine gel</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">AstraZeneca</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">Prod. No 061</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Lidocaine hydrochloride jelly,&#160; purchased at local pharmacy</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">Paint brush</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Dynasty</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">206R</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Similar size/other brands work too</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">Peppermint extract</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">W284807</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Other brand should be okay too</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="171">
			<td height="171" style="height:171px;width:149px;">Training box</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Custom-made</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Acrylic box (20x20x5cm3), see Figure 2A. Parameters and material for the box are not critical and can be modified. Material used should be odorless and does not absorb odors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="182">
			<td height="182" style="height:182px;width:149px;">Testing chamber</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Custom-made</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Stainless steel (30x20x18cm3), see Figure 2B. Parameters and material for the chamber are not critical and can be modified. For example, an acrylic chamber instead of a stainless steel one can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">pCREB antibody</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Cell Signaling</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">9198</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">Ser 133 (87G3) Rabbit mAb</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">Chloral hydrate</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">C8383</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">N/A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">Paraformaldehype</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">P6148</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">N/A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:149px;">Sucrose</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:103px;">S9378</td>
			<td style="width:205px;">N/A</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a lateralized odor learning model in neonatal rats for dissecting neural circuitry underpinning memory formation

Rat pups during a critical postnatal period (&#8804; 10 days) readily form a preference for an odor that is associated with stimuli mimicking maternal care. Such a preference memory can last from hours, to days, even life-long, depending on training parameters. Early odor preference learning provides us with a model in which the critical changes for a natural form of learning occur in the olfactory circuitry. An additional feature that makes it a powerful tool for the analysis of memory processes is that early odor preference learning can be lateralized via single naris occlusion within the critical period. This is due to the lack of mature anterior commissural connections of the olfactory hemispheres at this early age. This work outlines behavioral protocols for lateralized odor learning using nose plugs. Acute, reversible naris occlusion minimizes tissue and neuronal damages associated with long-term occlusion and more aggressive methods such as cauterization. The lateralized odor learning model permits within-animal comparison, therefore greatly reducing variance compared to between-animal designs. This method has been used successfully to probe the circuit changes in the olfactory system produced by training. Future directions include exploring molecular underpinnings of odor memory using this lateralized learning model; and correlating physiological change with memory strength and durations.

여기에서 우리는 냄새 입력을 분리하고 하나의 반구 학습에 콧 구멍 폐쇄의 효과 및이 방법의 가역성을 보여주기 위해 이전에 설정된 결과 (24)의 일부를 검토합니다. 초기 냄새 환경 설정 훈련 도중 단일 콧 구멍 폐쇄는 편측 냄새 메모리 (24)에 연결됩니다. 메모리 스페어 나리스 (그림 3)으로 제한됩니다. 강아지가 훈련 도중으로 폐색 같은 콧 구...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Lateralized Odor Learning Model in Neonatal Rats for Dissecting Neural Circuitry Underpinning Memory Formation at JoVE.com

A Lateralized Odor Learning Model in Neonatal Rats for Dissecting Neural Circuitry Underpinning Memory Formation

This protocol introduces lateralized early odor preference learning in rats using acute single naris occlusion. Lateralized learning permits the examination of behavioral outcomes and underpinning biological mechanisms within the same animals, reducing variance induced by between-animal designs. This protocol can be used to investigate molecular mechanisms underpinning early odor learning.

신경 회로 토대 메모리 형성을 해부에 대한 신생아 흰쥐의 편측 냄새 학습 모델

Rat pups during a critical postnatal period (&#8804; 10 days) readily form a preference for an odor that is associated with stimuli mimicking maternal ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

8.9K 조회수.  Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University. This protocol introduces lateralized early odor preference learning in rats using acute single naris occlusion. Lateralized learning permits the examination of behavioral outcomes and underpinning biological mechanisms within the same animals, reducing variance induced by between-animal designs. This protocol can be used to investigate molecular mechanisms underpinning early odor learning.

