The authors would like to acknowledge the European research project belonging to the Horizon 2020 research and innovation program Borealis - the 3A energy class Flexible Machine for the new Additive and Subtractive Manufacturing on next generation of complex 3D metal parts

1. Powder Characterization
<ol>
	<li>Put 3 g of starting Ti-6Al-4V powders on a double-sided sticky carbon tape, which is located on an aluminum pin stub, and insert inside the specimen chamber of a Field-Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) to analyze the morphology of the powder16.</li>
	<li>Measure the apparent density of the powder by filling a 30 cm3 container, and measure the weight of powder according to the ASTM-B212 standard.</li>
	<li>Perform chemical analysis of st...

<ol>
	<li>Banerjee, D., Williams, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Perspectives+on+Titanium+Science+and+Technology.">Perspectives on Titanium Science and Technology.</a> Acta Mater. 61 (3), 844-879 (2013).</li><li>Peters, M., Leyens, C., Peters, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Titanium and Titanium Alloys. , (2003).</li><li>Lin, J., Lv, Y., Liu, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microstructural+evolution+and+mechanical+property+of+Ti-6Al-4V+wall+deposited+by+continuous+plasma+arc+additive+manufacturing+without+post+heat+treatment.">Microstructural evolution and mechanical property of Ti-6Al-4V wall deposited by continuous plasma arc additive manufacturing without post heat treatment.</a> J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. 69 (December 2016), 19-29 (2017).</li><li>Saboori, A., Gallo, D., Biamino, S., Fino, P., Lombardi, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+Overview+of+Additive+Manufacturing+of+Titanium+Components+by+Directed+Energy+Deposition:+Microstructure+and+Mechanical+Properties.">An Overview of Additive Manufacturing of Titanium Components by Directed Energy Deposition: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties.</a> Appl Sci. 7 (9), (2017).</li><li>Wu, X., Liang, J., Mei, J., Mitchell, C., Goodwin, P. S., Voice, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microstructures+of+laser-deposited+Ti-6Al-4V.">Microstructures of laser-deposited Ti-6Al-4V.</a> Mater Des. 25 (2), 137-144 (2004).</li><li>Trevisan, F., Calignano, F., Aversa, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Additive+manufacturing+of+titanium+alloys+in+the+biomedical+field:+processes,+properties+and+applications.">Additive manufacturing of titanium alloys in the biomedical field: processes, properties and applications.</a> J Appl Biomater Funct Mater. , (2017).</li><li>Mahamood, R. M., Akinlabi, E. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Scanning+speed+and+powder+flow+rate+influence+on+the+properties+of+laser+metal+deposition+of+titanium+alloy.">Scanning speed and powder flow rate influence on the properties of laser metal deposition of titanium alloy.</a> Int J Adv Manuf Technol. 91 (5-8), (2017).</li><li>Shim, D., Baek, G., Seo, J., Shin, G., Kim, K., Lee, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+layer+thickness+setting+on+deposition+characteristics+in+direct+energy+deposition+(+DED+)+process.">Effect of layer thickness setting on deposition characteristics in direct energy deposition ( DED ) process.