Name: neuropharmacological manipulation of restrained and free-flying honey bees, apis mellifera
Uploaded: 2016-11-26T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Neuropharmacological Manipulation of Restrained and Free-flying Honey Bees, Apis mellifera at JoVE.com

This project was funded by ARC grant DP0986021 and NHMRC grant 585442. ABB is supported by an ARC Future Fellowship (FT140100452). JAP is supported by an iMQRES scholarship awarded by Macquarie University and by a DAAD-Doktorandenstipendium awarded by the German Academic Exchange Service. JMD is supported by CNRS and University Paul Sabatier.

1. Drug Administration for Harnessed Bees
<ol>
	<li>Oral treatment
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare 1.5 M sucrose solution by mixing 257 g of sucrose with 500 ml of water (it is easier to dissolve this amount of sucrose in boiling water). Store sucrose solution at 4 &#176;C until use. 
		NOTE: Sucrose solution provides a very hospitable environment for certain microorganisms, and thus easily becomes contaminated and unpalatable to bees. Bulk sucrose solution can be aliquoted and stored at -20 &#176;C until use...

<ol>
	<li>Frisch, K. .. . v. o. n. . B. e. e. s. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Their Vision, Chemical Senses, and Language. , (1971).</li><li>Giurfa, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+amazing+mini-brain:+lessons+from+a+honey+bee.">The amazing mini-brain: lessons from a honey bee.</a> Bee World. 84 (1), 5-18 (2003).</li><li>Giurfa, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behavioral+and+neural+analysis+of+associative+learning+in+the+honeybee:+a+taste+from+the+magic+well.">Behavioral and neural analysis of associative learning in the honeybee: a taste from the magic well.</a> J. Comp. Physiol. 193 (8), 801-824 (2007).</li><li>Perry, C. J., Barron, A. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Honey+bees+selectively+avoid+difficult+choices.">Honey bees selectively avoid difficult choices.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 110 (47), 19155-19159 (2013).</li><li>Giurfa, M., Sandoz, J. -. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Invertebrate+learning+and+memory:+Fifty+years+of+olfactory+conditioning+of+the+proboscis+extension+response+in+honeybees.">Invertebrate learning and memory: Fifty years of olfactory conditioning of the proboscis extension response in honeybees.</a> Learn. Mem. 19 (2), 54-66 (2012).</li><li>Srinivasan, M. 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E., Menzel, R., Fietz, A., Sch&#228;fer, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Classical+conditioning+of+proboscis+extension+in+honeybees+(Apis+mellifera).">Classical conditioning of proboscis extension in honeybees (Apis mellifera).</a> J. Comp. Psychol. 97 (2), 107-119 (1983).</li><li>Barron, A. B., Robinson, G. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Selective+modulation+of+task+performance+by+octopamine+in+honey+bee+(Apis+mellifera)+division+of+labour.">Selective modulation of task performance by octopamine in honey bee (Apis mellifera) division of labour.</a> J. Comp. Physiol. A Neuroethol. Sens. Neural. Behav. Physiol. 191 (7), 659-668 (2005).</li><li>Schulz, D. J., Sullivan, J. P., Robinson, G. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Juvenile+Hormone+and+Octopamine+in+the+Regulation+of+Division+of+Labor+in+Honey+Bee+Colonies.">Juvenile Hormone and Octopamine in the Regulation of Division of Labor in Honey Bee Colonies.</a> Horm. Behav. 42 (2), 222-231 (2002).</li><li>Schulz, D. J., Elekonich, M. M., Robinson, G. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biogenic+amines+in+the+antennal+lobes+and+the+initiation+and+maintenance+of+foraging+behavior+in+honey+bees.">Biogenic amines in the antennal lobes and the initiation and maintenance of foraging behavior in honey bees.</a> J. Neurobiol. 54 (2), 406-416 (2003).</li><li>Barron, A. B., Vander Meer, R. K., Maleszka, J., Robinson, G. 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Mem. 20 (1), 29-33 (2012).</li><li>Urlacher, E., Soustelle, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Honey+Bee+Allatostatins+Target+Galanin/Somatostatin-Like+Receptors+and+Modulate+Learning:+A+Conserved+Function?.">Honey Bee Allatostatins Target Galanin/Somatostatin-Like Receptors and Modulate Learning: A Conserved Function?.</a> PLoS One. 11 (1), e0146248 (2016).</li><li>Stollhoff, N., Menzel, R., Eisenhardt, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spontaneous+recovery+from+extinction+depends+on+the+reconsolidation+of+the+acquisition+memory+in+an+appetitive+learning+paradigm+in+the+honeybee+(Apis+mellifera).">Spontaneous recovery from extinction depends on the reconsolidation of the acquisition memory in an appetitive learning paradigm in the honeybee (Apis mellifera).</a> J. Neurosci. 25 (18), 4485-4492 (2005).</li><li>Barron, A. B., Maleszka, R., Helliwell, P. G., Robinson, G. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+cocaine+on+honey+bee+dance+behaviour.">Effects of cocaine on honey bee dance behaviour.</a> J. Exp. Biol. 212 (2), 163-168 (2009).</li><li>Devaud, J. -. M., Papouin, T., Carcaud, J., Sandoz, J. -. C., Gr&#252;newald, B., Giurfa, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+substrate+for+higher-order+learning+in+an+insect:+Mushroom+bodies+are+necessary+for+configural+discriminations.">Neural substrate for higher-order learning in an insect: Mushroom bodies are necessary for configural discriminations.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. , 1-9 (2015).</li><li>Vergoz, V., Roussel, E., Sandoz, J. -. C., Giurfa, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aversive+learning+in+honeybees+revealed+by+the+olfactory+conditioning+of+the+sting+extension+reflex.">Aversive learning in honeybees revealed by the olfactory conditioning of the sting extension reflex.</a> PLoS One. 2 (3), e288 (2007).</li><li>Henry, M., B&#233;guin, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+common+pesticide+decreases+foraging+success+and+survival+in+honey+bees.">A common pesticide decreases foraging success and survival in honey bees.</a> Science. 336 (6079), 348-350 (2012).</li><li>S&#248;vik, E., Perry, C. J., LaMora, A., Barron, A. 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L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mianserin+hydrochloride:+Peripheral+and+central+effects+in+relation+to+antagonism+against+5-hydroxytryptamine+and+tryptamine.">Mianserin hydrochloride: Peripheral and central effects in relation to antagonism against 5-hydroxytryptamine and tryptamine.</a> Eur. J. Pharmacol. 16 (3), 336-346 (1971).</li><li>Beggs, K. T., Tyndall, J. D. A., Mercer, A. 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The methods outlined above allow simple, effective and robust treatment of either free-flying or harnessed honey bees. These methods are compatible with many experimental paradigms and biological questions (Table 1). All of the free-flying methods can easily be applied to harnessed bees. The reverse is less successful, however, since temporary restraint and invasive treatment methods can often compromise bees&#39; flying ability.
The methods have been presented from a brain-ce...