비디오: A Lateralized Odor Learning Model in Neonatal Rats for Dissecting Neural Circuitry Underpinning Memory Formation

C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays

The memory of experiences and learned information is critical for organisms to make choices that aid their survival. C. elegans navigates its environment through neuron-specific detection of food and chemical odors1, 2, and can associate nutritive states with chemical odors3, temperature4, and the pathogenicity of a food source5.
Here, we describe assays of C. elegans associative learning and short- and long-term associative memory. We modified an aversive olfactory learning paradigm6 to instead produce a positive response; the assay involves starving ~400 worms, then feeding the worms in the presence of the AWC neuron-sensed volatile chemoattractant butanone at a concentration that elicits a low chemotactic index (similar to Toroyama et al.7). A standard population chemotaxis assay1 tests the worms' attraction to the odorant immediately or minutes to hours after conditioning.
After conditioning, wild-type animals' chemotaxis to butanone increases ~0.6 Chemotaxis Index units, its "Learning Index". Associative learning is dependent on the presence of both food and butanone during training. Pairing food and butanone for a single conditioning period ("massed training") produces short-term associative memory that lasts ~2 hours. Multiple conditioning periods with rest periods between ("spaced training") yields long-term associative memory (&lt;40 hours), and is dependent on the cAMP Response Element Binding protein (CREB),6 a transcription factor required for long-term memory across species.8
Our protocol also includes image analysis methods for quick and accurate determination of chemotaxis indices. High-contrast images of animals on chemotaxis assay plates are captured and analyzed by worm counting software in MatLab. The software corrects for uneven background using a morphological tophat transformation.9 Otsu's method is then used to determine a threshold to separate worms from the background.10 Very small particles are removed automatically and larger non-worm regions (plate edges or agar punches) are removed by manual selection. The software then estimates the size of single worm by ignoring regions that are above a specified maximum size and taking the median size of the remaining regions. The number of worms is then estimated by dividing the total area identified as occupied by worms by the estimated size of a single worm.
We have found that learning and short- and long-term memory can be distinguished, and that these processes share similar key molecules with higher organisms.6,8 Our assays can quickly test novel candidate genes or molecules that affect learning and short- or long-term memory in C. elegans that are relevant across species.

C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays

Here we describe methods to test C. elegans associative learning and short- and long-term associative memory. These population assays employ the worms abilities to chemotax toward volatile odorants, and form positive associations upon pairing food with the chemoattractant butanone. Increasing the number of conditioning periods induces long-term memory.

C. 엘레간스 긍정적인 Butanone 학습, 단기 및 장기 연관 메모리 Assays

The memory of experiences and learned information is critical for organisms to make choices that aid their survival. C. elegans navigates its environment ...

연구

신경과학

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of these diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's disease are characterized by age-dependent deterioration in learning and memory functions and movement coordination2. Here we use behavioral assays, including the negative geotaxis assay3 and the aversive phototaxic suppression assay (APS assay)4,5, to show that some of the behavior characteristics associated with human neurodegeneration can be recapitulated in flies. In the negative geotaxis assay, the natural tendency of flies to move against gravity when agitated is utilized to study genes or conditions that may hinder locomotor capacities. In the APS assay, the learning and memory functions are tested in positively-phototactic flies trained to associate light with aversive bitter taste and hence avoid this otherwise natural tendency to move toward light. Testing these trained flies 6 hours post-training is used to assess memory functions. Using these assays, the contribution of any genetic or environmental factors toward developing neurodegeneration can be easily studied in flies.

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Behavior assays for measuring locomotor functions, learning, and memory abilities in Drosophila.

에 시금 운동력이있는 사람, 학습, 및 메모리 적자 Drosophila</emNeurodegeneration의> 모델

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of ...

Morris Water Maze Test for Learning and Memory Deficits in Alzheimer&#39;s Disease Model Mice

The Morris Water Maze (MWM) was first established by neuroscientist Richard G. Morris in 1981 in order to test hippocampal-dependent learning, including acquisition of spatial memoryand long-term spatial memory 1. The MWM is a relatively simple procedure typically consisting of six day trials, the main advantage being the differentiation between the spatial (hidden-platform) and non-spatial (visible platform) conditions 2-4. In addition, the MWM testing environment reduces odor trail interference 5. This has led the task to be used extensively in the study of the neurobiology and neuropharmacology of spatial learning and memory. The MWM plays an important role in the validation of rodent models for neurocognitive disorders such as Alzheimer&#x2019;s Disease 6, 7. In this protocol we discussed the typical procedure of MWM for testing learning and memory and data analysis commonly used in Alzheimer&#x2019;s disease transgenic model mice.