</a> Opt Laser Technol. 86, 69-78 (2016).</li><li>Gharbi, M., Peyre, P., Gorny, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+various+process+conditions+on+surface+finishes+induced+by+the+direct+metal+deposition+laser+technique+on+a+Ti-6Al-4V+alloy.">Influence of various process conditions on surface finishes induced by the direct metal deposition laser technique on a Ti-6Al-4V alloy.</a> J Mater Process Technol. 213 (5), 791-800 (2013).</li><li>Davim, J. P., Oliveira, C., Cardoso, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Predicting+the+geometric+form+of+clad+in+laser+cladding+by+powder+using+multiple+regression+analysis+(MRA).">Predicting the geometric form of clad in laser cladding by powder using multiple regression analysis (MRA).</a> Mater Des. 29 (2), 554-557 (2008).</li><li>Kobryn, P. A., Moore, E. H., Semiatin, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Effect+Of+Laser+Power+And+Traverse+Speed+On+Microstructure,+Porosity,+And+Build+Height+In+Laser-Deposited+Ti-6Al-4V.">The Effect Of Laser Power And Traverse Speed On Microstructure, Porosity, And Build Height In Laser-Deposited Ti-6Al-4V.</a> Scripta Materialia. 43, 299-305 (2000).</li><li>Bi, G., Gasser, A., Wissenbach, K., Drenker, A., Poprawe, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+the+process+control+for+the+direct+laser+metallic+powder+deposition.">Characterization of the process control for the direct laser metallic powder deposition.</a> Surf Coatings Technol. 201 (6), 2676-2683 (2006).</li><li>Choi, J., Chang, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characteristics+of+laser+aided+direct+metal/material+deposition+process+for+tool+steel.">Characteristics of laser aided direct metal/material deposition process for tool steel.</a> Int J Mach Tools Manuf. 45 (4-5), 597-607 (2005).</li><li>Ruan, J., Tang, L., Liou, F. W., Landers, R. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+Three-Dimensional+Layer+Metal+Deposition.">Direct Three-Dimensional Layer Metal Deposition.</a> J Manuf Sci Eng. 132 (6), 64502-64506 (2010).</li><li>Chen, X., Tao, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maximum+thickness+of+the+laser+cladding.">Maximum thickness of the laser cladding.</a> Key Eng Mater. 46, 381-386 (1989).</li><li>Slotwinski, J. A., Garboczi, E. J., Stutzman, P. E., Ferraris, C. F., Watson, S. S., Peltz, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+Metal+Powders+Used+for+Additive+Manufacturing.">Characterization of Metal Powders Used for Additive Manufacturing.</a> J Res Natl Inst Stand Technol. 119, 460-493 (2014).</li><li>Manfredi, D., Calignano, F., Krishnan, M., Canali, R., Ambrosio, E. P., Atzeni, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=From+Powders+to+Dense+Metal+Parts:+Characterization+of+a+Commercial+AlSiMg+Alloy+Processed+through+Direct+Metal+Laser+Sintering.">From Powders to Dense Metal Parts: Characterization of a Commercial AlSiMg Alloy Processed through Direct Metal Laser Sintering.</a> Materials. 6 (3), 856-869 (2013).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