Since Karl von Frisch elucidated their dance language1, honey bees have remained a popular study species for researchers in animal behavior and neurobiology. In recent years a myriad of new disciplines have emerged at the intersection of these two fields, and several other disciplines (e.g., molecular biology, genomics, and computer science) have arisen alongside them. This has led to rapid development of new theories and models for understanding how behavior results from activity within nervous systems. Because of the unique lifestyle, rich behavioral repertoire, and ease of experimental and pharmacological manipulation, bees have remained at the forefront of this revolution.
Honey bees are being used to study basic neurobiological questions such as those underlying learning and memory2,3, decision making4, olfactory5,&#160;or visual processing6. In recent years, the honey bee has even been used as a model for studying topics generally reserved for medical research, such as the effects of addictive drugs7-11, sleep12, ageing13, or the mechanisms underlying anaesthesia14.
Unlike for the classical genetic model organisms (e.g.,&#160;D. melanogaster, C. elegans, M. musculus), there are very few genetic tools available for manipulating neural functions in honey bees, although this is currently changing15. Instead, honey bee studies have primarily relied on pharmacological manipulations. This has been very successful; however, the diversity of bee research is such that a range of methods for pharmacological administration are needed. Research with honey bees addresses highly diverse questions, is studied by researchers from different disciplines and backgrounds, and uses a variety of experimental approaches. Many research questions require bees to either be free-flying,&#160;freely interacting in their colony, or both. This can make it difficult to keep track of individual experimental animals, and makes restraint or cannulation unfeasible.
To accommodate the diversity of honey bee research, a variety of drug delivery methods are needed, allowing for robust and flexible administration while ensuring that the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles, invasiveness of the method, and its reliability, suit the paradigm in question. Because of these diverse needs, most research groups have developed their own unique drug administration methods. So far, this has been a strength of the bee research community;&#160;it has led to the development of arrays of methods allowing for administration of the same drug in different circumstances. Our goal here is not to develop a single standardized method for pharmacological manipulations of bees, but rather to highlight methods that have proven to be particularly successful, and help researchers adopt these. We discuss the basic principles of how they work, as well as their advantages and disadvantages.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Sucrose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S8501</td>
			<td>Any supplier will do</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7653</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P9333&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Chloride hexahydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M2670</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium Chloride dihydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C8106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dextrose monohydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>49159</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate Buffer Saline (PBS)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P4417</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protection Wax</td>
			<td>Dentaurum</td>
			<td>124-305-00</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H3375</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>dimethylformamide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D4551</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>95% Ethanol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>493511</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass capillary</td>
			<td>WPI</td>
			<td>1B100F-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>23 G NanoFil needle</td>
			<td>WPI</td>
			<td>NF33BV-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Very fine forsceps</td>
			<td>Dumont</td>
			<td>0208-55-PO</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrode puller</td>
			<td>SRI</td>
			<td>2001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FemtoJet Microinjector</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5247 000.01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eicosane</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>219274</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>manual micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Brinkmann Instrumentenbau</td>
			<td>MM-33</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>electronic micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Luigs &#38; Neumann Feinmechanik + Elektortechnik</td>
			<td>Junior unit XYZ</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>stereomicroscope</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>M80</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>soldering iron</td>
			<td>Weller</td>
			<td>WESD51</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dextran, Alexa Fluor 546, 10000 MW</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>D-22911</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dextran, Alexa Fluor 568, 10000 MW</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>D-22912</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>small Petri dish</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P5481</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mineral oil</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M5904</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL Centrifuge tube</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>339652</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>forceps</td>
			<td>Australian Entomological Supplies</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Blade holder and breaker</td>
			<td>Australian Entomological Supplies</td>
			<td>E130</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Feather double edged razor blade</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>50-949-135</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nichrome wire</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Any supplier will do</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrical wires</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Any supplier will do</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Model paint</td>
			<td>Tamiya USA</td>
			<td>Depends on colour</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Repeating dispenser</td>
			<td>Hamilton company</td>
			<td>PB-600-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass syringe</td>
			<td>WPI</td>
			<td>NANOFIL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>flourescence viewing system</td>
			<td>Nightsea</td>
			<td>SFR-GR</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>graticule</td>
			<td>ProSciTech</td>
			<td>S8014-24</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>microcapillary with holder</td>
			<td>Drummond</td>
			<td>1-000-0010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Liquid silicone</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Any supplier will do</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermocouple</td>
			<td>Digitech</td>
			<td>QM-1324</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