Morris Water Maze Test for Learning and Memory Deficits in Alzheimer&#039;s Disease Model Mice

The Morris Water Maze is a behavioral task to test hippocampal-dependent learning and memory. It has been widely used in the study of neurobiology, neuropharmacology and neurocognitive disorders in rodent models.

알츠하이머병 모델 마우스에서 학습 및 메모리 적자에 대한 모리스 워터 메이즈 테스트

The Morris Water Maze (MWM) was first established by neuroscientist Richard G. Morris in 1981 in order to test hippocampal-dependent learning, including ...

Optical Recording of Suprathreshold Neural Activity with Single-cell and Single-spike Resolution

Signaling of information in the vertebrate central nervous system is often carried by populations of neurons rather than individual neurons. Also propagation of suprathreshold spiking activity involves populations of neurons. Empirical studies addressing cortical function directly thus require recordings from populations of neurons with high resolution. Here we describe an optical method and a deconvolution algorithm to record neural activity from up to 100 neurons with single-cell and single-spike resolution. This method relies on detection of the transient increases in intracellular somatic calcium concentration associated with suprathreshold electrical spikes (action potentials) in cortical neurons. High temporal resolution of the optical recordings is achieved by a fast random-access scanning technique using acousto-optical deflectors (AODs)1. Two-photon excitation of the calcium-sensitive dye results in high spatial resolution in opaque brain tissue2. Reconstruction of spikes from the fluorescence calcium recordings is achieved by a maximum-likelihood method. Simultaneous electrophysiological and optical recordings indicate that our method reliably detects spikes (&gt;97% spike detection efficiency), has a low rate of false positive spike detection (&lt; 0.003 spikes/sec), and a high temporal precision (about 3 msec) 3. This optical method of spike detection can be used to record neural activity in vitro and in anesthetized animals in vivo3,4.

Understanding the function of the vertebrate central nervous system requires recordings from many neurons because cortical function arises on the level of populations of neurons. Here we describe an optical method to record suprathreshold neural activity with single-cell and single-spike resolution, dithered random-access scanning. This method records somatic fluorescence calcium signals from up to 100 neurons with high temporal resolution. A maximum-likelihood algorithm deconvolves the underlying suprathreshold neural activity from the somatic fluorescence calcium signals. This method reliably detects spikes with high detection efficiency and a low rate of false positives and can be used to study neural populations in vitro and in vivo.

단일 셀 및 단일 스파이크 해상도 suprathreshold 신경 활동의 광 기록

Signaling of information in the vertebrate central nervous system is often carried by populations of neurons rather than individual neurons. Also ...

Viral Tracing of Genetically Defined Neural Circuitry

Classical methods for studying neuronal circuits are fairly low throughput. Transsynaptic viruses, particularly the pseudorabies (PRV) and rabies virus (RABV), and more recently vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), for studying circuitry, is becoming increasingly popular. These higher throughput methods use viruses that transmit between neurons in either the anterograde or retrograde direction.
Recently, a modified RABV for monosynaptic retrograde tracing was developed. (Figure 1A). In this method, the glycoprotein (G) gene is deleted from the viral genome, and resupplied only in targeted neurons. Infection specificity is achieved by substituting a chimeric G, composed of the extracellular domain of the ASLV-A glycoprotein and the cytoplasmic domain of the RABV-G (A/RG), for the normal RABV-G1. This chimeric G specifically infects cells expressing the TVA receptor1. The gene encoding TVA can been delivered by various methods2-8. Following RABV-G infection of a TVA-expressing neuron, the RABV can transmit to other, synaptically connected neurons in a retrograde direction by nature of its own G which was co-delivered with the TVA receptor. This technique labels a relatively large number of inputs (5-10%)2 onto a defined cell type, providing a sampling of all of the inputs onto a defined starter cell type.
We recently modified this technique to use VSV as a transsynaptic tracer9. VSV has several advantages, including the rapidity of gene expression. Here we detail a new viral tracing system using VSV useful for probing microcircuitry with increased resolution. While the original published strategies by Wickersham et al.4 and Beier et al.9 permit labeling of any neurons that project onto initially-infected TVA-expressing-cells, here VSV was engineered to transmit only to TVA-expressing cells (Figure 1B). The virus is first pseudotyped with RABV-G to permit infection of neurons downstream of TVA-expressing neurons. After infecting this first population of cells, the virus released can only infect TVA-expressing cells. Because the transsynaptic viral spread is limited to TVA-expressing cells, presence of absence of connectivity from defined cell types can be explored with high resolution. An experimental flow chart of these experiments is shown in Figure 2. Here we show a model circuit, that of direction-selectivity in the mouse retina. We examine the connectivity of starburst amacrine cells (SACs) to retinal ganglion cells (RGCs).