In this work, the focus was on the slicing thickness setting in the DED process of Ti-6Al-4V, according to the geometry of melt pool characteristics. For this purpose, a two-step protocol was defined and utilized. The first part of the protocol was an optimization of process parameters for single scan deposition and, during this step, the optimum parameters were achieved and the melt pool geometries were measured. In the second part of the protocol, the specific energy density of specimens at the optimum parameters was c...

Ti-6Al-4V is the most commonly used Ti alloy in the aerospace, aircraft, automotive, and biomedical industries because of its high strength-to-weight ratio, excellent fracture toughness, low specific gravity, excellent corrosion resistance, and heat treatability. However, its further developments in other applications are challenging, owing to its low thermal conductivity and high reactivity features, which result in its poor machinability. Moreover, due to the heat hardening phenomena during the cutting, a specific heat treatment must be undertaken1,2,3,4.
Nonetheless, additive manufacturing (AM) technologies showed great potential to be used as new manufacturing techniques that can reduce the price and energy consumption, and address some of the current challenges in the fabrication of Ti-6Al-4V alloy.
Additive manufacturing techniques are known as innovative and can fabricate a near net shape component in a layer-by-layer fashion. A layer-by-layer additive manufacturing approach, which slices a Computer Aided Design (CAD) model into thin layers and then builds the component layer by layer, is fundamental for all AM methods. In general, additive manufacturing of metallic materials can be divided into four different processes: powder bed, powder feed (blown powder), wire feed, and other routes3,5,6.
Directed Energy Deposition (DED) is a class of additive manufacturing and is a blown powder process that fabricates three-dimensional (3D) near net shape solid parts from a CAD file similar to other AM methods. In contrast with other techniques, DED can not only be used as a manufacturing method, but also can be employed as a repairing technique for high value parts. In the DED process, metallic powder or wire material is fed by a carrier gas or motors into the melt pool, which is generated by the laser beam on either the substrate or previously deposited layer. The DED process is a promising advanced manufacturing process that is capable of decreasing the buy-to-fly ratio, and also is capable of repairing high value parts that previously were prohibitively expensive to replace or irreparable7.
In order to achieve the desired geometric dimensions and material properties, it is vital to establish appropriate parameters8. Several studies have been undertaken to elucidate the relationship between the process parameters and the final properties of the deposited sample. Peyre et al.9 built some thin walls with different process parameters, and then characterized them by using 2D and 3D profilometry. They showed that layer thickness and melt pool volume affect the roughness parameters noticeably. Vim et al.10 proposed a model in order to analyze the relation between the process parameters and geometrical characteristics of a single cladding layer (clad height, clad width, and depth of penetration).
To date, several studies on DED of Ti alloys have been reported, most of which focused on the influence of the combination of parameters on properties of massive samples11,12,4. Rasheedat et al. studied the effect of scan speed and powder flow rate on the resulting properties of the laser metal deposited Ti-6Al-4V alloy. They found that by increasing the scan speed and powder flow rate the microstructure changed from Widmanst&#228;tten to a martensitic microstructure, which results in an increment of surface roughness and the microhardness of deposited specimens7. Nevertheless, less attention has been paid to designing the layer thickness setting. Choi et al. have investigated the correlation between the layer thickness and process parameters. They have found that the main sources of error between the present height and the actual height are the powder mass flow rate and layer thickness setting13. Their studies did not properly implement layer thickness setting because they involved lengthy and inaccurate processes in the layer thickness setting. Ruan et al. have investigated the effect of laser scanning speed on the deposited layer height at a constant laser power and powder feeding rate14. They have proposed some empirical models for layer thickness setting which were obtained under specific processing conditions, and thus the layer thickness setting may not be precise due to the utilization of specific process parameters15. In contrast to previous works, the layer thickness setting process proposed in this manuscript is a rapid method which can be performed without wasting time and materials.
The main focus of this work is to develop a rapid method for the determination of layer thickness based on the characteristics of the single tracks of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy at optimum DED process parameters. Thereafter, the optimal process parameters are employed to determine a layer thickness and fabricate high-density Ti-6Al-4V blocks without wasting time and materials.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Ti-6Al-4V powder</td>
			<td>Xi&#8217;Tianrui new material</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>As starting material</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ISOMET precision cutter</td>
			<td>Bohler</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>To cut the samples</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polishing machine</td>
			<td>Presi</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>To polish the samples</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EpoFix resin</td>
			<td>Presi</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>To mount the samples</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diamond paste</td>
			<td>Presi</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For polishing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical Microscope</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Microstructural observation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Field emission scanning electron microscope</td>
			<td>Merlin-Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Microstructural observation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereo microscope</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LEC1- CS444 ANALYSER</td>
			<td>IncoTest</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Chemical analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LEC3 - ELTRA OHN2000 ANALYSER</td>
			<td>IncoTest</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Chemical analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LEC2 - LECO TC436AR ANALYSER</td>
			<td>IncoTest</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Chemical analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ICP</td>
			<td>IncoTest</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Chemical analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IRB 4600</td>
			<td>ABB</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Antropomorphic robot</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GTV PF</td>
			<td>GTV</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Powder feeding system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>YW 52</td>
			<td>Precitec</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Laser head</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nozzles</td>
			<td>IRIS</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Nozzle for feeding powders</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>YLS 3000</td>
			<td>IPG Photonics</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Laser source</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

production of single tracks of ti-6al-4v by directed energy deposition to determine the layer thickness for multilayer deposition