neuropharmacological manipulation of restrained and free-flying honey bees, apis mellifera

Honey bees demonstrate astonishing learning abilities and advanced social behavior and communication. In addition, their brain is small, easy to visualize and to study. Therefore, bees have long been a favored model amongst neurobiologists and neuroethologists for studying the neural basis of social and natural behavior. It is important, however, that the experimental techniques used to study bees do not interfere with the behaviors being studied. Because of this, it has been necessary to develop a range of techniques for pharmacological manipulation of honey bees. In this paper we demonstrate methods for treating restrained or free-flying honey bees with a wide range of pharmacological agents. These include both noninvasive methods such as oral and topical treatments, as well as more invasive methods that allow for precise drug delivery in either systemic or localized fashion. Finally, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method and&#160;describe common hurdles and how to best overcome them. We conclude with a discussion on the importance of adapting the experimental method to the biological questions rather than the other way around.

A selection of representative results for the methods described above are shown, primarily to demonstrate that the methods allow pharmacological agents to reach the brain and affect honey bee behavior.
Specific effects on brain processes can be easily obtained following thorax injection.
Because pharmacological agents injected through the thorax may act on multiple target...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Neuropharmacological Manipulation of Restrained and Free-flying Honey Bees, Apis mellifera at JoVE.com

Neuropharmacological Manipulation of Restrained and Free-flying Honey Bees, Apis mellifera

This manuscript describes several protocols for administering pharmacological agents to honey bees, including simple noninvasive methods for free-flying bees, as well as more invasive variants that allow precise localized treatment of restrained bees.

