설명된 결과는 2014/13/B/HS6/03155에 따라 폴란드 국립 과학 센터에서 지원하는 프로젝트에서 얻어진다.

<ol>
	<li>Baddeley, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Working+memory:+Looking+back+and+looking+forward.">Working memory: Looking back and looking forward.</a> Nature Reviews Neuroscience. , (2003).</li><li>Au, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improving+fluid+intelligence+with+training+on+working+memory:+a+meta-analysis.">Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis.</a> Psychonomic Bulletin and Review. 22, 366-377 (2015).</li><li>Karbach, J., Verhaeghen, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Making+working+memory+work:+A+meta-analysis+of+executive+control+and+working+memory+training+in+younger+and+older+adults.">Making working memory work: A meta-analysis of executive control and working memory training in younger and older adults.</a> Psychological Science. 25, 11-2027 (2014).</li><li>Melby-Lerv&#229;g, M., Hulme, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Is+working+memory+training+effective?+A+meta-analytic+review.">Is working memory training effective? 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저자는 공개 할 것이 없습니다.

여기에 제시 된 연구에서, 우리는 노인 작업 메모리 훈련에서 혜택을 받을 수 있는지 여부를 조사 하 고 그들의 기본적인 인식의 초기 수준에 연결 하는 경우. 우리는 N-back 작업을 실험적인 개입및 작업 메모리 용량(OSPAN 작업으로 측정)으로 사용하여 참가자의 초기 수준의 지적 기능을 조사하는 방법이었습니다. 우리는 프로토콜에 두 가지 중요한 단계를 했다. 첫 번째이자 가장 중요한 것은 초기 ...

많은 인지 훈련 연구에서, 듀얼 n-백 작업은 작업 메모리의 방법으로 사용 (WM) 훈련. WM은 다른 높은 수준의 지적 기능1에대한 중요성 때문에 인지 내정간섭의 일반적인 표적입니다. 그러나, 이러한 훈련의 효과와 인식에 더 일반적인 개선을 만들기위한 잠재력, 높은 토론하고있다 (메타 분석에 대한,참조2,3,4,5,6,7,7,7,14 및 리뷰, 참조4,8,9,10,11,12,13). 일부 연구자들은 '라고 주장하지만... 다른 기술에 작업 메모리 훈련의 일반화의 설득력있는 증거가없었다'4,다른 사람은 WM훈련의매우 중요한 효과를 보여주는 메타 분석 데이터를 제시2,3,5,6,11. 별도의 문제는 노인 인구에서 WM의 효과입니다. 몇몇 WM 훈련 연구는15,16,17,18,19,20에비해 젊은 성인에서 더 큰 이득을 보고했습니다, 반면 다른 사람들은 유사한 효력이 두 연령 집단21,22,23,24,25에서관찰될 수 있다는 것을 보여줍니다.
다양한 요소는 메모리 트레이닝26의이점을 예측하는 것으로 추정된다. 이러한 요인 중 일부는 WM 교육 효과21의잠재적 인 중재자로 나타납니다. 정신 능력, 기준선 인지 능력 또는 일반적인 인지 자원으로 설명 되 고, 이 위치에 대 한 강한 선택 중 하나 것 같다. 초기 지적 수준의 역할을 평가하기 위해, 우리는 훈련 요법을 적용하기 전에 인지 능력의 측정에 특별한 강조 (여기에 설명 된 방법)를 넣어. 그것은 참가자를 보여주는 데이터에 의해 지시 되었다, 누가 훈련의 시작 부분에 더 높은 인지 능력을 특징으로, 초기 인지 기능의 낮은 수준을 가진 사람에 비해 실질적으로 더 나은 훈련 결과 달성27. 유사한 현상은 매튜 효과로 불리는 교육 연구에서 관찰됩니다28,처음에 더 나은 기술을 가진 사람들은 문제의 능력의 예비 낮은 수준을 가진 사람들에 비해 더 향상 관찰.
그것은 생각을 자극, 그래도, 너무 많은 보고서가 이 주제에 게시 된21,29. 더욱이, 특히 노인 인구에 관해서 실질적인 개별적인 차이조차도 데이터 분석 및 해석30동안 방치되는 경우가 많다. 본 연구에서는, 우리는 건강한 노인의 단에 있는 WM 훈련 성공에 작업 메모리 용량의 초기 수준의 충격을 검토합니다. 실험 군과 대조군 간에 가능한 한 유사한 훈련 요법의 모든 요소를 유지하기 위해 능동적인 제어 그룹 설계를 사용했습니다. 따라서 교육 콘텐츠(WM 대 의미 체계 메모리)는 교육 결과의 예상 차이를 결정하는 한 가지 중요한 요소로 남아 있었다. 두 그룹 모두 전산화된 홈 기반 교육을 수행했습니다. 실험 그룹의 구성원은 적응형 듀얼 n-back 교육 프로그램과 의미 체계 메모리 퀴즈를 기반으로 작업으로 훈련된 활성 제어 그룹에 할당되었습니다. 여기에 접근 방식의 새로운 그들의 작업 메모리 용량을 평가 하 여 참가자의 인지 수준에 대 한 초기 평가에 강조 (WMC). 또한 이 문서에 제시된 초기 WMC 수준을 평가하는 방법은 후속 작업 메모리 교육 중에 성공할 수 있고 성공하지 못하는 사람들을 구별하는 효과적인 도구로 입증되었습니다. 우리는 이전에 이 연구결과4에서결과를 설명하고 간행했습니다 . 따라서 이 문서에서는 사용한 프로토콜에 대한 자세한 설명에 초점을 맞추고 있습니다.