Directed Energy Deposition (DED), which is an additive manufacturing technique, involves the creation of a molten pool with a laser beam where metal powder is injected as particles. In general, this technique is employed to either fabricate or repair different components. In this technique, the final characteristics are affected by many factors. Indeed, one of the main tasks in building components by DED is the optimization of process parameters (such as laser power, laser speed, focus, etc.) which is usually carried out through an extensive experimental investigation. However, this sort of experiment is extremely lengthy and costly. Thus, in order to accelerate the optimization process, an investigation was conducted to develop a method based on the melt pool characterizations. In fact, in these experiments, single tracks of Ti-6Al-4V were deposited by a DED process with multiple combinations of laser power and laser speed. Surface morphology and dimensions of single tracks were analyzed, and geometrical characteristics of melt pools were evaluated after polishing and etching the cross-sections. Helpful information regarding the selection of optimal process parameters can be achieved by examining the melt pool features. These experiments are being extended to characterize the larger blocks with multiple layers. Indeed, this manuscript describes how it would be possible to quickly determine the layer thickness for the massive deposition, and avoid over or under-deposition according to the calculated energy density of the optimum parameters. Apart from the over or under-deposition, time and materials saving are the other great advantages of this approach in which the deposition of multilayer components can be started without any parameter optimization in terms of layer thickness.

For the experimental studies, irregular Ti-6Al-4V powder with an average size of 50 - 150 &#181;m and apparent density of 1.85 g/cm3 was employed as depositing material (Figure 1). The chemical analysis of the powder confirmed that the oxygen and nitrogen contents of the powder did not change before and after the deposition process, while in both cases the oxygen content was higher than the standard oxygen content of Ti-6Al-4V powder for additive m...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Production of Single Tracks of Ti-6Al-4V by Directed Energy Deposition to Determine the Layer Thickness for Multilayer Deposition at JoVE.com

Production of Single Tracks of Ti-6Al-4V by Directed Energy Deposition to Determine the Layer Thickness for Multilayer Deposition

In this research, a rapid method based on melt pool characterization is developed to estimate the layer thickness of Ti-6Al-4V components produced by directed energy deposition.