Neuropharmacological Manipulation of Restrained and Free-flying Honey Bees, Apis mellifera

Honey bees demonstrate astonishing learning abilities and advanced social behavior and communication. In addition, their brain is small, easy to visualize ...

The overall goal of these procedures is to reliable and robustly administer pharmacological agents to the central nervous system of honeybees or similar insects. These methods can help answer key questions in the fields of sociobiology, neuroethology, and apiculture such as exploring the neuromechanisms of social behavior. The main advantage of these techniques is that it makes it possible to study neurobiology in non-model organisms, such as the honeybee, where genetic tools are limited currently.Demontrating the procedure will be Jenny Plath, a graduate student from the Neuroethology Lab at Macquarie University. Drugs can be administered orally or by injection. Injections can be made into the thorax, into the ocellus, or into the ocellar tract.Ocellus injections deliver drugs to the whole head and ocellar tract injections target specific regions of the brain. For all injections, make a microscalpel by breaking off the corner of a double-edged razor blade with a blade holder. Attach the blade fragment to a blade holder so that it makes a nice blade with a sharp endpoint.For a thoracic injection dissect a two millimeter hole just above the scutellum, next to the posterior wing process of a bee's thorax. Avoid cutting too deep, as this might injure the flight muscles, and be careful to avoid the wing hinges. Ideally, only cut three sides so that the flap of the cuticle can later be folded back to close the site of the injury.Now inject the drug into the thorax. Then move the cuticle flap back into over the hole and after ten hours it will reattach and seal. To access the brain, lock the head of a harnessed bee in place by filling the neck crevice with hand-warmed dental wax in order to avoid damaging antennal olfactory receptors or other cells that may be important to the bee's behavior.The antenna may also be locked with dental wax. Then using the microscalpel, carefully remove the lens of the median ocellus by inserting the tip of the microscalpel under the lens and gently breaking the lens free from the head capsule. For the drug to be taken into the whole head capsule carefully pipette the drug onto the ocellus hole and wait for it to soak in.Alternatively, subregions of the brain can be targeted by injection through the ocellar tract, for example, by injecting 250 nanoliters of drug in a depth of 50 microns to target brain structures adjacent to the ocellus. Then remove the dental wax and allow the bee to rest for a while before continuing the experimental procedure. To prepare injection needles pull one millimeter glass tubes to produce an approximately 0.5 centimeter long tip.Next, under a stereo microscope break the tips to make and approximately 10 to 15 micron outer diameter opening. This can be measured using a scale on a graticule. Now load an injection needle with the drug solution.Then at the injection system, attach the loaded injection needle to the micromanipulator. Test the injection system in mineral oil and calibrate it to deliver a 0.5 to two nanoliter bolus depending on the size of the brain structure targeted. Using a graticule, measure the diameter of the droplets to calculate their volume.To fix the head of a harnessed bee use soft dental wax, as before. Then cut an opening into the anterior part of the head capsule using a microscalpel with three cuts:one just below the median ocellus;one at the border of the right or left eye;and one above the antenna stems. Use a piece of dental wax to hold the opened flap in place.Next carefully push aside the glands and trachea using fine forceps and make a small rupture into the neurilemma above the targeted brain structure. Now insert the tip of the glass pipette into the desired brain region, ideally, perpendicular to the brain surface into the required depth to reach the targeted structure. Then inject the drug bolus.When targeting paired brain regions make one injection into each hemisphere to affect both hemispheres. If a fluorescent dye is injected with the bolus the superficial brain regions can be viewed using fluorescent light. Other regions can be checked later using confocal microscopy.After the injection replace the flap of the cuticle and seal the cut by melting a crystal of eicosane that is approximately one millimeter in diameter over the cuticle using a thin wire attached to a microsoldering iron. This will greatly reduce mortality. To administer a drug as volatile as from a heated nichrome filament, prepare it dissolved in pure ethanol.To carefully drill holes in the lid of a 50 millimeter tube feed the two wires through the holes. To create a filament, wind up nichrome wire tightly around a nail, attach the nichrome wire to two electrical wires, and then remove the nail. Afterwards, secure the wires and seal the holes with silicone.Now attach the wires to a power source. And use a thermocouple to measure the temperature of the filament. To calibrate the device, carefully pipette two microliters of drug solution onto the filament and let the ethanol completely evaporate at room temperature.Vary the voltage in current so the drug bolus volatilizes within ten seconds of applying power. The drug should not be destroyed by thermal decomposition. Precipitate can usually be seen on the dry filament if inspected carefully.To deliver the drugs to a bee, load a free-flying or harnessed bee into the tube and carefully attach the lid with the wires out. Then turn on the power source for 10 seconds and wait 50 more seconds for the volatilized compound to be fully taken up by the bee before removing the bee. Specific effects on brain processes can be easily obtained following thorax injection.For example, blockers of transcription were administered using this technique to identify phases of memory that required gene expression. Selective and time-dependent affects on memory tasks were obtained. Diffusion of molecules into the head hemolymph leads to quick, dose-dependent effects arrived at by ocellus injection.At certain dose concentrations, diffusely-concentrated allatostatins reduced performance in an olfactory learning assay. To test the spatial and temporal properties of specific brain regions, harnessed bees were trained in an olfactory PER conditioning paradigm and then injected with procane in the mushroom body calices, or, vertical lobes. When bees were then tested for recall, performance was only impaired in bees injected bilaterally.In an arena with multiple feeders, bees were gently captured as they were about to alight from a feeder with one molar sucrose. The captured bees were treated with 100 micrograms of volatilized freebase cocaine, which resulted in increased foraging at half molar feeders, but not two molar feeders. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to administer drugs to free-flying or restrained bees either by injection or volatilization.Once mastered, these techniques can easily be done on a large number of bees in a couple of hours. Following this procedure, other methods, like proboscis extension conditioning, can be performed so we can answer additional questions about the neurobiology of learning and memory.