<table><tbody><tr><td>GEx</td><td>n/a</td><td>authorial online platform:&lt;br/&gt; used for N-back training, Quiz</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>IBM SPSS Statistics 26.0</td><td>IBM Corporation</td><td>SPSS software was used to compute statistical analysis.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Inquisit version 4.0.8.0</td><td>Millisecond Software</td><td>software: tool for designing and administering experiments&lt;br/&gt; used for: The Sternberg Task, The Linear Syllogism Task and presenting the instructions for baseline EEG recording</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MATLAB R2018b</td><td>The MathWorks, Inc</td><td>MATLAB software was used to compute statistics and to export databases and&amp;nbsp; visualisation of the results</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PsychoPy version 2 v.1.83.04</td><td>Jonathan Peirce; supported by University of Nottingham</td><td>open-source software&lt;br/&gt; used for: Go/no Go Task, The Switching Task, Running Memory Span Taskckage based on Python</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sublime Text (version 2.0.2)</td><td>n/a</td><td>open-source software: HTML editor&lt;br/&gt; used for: online OSPAN Task</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

working memory training for older participants: a control group training regimen and initial intellectual functioning assessment

인지 훈련 내정간섭의 효험은 최근에 높게 토론됩니다. 어떤 종류의 훈련 식이요법이 가장 효과적인지에 대한 합의는 없습니다. 또한, 교육 결과의 예측변수로서의 개별적인 특성은 여전히 조사되고 있습니다. 이 문서에서는 노인의 인지 효과에 대한 작업 메모리 (WM) 교육의 영향뿐만 아니라 초기 WM 용량 (WMC)이 교육 결과에 미치는 영향을 검토하여이 문제를 해결하려는 시도를 보여줍니다. 우리는 활성 제어 그룹 (메모리 퀴즈)와 적응 듀얼 n-백 교육의 5 주를 수행하는 방법을 자세히 설명합니다. 우리는 여기에 교육의 기술적 측면뿐만 아니라 참가자의 WMC의 초기 평가에 초점을 맞추고있다. 다른 인지 차원의 사전 및 사후 훈련 성능의 평가는 메모리 업데이트, 억제, 주의 이동, 단기 기억 (STM) 및 추론의 테스트 결과에 근거하였다. 우리는 WMC의 초기 수준이 n-back 교육 개입의 효율성을 예측한다는 것을 발견했습니다. 우리는 또한 우리가 측정 하는 인지 기능의 거의 모든 측면에서 포스트 훈련 개선을 발견 했습니다., 하지만 그 효과 대부분 독립적인 개입 했다.