A method of tracing synaptically connected neurons is described. We use TVA specificity of an upstream cell to probe whether a cell population of interest receives synaptic input from genetically defined cell types.

유 전적으로 정의 된 신경 회로의 추적 바이러스

Classical methods for studying neuronal circuits are fairly low throughput. Transsynaptic viruses, particularly the pseudorabies (PRV) and rabies virus ...

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution has been a long sought tool for neuroscientists in the systems-level search for the neural circuitry governing complex behavioral states. Optogenetics is a cutting-edge tool that is revolutionizing the field of neuroscience and represents one of the first systematic approaches to enable causal testing regarding the relation between neural signaling events and behavior. By combining optical and genetic approaches, neural signaling can be bi-directionally controlled through expression of light-sensitive ion channels (opsins) in mammalian cells. The current protocol describes delivery of specific wavelengths of light to opsin-expressing cells in deep brain structures of awake, freely-moving rodents for neural circuit modulation. Theoretical principles of light transmission as an experimental consideration are discussed in the context of performing in vivo optogenetic stimulation. The protocol details the design and construction of both simple and complex laser configurations and describes tethering strategies to permit simultaneous stimulation of multiple animals for high-throughput behavioral testing.

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

Optogenetics has become a powerful tool for use in behavioral neuroscience experiments. This protocol offers a step-by-step guide to the design and set-up of laser systems, and provides a full protocol for carrying out multiple and simultaneous in vivo optogenetic stimulations compatible with most rodent behavioral testing paradigms.

설치류 중추 신경계의 생체 Optogenetic 자극

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution ...

Assessing Spatial Learning and Memory in Small Squamate Reptiles

Clinical research has leveraged a variety of paradigms to assess cognitive decline, commonly targeting spatial learning and memory abilities. However, interest in the cognitive processes of nonmodel species, typically within an ecological context, has also become an emerging field of study. In particular, interest in the cognitive processes in reptiles is growing although experimental studies on reptilian cognition are sparse. The few reptilian studies that have experimentally tested for spatial learning and memory have used rodent paradigms modified for use in reptiles. However, ecologically important aspects of the physiology and behavior of this taxonomic group must be taken into account when testing for spatially based cognition. Here, we describe modifications of the dry land Barnes maze and associated testing protocol that can improve performance when probing for spatial learning and memory ability in small squamate reptiles. The described paradigm and procedures were successfully used with male side-blotched lizards (Uta stansburiana), demonstrating that spatial learning and memory can be assessed in this taxonomic group with an ecologically relevant apparatus and protocol.

This paper describes a modification of the Barnes maze, a standard rodent paradigm used to assess spatial memory and learning, for use in small squamate reptiles.

작은 Squamate 파충류에서 공간 학습 및 메모리 평가

Clinical research has leveraged a variety of paradigms to assess cognitive decline, commonly targeting spatial learning and memory abilities. However, ...

Recording EEG in Freely Moving Neonatal Rats Using a Novel Method

EEG is a useful method to detect electrical activity in the brain. Moreover, it is a widely used diagnostic tool for various neurological conditions, such as epilepsy and neurodegenerative disorders. However, it is technically difficult to obtain EEG recordings in neonates as it requires specialized handling and great care. Here, we present a novel method to record EEG in neonatal rat pups (P8-P15). We designed a simple and reliable electrode using computer pin loci; it can be easily implanted into the skull of a rat pup to record high-quality EEG signals in the normal and epileptic brain. Pups were given an intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of the neurotoxin kainic acid (KA) to induce epileptic seizures. The surgical implantation performed in this procedure is less expensive than other EEG procedures for neonates. This method allows one to record high-quality and stable EEG signals for more than 1 week. Furthermore, this procedure can also be applied to adult rats and mice to study epilepsy or other neurological disorders.

Here, we introduce a novel technique designed to record electroencephalography (EEG) in freely moving neonatal epileptic pups and describe its procedures, features, and applications. This method allows one to record EEG for more than 1 week.