neuropharmacological-manipulation-restrained-free-flying-honey-bees

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Behavioural Pharmacology in Classical Conditioning of the Proboscis Extension Response in Honeybees (Apis mellifera)

Honeybees (Apis mellifera) are well known for their communication and orientation skills and for their impressive learning capability1,2. Because the survival of a honeybee colony depends on the exploitation of food sources, forager bees learn and memorize variable flower sites as well as their profitability. Forager bees can be easily trained in natural settings where they forage at a feeding site and learn the related signals such as odor or color. Appetitive associative learning can also be studied under controlled conditions in the laboratory by conditioning the proboscis extension response (PER) of individually harnessed honeybees3,4. This learning paradigm enables the study of the neuronal and molecular mechanisms that underlie learning and memory formation in a simple and highly reliable way5-12. A behavioral pharmacology approach is used to study molecular mechanisms. Drugs are injected systemically to interfere with the function of specific molecules during or after learning and memory formation13-16.
Here we demonstrate how to train harnessed honeybees in PER conditioning and how to apply drugs systemically by injection into the bee flight muscle.

Behavioural Pharmacology in Classical Conditioning of the Proboscis Extension Response in Honeybees Apis mellifera

We demonstrate how to implement a behavioral pharmacology method in an appetitive olfactory conditioning paradigm in honeybees (Apis mellifera) by systemic application of drugs. This method allows investigation of the mechanisms underlying learning and memory formation in a simple and reliable way.

Honeybees (Apis mellifera) are well known for their communication and orientation skills and for their impressive learning capability1,2. Because the ...

Mechanical Manipulation of Neurons to Control Axonal Development

Cell manipulations and extension of neuronal axons can be accomplished with calibrated glass micro-fibers capable of measuring and applying forces in the 10-1000 &mu;dyne range1,2. Force measurements are obtained through observation of the Hookean bending of the glass needles, which are calibrated by a direct and empirical method3. Equipment requirements and procedures for fabricating, calibrating, treating, and using the needles on cells are fully described. The force regimes previously used and different cell types to which these techniques have been applied demonstrate the flexibility of the methodology and are given as examples for future investigation4-6. The technical advantages are the continuous 'visualization' of the forces produced by the manipulations and the ability to directly intervene in a variety of cellular events. These include direct stimulation and regulation of axonal growth and retraction7; as well as detachment and mechanical measurements on any type of cultured cell8.

Application and direct measurements of forces on neurons in the 2-1000 microdyne range are achieved with high precision using calibrated glass needles. This methodology can be used to control and measure several aspects of axonal development, including axonal initiation, axonal tension, velocity of axonal elongation, and force vectors.

Cell manipulations and extension of neuronal axons can be accomplished with calibrated glass micro-fibers capable of measuring and applying forces in the ...