교육 관련 효과
85명의 과목이 연구에 참여했으며(29명은 남성)였고, 평균 66.7세였다. 기술적 문제로 인해 N-back 교육 그룹의 한 참가자의 데이터가 기록되지 않았습니다. 마지막으로 N-back 트레이닝 그룹의 43명, 퀴즈 트레이닝 그룹 42명의 데이터를 분석했습니다. 반복된 측정값을 가진 분산(MANOVA)의 다변량 분석은 ?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Working Memory Training for Older Participants: A Control Group Training Regimen and Initial Intellectual Functioning Assessment at JoVE.com

Working Memory Training for Older Participants: A Control Group Training Regimen and Initial Intellectual Functioning Assessment

노인 인구의 인지 훈련 개입과 함께 사전 훈련 인지 능력의 평가가 제시됩니다. 우리는 두 가지 버전의 훈련(실험 및 능동 제어)을 보여주고 인지 테스트의 배열에 미치는 영향을 보여줍니다.

이전 참가자를 위한 작업 메모리 교육: 제어 그룹 교육 요법 및 초기 지적 기능 평가

The efficacy of cognitive training interventions is recently highly debated. There is no consensus on what kind of training regimen is the most effective. ...

working-memory-training-for-older-participants-control-group-training

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

4.6K 조회수.  SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities. 노인 인구의 인지 훈련 개입과 함께 사전 훈련 인지 능력의 평가가 제시됩니다. 우리는 두 가지 버전의 훈련(실험 및 능동 제어)을 보여주고 인지 테스트의 배열에 미치는 영향을 보여줍니다.

비디오: Working Memory Training for Older Participants: A Control Group Training Regimen and Initial Intellectual Functioning Assessment

Assessment of Age-related Changes in Cognitive Functions Using EmoCogMeter, a Novel Tablet-computer Based Approach

The main goal of this study was to assess the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on cognitive functions across the lifespan in a sample of 378 healthy subjects (age range 18-89 years). Consistent with previous findings we found an age-related cognitive decline across a wide range of neuropsychological domains (memory, attention, executive functions), thereby proving the usability of our tablet-based application. Regardless of prior computer experience, subjects of all age groups were able to perform the tasks without instruction or feedback from an experimenter. Increased motivation and compliance proved to be beneficial for task performance, thereby potentially increasing the validity of the results. Our promising findings underline the great clinical and practical potential of a tablet-based application for detection and monitoring of cognitive dysfunction.

We tested the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on cognition. Results show an age-related cognitive decline, thereby proving the usability of our application. Findings underline the great clinical and practical potential of a tablet-based application for detection and monitoring of cognitive dysfunction.

EmoCogMeter, 소설 태블릿 컴퓨터 기반 접근 방식을 사용하여인지 기능의 연령과 관련된 변화의 평가

The main goal of this study was to assess the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on ...

연구

행동분석학

A Method for Investigating Age-related Differences in the Functional Connectivity of Cognitive Control Networks Associated with Dimensional Change Card Sort Performance

The ability to adjust behavior to sudden changes in the environment develops gradually in childhood and adolescence. For example, in the Dimensional Change Card Sort task, participants switch from sorting cards one way, such as shape, to sorting them a different way, such as color. Adjusting behavior in this way exacts a small performance cost, or switch cost, such that responses are typically slower and more error-prone on switch trials in which the sorting rule changes as compared to repeat trials in which the sorting rule remains the same. The ability to flexibly adjust behavior is often said to develop gradually, in part because behavioral costs such as switch costs typically decrease with increasing age. Why aspects of higher-order cognition, such as behavioral flexibility, develop so gradually remains an open question. One hypothesis is that these changes occur in association with functional changes in broad-scale cognitive control networks. On this view, complex mental operations, such as switching, involve rapid interactions between several distributed brain regions, including those that update and maintain task rules, re-orient attention, and select behaviors. With development, functional connections between these regions strengthen, leading to faster and more efficient switching operations. The current video describes a method of testing this hypothesis through the collection and multivariate analysis of fMRI data from participants of different ages.

This video presents a method of examining age-related changes in functional connectivity of cognitive control networks engaged by targeted tasks/processes. The technique is based on multi-variate analysis of fMRI data.

치수 변경 카드 정렬 성능인지 제어 네트워크 관련의 기능 연결에서 연령 관련 차이점을 조사하는 방법

The ability to adjust behavior to sudden changes in the environment develops gradually in childhood and adolescence. For example, in the Dimensional ...

A Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate Interference in Working Memory by Distractions and Interruptions

Goal-directed behavior is often impaired by interference from the external environment, either in the form of distraction by irrelevant information that one attempts to ignore, or by interrupting information that demands attention as part of another (secondary) task goal. Both forms of external interference have been shown to detrimentally impact the ability to maintain information in working memory (WM). Emerging evidence suggests that these different types of external interference exert different effects on behavior and may be mediated by distinct neural mechanisms. Better characterizing the distinct neuro-behavioral impact of irrelevant distractions versus attended interruptions is essential for advancing an understanding of top-down attention, resolution of external interference, and how these abilities become degraded in healthy aging and in neuropsychiatric conditions. This manuscript describes a novel cognitive paradigm developed the Gazzaley lab that has now been modified into several distinct versions used to elucidate behavioral and neural correlates of interference, by to-be-ignored distractors versus to-be-attended interruptors. Details are provided on variants of this paradigm for investigating interference in visual and auditory modalities, at multiple levels of stimulus complexity, and with experimental timing optimized for electroencephalography (EEG) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies. In addition, data from younger and older adult participants obtained using this paradigm is reviewed and discussed in the context of its relationship with the broader literatures on external interference and age-related neuro-behavioral changes in resolving interference in working memory.

A novel cognitive paradigm is developed to elucidate behavioral and neural correlates of interference by to-be-ignored distractors versus interference by to-be-attended interruptors during a working memory task. In this manuscript, several variants of this paradigm are detailed, and data obtained with this paradigm in younger/older adult participants is reviewed.

인지 적 패러다임은 산만하고 중단으로 작업 메모리의 간섭을 조사하기 위해

Goal-directed behavior is often impaired by interference from the external environment, either in the form of distraction by irrelevant information that ...

The 4 Mountains Test: A Short Test of Spatial Memory with High Sensitivity for the Diagnosis of Pre-dementia Alzheimer's Disease

This protocol describes the administration of the 4 Mountains Test (4MT), a short test of spatial memory, in which memory for the topographical layout of four mountains within a computer-generated landscape is tested using a delayed match-to-sample paradigm. Allocentric spatial memory is assessed by altering the viewpoint, colors and textures between the initially presented and target images.
Allocentric spatial memory is a key function of the hippocampus, one of the earliest brain regions to be affected in Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) and impairment of hippocampal function predates the onset of dementia. It was hypothesized that performance on the 4MT would aid the diagnosis of predementia AD, which manifests clinically as Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI).
The 4MT was applied to patients with MCI, stratified further based on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) AD biomarker status (10 MCI biomarker positive, 9 MCI biomarker negative), and with mild AD dementia, as well as healthy controls. Comparator tests included tests of episodic memory and attention widely accepted as sensitive measures of early AD. Behavioral data were correlated with quantitative MRI measures of the hippocampus, precuneus and posterior cingulate gyrus.
4MT scores were significantly different between the two MCI groups (p = 0.001), with a test score of &#8804;8/15 associated with 100% sensitivity and 78% specificity for the classification of MCI with positive AD biomarkers, i.e., predementia AD. 4MT test scores correlated with hippocampal volume (r = 0.42) and cortical thickness of the precuneus (r = 0.55).
In conclusion, the 4MT is effective in identifying the early stages of AD. The short duration, easy application and scoring, and favorable psychometric properties of the 4MT fulfil the need for a simple but accurate diagnostic test for predementia AD.

This article describes the 4 Mountains Test (4MT), a hippocampus-dependent test of working allocentric spatial memory. The hippocampus is affected early in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and this article outlines the 4MT methodology and results of patient testing, which demonstrates the value of the 4MT in the diagnosis of pre-dementia AD.

4 산맥 테스트 : 알츠하이머 병 전 치매의 진단에 대한 높은 감도와 공간 메모리의 짧은 테스트

This protocol describes the administration of the 4 Mountains Test (4MT), a short test of spatial memory, in which memory for the topographical layout of ...

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of working memory in young school-age children. Working memory deficits have been identified in children with language-based learning disabilities, including dyslexia1,2 and language impairment3,4, but it is not clear whether these children exhibit deficits in subcomponents of working memory, such as visuospatial or phonological working memory. The CABC-WM is administered on a desktop computer with a touchscreen interface and was specifically developed to be engaging and motivating for children. Although the long-term goal of the CABC-WM is to provide individualized working memory profiles in children, the present study focuses on the initial success and utility of the CABC-WM for measuring central executive, visuospatial, phonological loop, and binding constructs in children with typical development. Immediate next steps are to administer the CABC-WM to children with specific language impairment, dyslexia, and comorbid specific language impairment and dyslexia.