새로운 방법으로 자유롭게 움직이는 신생아 쥐의 뇌파 기록

EEG is a useful method to detect electrical activity in the brain. Moreover, it is a widely used diagnostic tool for various neurological conditions, such ...

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model organisms such as the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Drosophila is useful for understanding the basic neurobiology underlying cognitive deficits resulting from mutations in genes associated with human cognitive disorders, such as intellectual disability (ID) and autism. This work describes a methodology for testing learning and memory using a classic paradigm in Drosophila known as courtship conditioning. Male flies court females using a distinct pattern of easily recognizable behaviors. Premated females are not receptive to mating and will reject the male&#39;s copulation attempts. In response to this rejection, male flies reduce their courtship behavior. This learned reduction in courtship behavior is measured over time, serving as an indicator of learning and memory. The basic numerical output of this assay is the courtship index (CI), which is defined as the percentage of time that a male spends courting during a 10 min interval. The learning index (LI) is the relative reduction of CI in flies that have been exposed to a premated female compared to na&#239;ve flies with no previous social encounters. For the statistical comparison of LIs between genotypes, a randomization test with bootstrapping is used. To illustrate how the assay can be used to address the role of a gene relating to learning and memory, the pan-neuronal knockdown of Dihydroxyacetone phosphate acyltransferase (Dhap-at) was characterized here. The human ortholog of Dhap-at, glyceronephosphate O-acyltransferase (GNPT), is involved in rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata type 2, an autosomal-recessive syndrome characterized by severe ID. Using the courtship conditioning assay, it was determined that Dhap-at is required for long-term memory, but not for short-term memory. This result serves as a basis for further investigation of the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

This protocol describes a Drosophila learning and memory assay called courtship conditioning. This classic assay is based on a reduction of male courtship behavior after sexual rejection by a non-receptive premated female. This natural form of behavioral plasticity can be used to test learning, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

학습과 기억의 척도 로서의 Drosophila Courtship 컨디셔닝

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model ...

In Vitro Wedge Slice Preparation for Mimicking In Vivo Neuronal Circuit Connectivity

In vitro slice electrophysiology techniques measure single-cell activity with precise electrical and temporal resolution. Brain slices must be relatively thin to properly visualize and access neurons for patch-clamping or imaging, and in vitro examination of brain circuitry is limited to only what is physically present in the acute slice. To maintain the benefits of in vitro slice experimentation while preserving a larger portion of presynaptic nuclei, we developed a novel slice preparation. This &#8220;wedge slice&#8221; was designed for patch-clamp electrophysiology recordings to characterize the diverse monaural, sound-driven inputs to medial olivocochlear (MOC) neurons in the brainstem. These neurons receive their primary afferent excitatory and inhibitory inputs from neurons activated by stimuli in the contralateral ear and corresponding cochlear nucleus (CN). An asymmetrical brain slice was designed which is thickest in the rostro-caudal domain at the lateral edge of one hemisphere and then thins towards the lateral edge of the opposite hemisphere. This slice contains, on the thick side, the auditory nerve root conveying information about auditory stimuli to the brain, the intrinsic CN circuitry, and both the disynaptic excitatory and trisynaptic inhibitory afferent pathways that converge on contralateral MOC neurons. Recording is performed from MOC neurons on the thin side of the slice, where they are visualized using DIC optics for typical patch-clamp experiments. Direct stimulation of the auditory nerve is performed as it enters the auditory brainstem, allowing for intrinsic CN circuit activity and synaptic plasticity to occur at synapses upstream of MOC neurons. With this technique, one can mimic in vivo circuit activation as closely as possible within the slice. This wedge slice preparation is applicable to other brain circuits where circuit analyses would benefit from preservation of upstream connectivity and long-range inputs, in combination with the technical advantages of in vitro slice physiology.

Integration of diverse synaptic inputs to neurons is best measured in a preparation that preserves all pre-synaptic nuclei for natural timing and circuit plasticity, but brain slices typically sever many connections. We developed a modified brain slice to mimic in vivo circuit activity while maintaining in vitro experimentation capability.

생체 내 신경 회로 연결성 모방을 위한 체외 쐐기 슬라이스 준비

In vitro slice electrophysiology techniques measure single-cell activity with precise electrical and temporal resolution. Brain slices must be relatively ...