Lentivirus-mediated Genetic Manipulation and Visualization of Olfactory Sensory Neurons in vivo

Development of a precise olfactory circuit relies on accurate projection of olfactory sensory neuron (OSN) axons to their synaptic 
targets in the olfactory bulb (OB). The molecular mechanisms of OSN axon growth and targeting are not well understood. Manipulating gene expression and subsequent 
visualizing of single OSN axons and their terminal arbor morphology have thus far been challenging. To study gene function at the single cell level within a specified 
time frame, we developed a lentiviral based technique to manipulate gene expression in OSNs in vivo. Lentiviral particles are delivered to OSNs by microinjection 
into the olfactory epithelium (OE). Expression cassettes are then permanently integrated into the genome of transduced OSNs. Green fluorescent protein expression 
identifies infected OSNs and outlines their entire morphology, including the axon terminal arbor. Due to the short turnaround time between microinjection and 
reporter detection, gene function studies can be focused within a very narrow period of development. With this method, we have detected GFP expression within as 
few as three days and as long as three months following injection. We have achieved both over-expression and shRNA mediated knock-down by lentiviral microinjection. 
This method provides detailed morphologies of OSN cell bodies and axons at the single cell level in vivo, and thus allows characterization of candidate gene function 
during olfactory development.

Lentivirus-mediated Genetic Manipulation and Visualization of Olfactory Sensory Neurons in vivo

We present a lentiviral technique for genetic manipulation and visualization of single olfactory sensory neuron axon and its terminal arborization in vivo.

Development of a precise olfactory circuit relies on accurate projection of olfactory sensory neuron (OSN) axons to their synaptic 
targets in the ...

Tactile Conditioning And Movement Analysis Of Antennal Sampling Strategies In Honey Bees (Apis mellifera L.)

Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) are eusocial insects and well known for their complex division of labor and associative learning capability1, 2. The worker bees spend the first half of their life inside the dark hive, where they are nursing the larvae or building the regular hexagonal combs for food (e.g. pollen or nectar) and brood3. The antennae are extraordinary multisensory feelers and play a pivotal role in various tactile mediated tasks4, including hive building5 and pattern recognition6. Later in life, each single bee leaves the hive to forage for food. Then a bee has to learn to discriminate profitable food sources, memorize their location, and communicate it to its nest mates7. Bees use different floral signals like colors or odors7, 8, but also tactile cues from the petal surface9 to form multisensory memories of the food source. Under laboratory conditions, bees can be trained in an appetitive learning paradigm to discriminate tactile object features, such as edges or grooves with their antennae10, 11, 12, 13. This learning paradigm is closely related to the classical olfactory conditioning of the proboscis extension response (PER) in harnessed bees14. The advantage of the tactile learning paradigm in the laboratory is the possibility of combining behavioral experiments on learning with various physiological measurements, including the analysis of the antennal movement pattern.

Tactile Conditioning And Movement Analysis Of Antennal Sampling Strategies In Honey Bees Apis mellifera L.

In this protocol we show how to condition harnessed honey bees to tactile stimuli and introduce a 2D motion capture technique for analyzing the kinematics of fine-scale antennal sampling pattern.

Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) are eusocial insects and well known for their complex division of labor and associative learning capability1, 2. The worker ...

Genetic Manipulation of the Mouse Developing Hypothalamus through In utero Electroporation

Genetic modification of specific regions of the developing mammalian brain is a very powerful experimental approach. However, generating novel mouse mutants is often frustratingly slow. It has been shown that access to the mouse brain developing in utero with reasonable post-operatory survival is possible. Still, results with this procedure have been reported almost exclusively for the most superficial and easily accessible part of the developing brain, i.e. the cortex. The thalamus, a narrower and more medial region, has proven more difficult to target. Transfection into deeper nuclei, especially those of the hypothalamus, is perhaps the most challenging and therefore very few results have been reported. Here we demonstrate a procedure to target the entire hypothalamic neuroepithelium or part of it (hypothalamic regions) for transfection through electroporation. The keys to our approach are longer narcosis times, injection in the third ventricle, and appropriate kind and positioning of the electrodes. Additionally, we show results of targeting and subsequent histological analysis of the most recessed hypothalamic nucleus, the mammillary body.

Genetic Manipulation of the Mouse Developing Hypothalamus through In utero Electroporation

Despite the functional and medical importance of the hypothalamus, in utero genetic manipulation of its development has rarely been attempted. We show a detailed procedure for in utero electroporation into the mouse hypothalamus and show representative results of total and partial (regional) hypothalamic transfection.