Working memory predicts a significant amount of variance for a variety of cognitive tasks, including speaking, reading, and writing. However, few tools are available to assess working memory in children. We present an innovative, computer-based battery that comprehensively assesses different components of working memory in school-age children.

어린이의 작업 기억 평가 : 어린이를위한 종합 평가 배터리 - 작업 메모리 (CABC-WM)

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of ...

Lexical Decision Task for Studying Written Word Recognition in Adults with and without Dementia or Mild Cognitive Impairment

Older adults are slower at recognizing visual objects than younger adults. The same is true for recognizing that a letter string is a real word. People with Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) or Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) demonstrate even longer responses in written word recognition than elderly controls. Despite the general tendency towards slower recognition in aging and neurocognitive disorders, certain characteristics of words influence word recognition speed regardless of age or neuropathology (e.g., a word&#8217;s frequency of use). We present here a protocol for examining the influence of lexical characteristics on word recognition response times in a simple lexical decision experiment administered to younger and older adults and people with MCI or AD. In this experiment, participants are asked to decide as quickly and accurately as possible whether a given letter string is an actual word or not. We also describe mixed-effects models and principal components analysis that can be used to detect the influence of different types of lexical variables or individual characteristics of participants on word recognition speed.

This article describes how to implement a simple lexical decision experiment to assess written word recognition in neurologically healthy participants and in individuals with dementia and cognitive decline. We also provide a detailed description of reaction time analysis using principal components analysis (PCA) and mixed-effects modeling.

치매 또는 경도 인지 장애가 있거나 없는 성인에서 서면 단어 인식을 연구하기위한 어휘 결정 작업

Older adults are slower at recognizing visual objects than younger adults. The same is true for recognizing that a letter string is a real word. People ...

Highlighting and Reducing the Impact of Negative Aging Stereotypes During Older Adults' Cognitive Testing

As life expectancy increases, aging has become a major health challenge, resulting in a huge effort to better discriminate between normal and pathological cognitive decline. It is thus essential that cognitive tests and their administration are as fair as possible. However, an important source of bias during cognitive testing comes from negative aging stereotypes that can impair the memory performance of older adults and inflate age differences on cognitive tasks. The fear of confirming negative aging stereotypes creates an extra pressure among older adults which interferes with their intellectual functioning and leads them to perform below their true abilities. Here, we present a protocol that highlights simple but efficient interventions to alleviate this age-based stereotype threat effect. The first study showed that simply informing older participants about the presence of younger participants (threat condition) led older adults to underperform on a standardized memory test compared with younger participants, and that this performance difference was eliminated when the test was presented as age-fair (reduced-threat condition). The second study replicated these findings on short cognitive tests used to screen for predementia in clinical settings and showed that teaching older adults about stereotype threat inoculated them against its effects. These results provide useful recommendations about how to improve older adults' memory assessment both in Iab studies and in clinical settings.

Here, we present a protocol designed to show how negative aging stereotypes can impair memory performance of older adults during cognitive testing and how to reduce this deleterious effect. This method can help older people to perform at an optimal level during testing in both lab studies and clinical settings.

노인의 인지 테스트 중 부정적인 노화 고정 관념의 영향을 강조 하고 감소

As life expectancy increases, aging has become a major health challenge, resulting in a huge effort to better discriminate between normal and pathological ...

A Computerized Functional Skills Assessment and Training Program Targeting Technology Based Everyday Functional Skills