Directed Energy Deposition (DED), which is an additive manufacturing technique, involves the creation of a molten pool with a laser beam where metal ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to determine the effects of different directed energy deposition process parameters on the layer thickness and other melt pool characteristics to identify the optimal parameters for fabrication of larger metallic parts. Directed energy deposition is an additive manufacturing technology for creating metallic parts with medium-large dimensions from metallic powders. Each powder requires process parameters to produce high-density, defect-free parts.Conventional process parameters optimization often involves waste from over/under-deposition caused by assumption for layer height. The main advantage of this technique is that it is time and cost saving. This optimization method is based on production and characterization of single tracks from metallic powders.When handling the titanium six-four powder, wear a respiratory mask, powder-free disposable nitrile gloves, and protective plastic glasses. To begin characterization of the fresh, irregular titanium six-four powder, fix double-sided adhesive carbon tape to an aluminum pin stub for a field emission scanning electron microscope. Apply three grams of the titanium six-four powder to the sticky carbon tape.Place the pin in the specimen chamber of the FESEM, and evaluate the morphology of the powder. Then, fill a 30 cubic centimeter pre-weighed container with the titanium six-four powder. Weigh the filled container, and calculate the apparent density of the powder.Perform chemical analysis of the starting powder using combustion analysis and ICP-MS. To begin titanium six-four powder loading, open the powder-feeding system hopper. Remove residual powders with an extractor fan.Tightly close the top cap of the hopper to prevent gas leakage. Then, clean the titanium six-four sheet with ethanol-soaked paper towels. Measure the weight of the sheet with a centesimal balance.Place the sheet on the marked location of the working area. Mount a powder-feeding nozzle on the laser head so that the angle between the nozzle and laser is 35 degrees. Ensure that the nozzle is clean.Then, move the robot to the starting point in the working area. Manually adjust the nozzle position until the vertical distance between the metal alloy sheet and the nozzle tip is five millimeters. Then, turn on the guide laser.Insert a thin rod through the nozzle to touch the working area. Check if the guide laser spot and the tip of the rod are coincident. Manually adjust the nozzle as needed to align the guide laser and metal rod, retaining the 35-degree angle between the nozzle and laser and a five millimeter vertical distance between the nozzle tip and the alloy sheet.This manual adjustment of the nozzle should be done very carefully because the deposition of the nozzle can significantly affect the geometry of the melt pool. Connect the nozzle to the powder-feeding system, being careful not to disturb the nozzle alignment. Next, open the robot calibration data in the control software.Load the code onto the robot, and address any detected code errors. Use the laser control software to enable the laser source module. Manually enable the robot motors from the robot control cabinet.Verify that the safety LED is illuminated. Then, select the deposition process file from the program list, and load the working path into the main robot routine. Set the laser power and robot speed to the desired values, and apply the parameters.Once the code has been successfully loaded onto the robot controller, launch the robot routine from the robot control software to deposit the single tracks in an automated process. When the routine has finished, use forceps to pick up the sample from the working area. Remove residual powder from the sample surface with an ethanol-soaked paper towel.Perform elemental analysis on used titanium four powder and on a deposited alloy block. Examine deposited single tracks under a stereo microscope at 5X magnification. Then, use a precision cutting machine to cut cross-sections of single tracks from the middle of the deposited tracks.Place the clean, dry cross-section specimens in mounting cups. Mix together 10 grams of resin and six grams of liquid hardener to each sample. Pour each resin mixture over a specimen.Allow the resin to cure for 30 minutes at room temperature. Then, fix a specimen on a polishing machine. First, grind the specimen with 500, 800, and 1, 200 grit silicon carbide paper.Then, polish the specimen with three micron and one micron diamond paste in sequence. The grinding and polishing step should be done carefully in order to have scratch-free surfaces for optical microscopy and melt pool size measurements. Grind and polish every specimen in this way.Then, evaluate the shape and porosity of each polished surface under an optical microscope. Acquire images of the melt pool features at 10X magnification, and analyze the images with image processing software. The chemical compositions of titanium six-four powders in both components were evaluated before and after deposition.The oxygen and nitrogen contents were greater in the irregular titanium six-four powder than in the standard powder used in additive manufacturing. The oxygen and nitrogen contents of the bulk components increased after deposition, but no significant composition change was observed in the used powder. Increasing the laser power significantly increased the height of single tracks up to a point, after which the power delivered to the melt pool was too great to positively affect deposition height.Increasing the laser scanning speed decreased the energy input to the melting pool and the powder delivery rate, resulting in decreasing deposition height. Correspondingly, deposition height was found to increase linearly both with specific energy density and with power feed density. These relationships were used to determine the process parameters required to produce layers of a specific height.Specimens were produced at different powers with an assumed layer height of 0.6 millimeters using the conventional method, resulting in over-and under-deposition. When parameters optimized for a consistent layer thickness were used, greater dimensional accuracy was achieved in a single attempt. In direct energy deposition, powders are directly deposited on a substrate, are melted under a laser and quickly solidified.The solid is created layer by layer, limiting waste by using only as much powder as needed. This method can help answer key questions in the additive manufacturing field about optimization of the process parameters, such as laser power and laser speed. Characterization of single tracks allowed working conditions to be defined for the shown deposition height.This kind of process parameter optimization is a fundamental step in the development of a new directed energy deposition instrument. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to determine desired step parameter for multilayer deposition by this directed energy deposition technique without wasting time and material.

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9.1K 조회수.  Politecnico di Torino. The overall goal of this procedure is to determine the effects of different directed energy deposition process parameters on the layer thickness and other melt pool characteristics to identify the optimal parameters for fabrication of larger metallic parts. Directed energy deposition is an additive manufacturing technology for creating metallic parts with medium-large dimensions from metallic powders. Each powder requires process parameters to produce high-density, defect-free parts.Co...