Genetic  modification of specific regions of the developing mammalian brain is a very  powerful experimental approach. However, generating novel mouse ...

RNAi-mediated Double Gene Knockdown and Gustatory Perception Measurement in Honey Bees (Apis mellifera)

This video demonstrates novel techniques of RNA interference (RNAi) which downregulate two genes simultaneously in honey bees using double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) injections. It also presents a protocol of proboscis extension response (PER) assay for measuring gustatory perception.	
	RNAi-mediated gene knockdown is an effective technique downregulating target gene expression. This technique is usually used for single gene manipulation, but it has limitations to detect interactions and joint effects between genes. In the first part of this video, we present two strategies to simultaneously knock down two genes (called double gene knockdown). We show both strategies are able to effectively suppress two genes, vitellogenin (vg) and ultraspiracle (usp), which are in a regulatory feedback loop. This double gene knockdown approach can be used to dissect interrelationships between genes and can be readily applied in different insect species.	
	The second part of this video is a demonstration of proboscis extension response (PER) assay in honey bees after the treatment of double gene knockdown. The PER assay is a standard test for measuring gustatory perception in honey bees, which is a key predictor for how fast a honey bee's behavioral maturation is. Greater gustatory perception of nest bees indicates increased behavioral development which is often associated with an earlier age at onset of foraging and foraging specialization in pollen. In addition, PER assay can be applied to identify metabolic states of satiation or hunger in honey bees. Finally, PER assay combined with pairing different odor stimuli for conditioning the bees is also widely used for learning and memory studies in honey bees.

RNAi-mediated Double Gene Knockdown and Gustatory Perception Measurement in Honey Bees Apis mellifera

In this protocol, we describe two strategies that simultaneously suppress two genes (double gene knockdown) in honey bees. Then we present how to use the proboscis extension response (PER) assay to study the effect of double gene knockdown on honey bee gustatory perception.

This video demonstrates novel techniques of RNA  interference (RNAi) which downregulate two genes simultaneously in honey bees  using double-stranded RNA ...

Genetic Manipulation of Cerebellar Granule Neurons In Vitro and In Vivo to Study Neuronal Morphology and Migration

Developmental events in the brain including neuronal morphogenesis and migration are highly orchestrated processes. In vitro and in vivo analyses allow for an in-depth characterization to identify pathways involved in these events. Cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) that are derived from the developing cerebellum are an ideal model system that allows for morphological analyses. Here, we describe a method of how to genetically manipulate CGNs and how to study axono- and dendritogenesis of individual neurons. With this method the effects of RNA interference, overexpression or small molecules can be compared to control neurons. In addition, the rodent cerebellar cortex is an easily accessible in vivo system owing to its predominant postnatal development. We also present an in vivo electroporation technique to genetically manipulate the developing cerebella and describe subsequent cerebellar analyses to assess neuronal morphology and migration.

Genetic Manipulation of Cerebellar Granule Neurons In Vitro and In Vivo to Study Neuronal Morphology and Migration

Neuronal morphogenesis and migration are crucial events underlying proper brain development. Here, we describe methods to genetically manipulate cultured cerebellar granule neurons and the developing cerebellum for the assessment of morphology and migratory characteristics of neurons.

Developmental events in the brain including neuronal morphogenesis and migration are highly orchestrated processes. In vitro and in vivo analyses allow ...

Juxtacellular Monitoring and Localization of Single Neurons within Sub-cortical Brain Structures of Alert, Head-restrained Rats

There are a variety of techniques to monitor extracellular activity of single neuronal units. However, monitoring this activity from deep brain structures in behaving animals remains a technical challenge, especially if the structures must be targeted stereotaxically. This protocol describes convenient surgical and electrophysiological techniques that maintain the animal&#8217;s head in the stereotaxic plane and unambiguously isolate the spiking activity of single neurons. The protocol combines head restraint of alert rodents, juxtacellular monitoring with micropipette electrodes, and iontophoretic dye injection to identify the neuron location in post-hoc histology. While each of these techniques is in itself well-established, the protocol focuses on the specifics of their combined use in a single experiment. These neurophysiological and neuroanatomical techniques are combined with behavioral monitoring. In the present example, the combined techniques are used to determine how self-generated vibrissa movements are encoded in the activity of neurons within the somatosensory thalamus. More generally, it is straightforward to adapt this protocol to monitor neuronal activity in conjunction with a variety of behavioral tasks in rats, mice, and other animals. Critically, the combination of these methods allows the experimenter to directly relate anatomically-identified neurophysiological signals to behavior.