Today, many functional skills are technology-based, so development of a technology-based training program has broad importance. Here we present a computerized functional skills training program that was paired in half of the participants with a commercially available cognitive training (CCT) program.
Non-impaired older individuals (NC) aged 60+ (n=45) and similarly aged individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI; n=50) were randomized to receive 12 weeks of twice-weekly computerized functional skills training (CFST) or 12 weeks of twice-weekly sessions split between CCT and CFST. Skills trained were use of an ATM; internet banking; ticket kiosk; telephone and internet prescription refill; medication management; and internet shopping. As with previous functional capacity assessments, we focus on completion time for each simulation.
51 participants completed the training program, either by mastering all 6 tasks (34) or completing 12 weeks of training. 44 more participants completed 4 or more training sessions so they were also analyzed for improvement up to their last training session. Completion time for all 6 tests significantly improved from the baseline assessment to the final training session in both groups of participants (all p&#60;0.001 with an average improvement in task completion time of 45%). Further, there was no differential improvement in MCI and NC in the 6 tests from baseline to end of training (all t&#60;1.66, all p&#62;0.12). Finally, combined CCT plus CFST did not differ from CSFT alone on any of the percent-change score measures (all t&#60;1.64, all p&#62;0.11).
Both NC and MCI groups evidenced substantial improvements in performance. CCT supplementation led to similar functional gains with half as many training sessions. The NC participants proceeded through the training fairly rapidly even without CCT supplementation; MCI participants required more training but learned equivalently. These findings suggest that even in cases with memory impairments, functional skills can be efficiently learned with training.

This training protocol uses computerized training to teach technology-related everyday functional skills. These skills include financial skills, travel and transit, as well as medication management.

전산화된 기능 기술 평가 및 교육 프로그램 대상 기술 기반 일상 기능 기술

Today, many functional skills are technology-based, so development of a technology-based training program has broad importance. Here we present a ...

의학

Anterograde Amnesia

Source: Laboratories of Jonas T. Kaplan and Sarah I. Gimbel&#8212;University of Southern California
Anterograde amnesia is the loss of the ability to form new memories. This can be distinguished from retrograde amnesia, which is the loss of old memories. Anterograde amnesia can result from damage to structures in the brain that are involved in the formation of new memories. Patients who have damage to the structures of the medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and the surrounding cortices, often have severe deficits in the formation of certain kinds of memories. These cases can be informative as to how memory is organized in the brain, and how different systems support different kinds of memories. 
In this video, we will test a patient with medial temporal lobe damage on a series of memory tasks designed to distinguish between different forms of memory. First, we will test short-term or working memory, which is the process we use to keep information in mind temporarily. Next, we will test two different forms of long-term memory: explicit and implicit memory. Explicit memories are conscious and easy to verbalize. For example, memories of facts or episodes from our lives are explicit memories. We can easily tell someone what we ate for breakfast, or what city is the capital of France. Implicit memory involves knowledge we gain from experience but that is not easily expressible. For example, knowing how to do things, or becoming habituated to a stimulus are forms of implicit memory. 
These procedures are based in part on studies of the famous patient Henry Molaison, also known by his initials H.M., who had severe anterograde amnesia as a result of a surgery for intractable epilepsy in which parts of both temporal lobes were resected.1 We will perform a test of digit span, which measures short-term memory, a test of paired-associate learning, which measures explicit or declarative memory, and mirror-drawing, a test of implicit skill learning.2

Testing Short- and Long-term Memories in Patients with Brain Injuries

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Source: Laboratories of Jonas T. Kaplan and Sarah I. Gimbel&#8212;University of Southern California
Anterograde amnesia is the loss of the ability to form ...

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Measuring Verbal Working Memory Span

Source: Laboratory of Jonathan Flombaum&#8212;Johns Hopkins University

Why is it relatively hard to remember everything on a shopping list if it includes more than just a handful of items? Why is it possible to remember a phone number that one just heard, but not two or three phone numbers at once? Why is it difficult to remember names when several new people are introduced at the same time?
The answer has to do with the fact that over short-durations people rely on a specialized memory system called working memory. Unlike long-term memory, working memory has a very limited capacity. It is there so that information can be kept in mind, studied, manipulated, and then transferred to other memory and cognitive systems. But in order to serve in this active role, it needs to be selective, admitting only limited amounts of information at a time.
Experimental psychologists tend to think that people possess independent working memory systems for different kinds of information, with a major division between verbal and visual information. Each of these systems has an independent capacity limit.
To measure a person&#8217;s verbal working memory capacity limit&#8212;often called, his or her memory span&#8212;experimental psychologists often use a verbal list paradigm.
This video will demonstrate the measurement of verbal working memory span using a verbal list paradigm.

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Source: Laboratory of Jonathan Flombaum&#8212;Johns Hopkins University

Why is it relatively hard to remember everything on a shopping list if it includes ...