This protocol describes the design and surgical implantation of a head-restraining mechanism to monitor neuronal activity in sub-cortical brain structures in alert rats. It delineates procedures to isolate single neurons in the juxtacellular configuration and to efficiently identify their anatomical locations.

There are a variety of techniques to monitor extracellular activity of single neuronal units. However, monitoring this activity from deep brain structures ...

Inducing Plasticity of Astrocytic Receptors by Manipulation of Neuronal Firing Rates

Close to two decades of research has established that astrocytes in situ and in vivo express numerous G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that can be stimulated by neuronally-released transmitter. However, the ability of astrocytic receptors to exhibit plasticity in response to changes in neuronal activity has received little attention. Here we describe a model system that can be used to globally scale up or down astrocytic group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) in acute brain slices. Included are methods on how to prepare parasagittal hippocampal slices, construct chambers suitable for long-term slice incubation, bidirectionally manipulate neuronal action potential frequency, load astrocytes and astrocyte processes with fluorescent Ca2+ indicator, and measure changes in astrocytic Gq GPCR activity by recording spontaneous and evoked astrocyte Ca2+ events using confocal microscopy. In essence, a &#8220;calcium roadmap&#8221; is provided for how to measure plasticity of astrocytic Gq GPCRs. Applications of the technique for study of astrocytes are discussed. Having an understanding of how astrocytic receptor signaling is affected by changes in neuronal activity has important implications for both normal synaptic function as well as processes underlying neurological disorders and neurodegenerative disease.

Here we describe an adaptation of protocols used to induce homeostatic plasticity in neurons for the study of plasticity of astrocytic G protein-coupled receptors. Recently used to examine changes in astrocytic group I mGluRs in juvenile mice, the method can be applied to measure scaling of various astrocytic GPCRs, in tissue from adult mice in situ and in vivo, and to gain a better appreciation of the sensitivity of astrocytic receptors to changes in neuronal activity.

Close to two decades of research has established that astrocytes in situ and in vivo express numerous G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that can be ...

A Novel Behavioral Assay to Investigate Gustatory Responses of Individual, Freely-moving Bumble Bees (Bombus terrestris)

Generalist pollinators like the buff-tailed bumble bee, Bombus terrestris, encounter both nutrients and toxins in the floral nectar they collect from flowering plants. Only a few studies have described the gustatory responses of bees toward toxins in food, and these experiments have mainly used the proboscis extension response on restrained honey bees. Here, a new behavioral assay is presented for measuring the feeding responses of freely-moving, individual worker bumble bees to nutrients and toxins. This assay measures the amount of solution ingested by each bumble bee and identifies how tastants in food influence the microstructure of the feeding behavior.
The solutions are presented in a microcapillary tube to individual bumble bees that have been previously starved for 2-4 hr. The behavior is captured on digital video. The fine structure of the feeding behavior is analyzed by continuously scoring the position of the proboscis (mouthparts) from video recordings using event logging software. The position of the proboscis is defined by three different behavioral categories: (1) proboscis is extended and in contact with the solution, (2) proboscis is extended but not in contact with the solution and (3) proboscis is stowed under the head. Furthermore the speed of the proboscis retracting away from the solution is also estimated.
In the present assay the volume of solution consumed, the number of feeding bouts, the duration of the feeding bouts and the speed of the proboscis retraction after the first contact is used to evaluate the phagostimulatory or the deterrent activity of the compounds tested.
This new taste assay will allow researchers to measure how compounds found in nectar influence the feeding behavior of bees and will also be useful to pollination biologists, toxicologists and neuroethologists studying the bumble bee&#39;s taste system.

A Novel Behavioral Assay to Investigate Gustatory Responses of Individual, Freely-moving Bumble Bees Bombus terrestris

A novel behavioral assay is described for investigating the short term gustatory responses of the mouthparts of freely-moving bumble bees (Bombus terrestris) toward nutrients and toxins in solution.

Generalist pollinators like the buff-tailed bumble bee, Bombus terrestris, encounter both nutrients and toxins in the floral nectar they collect from ...