This study was supported by a Synapsis Foundation fellowship awarded to K.R. and the Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV). The authors thank Nikon for their help, in particular J. Gannevat.

The present protocol has been performed with the approval of an ethical committee (agreement VD3602, Lausanne, Switzerland) and follows European guidelines for the use of animals.
1. Rat hippocampal astrocyte primary culture
<ol>
	<li>Sacrifice five rat pups (Wistar IGS Rat) by decapitation at postnatal day 1-2.</li>
	<li>Remove the brain and keep it in a Petri dish containing 5 mL of fresh astrocyte medium (DMEM with GlutaMAX supplemented with 1% Penicillin/Streptomycin and 10% fresh Horse Serum).</li>
	<li>Isolate the hippocampus. Dissociate in 5 mL of the astrocytic medium by three passages through a 21 G needle and three passages through a 25 G needle.</li>
	<li>Transfer the dissociated cells to a 15 mL centrifuge tube and count in a hemocytometer.</li>
	<li>Plate 20,000-25,000 cells/cm2 in multiwell dishes (9.4 mm x 10.7 mm x 9.3 mm) and store them at 37 &#176;C under an atmosphere containing 5% CO2 for the rest of the experiment.</li>
	<li>Replace the medium entirely at 3 days in vitro (DIV3).</li>
	<li>At DIV8, add 0.6 pg of p24 antigen per cell of lentiviral vector coding for mitochondrial biosensor MitoTimer (LV-G1-MitoTimer22) diluted in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS + 0.01% BSA).</li>
	<li>At DIV9, wash with pre-warmed 1x sterile PBS (37 &#176;C) and add fresh astrocyte medium.</li>
	<li>At DIV11, perform 2 washes with pre-warmed 1x sterile PBS (37 &#176;C) and add fresh astrocyte medium without phenol red. 
	&#8203;NOTE: Choice of the coating depends on the intended assay. As a standard coating for astrocyte primary culture, it is recommended to use 0.2 mg/mL poly-D-lysine or 8.7 &#181;g/cm2 of basement membrane matrix (e.g., Matrigel). To visualize the mitochondrial system of astrocytes, it is essential to work on flattened and stretched cells. In this context, the combination of basement membrane matrix on IBIDI u-slides is the most suitable. It is also crucial not to work with phenol red, which is toxic for the cell under repeated exposure to light.</li>
</ol>
2. Long-term monitoring of the mitochondrial system.
<ol>
	<li>Assess the astrocytic mitochondrial system a minimum of 3-5 days after the lentiviral infections with LV-G1-MitoTimer (to allow a sufficient level of fluorescence in the mitochondria).</li>
	<li>Image the cells with an inverted microscope controlled by the acquisition and analysis software and a module for full automation of acquisition. 
	NOTE: Refer to the Table of Materials for the details of the software and module used in this study.</li>
	<li>Ensure that the microscope is equipped with a cage incubator (see Table of Materials) to maintain astrocyte culture at 5% CO2 and 37 &#176;C throughout the experiment.</li>
	<li>Capture fluorescence images using sequential excitation at 490 nm (for green channel) and 550 nm (for red channel) with detection of green (500-540 nm for green channel) and red (550-600 nm for red channel) fluorescence signals.</li>
	<li>Select 5 astrocytes per well with a mitochondrial network expressing sufficient levels of LV-G1-MitoTimer using a magnification of 40x. Take care to select astrocytes as flat and large as possible and not located in clusters of cells (to work on individual cells).</li>
	<li>Save the coordinates of the 5 selected cells in an xlm file (map.xlm). This map.xlm allows the user to return to the same cells over time.</li>
	<li>Acquire image sequences (1 image/s for 60 s) using a magnification of 150x (100x oil immersion objective, 1.5x intermediate magnification) for each coordinates.</li>
	<li>Repeat image acquisition (1 image/s for 60 s) for the same astrocytes 6 h, 12 h, and 24 h after treatments. 
	&#8203;NOTE: Use a microscope equipped with a fast and efficient autofocus system. In this context, the hardware solution called Perfect Focus System (PFS) was used. PFS uses near-infrared 870-nm LED and CCD line sensors to combat axial focus fluctuations in real-time during long-term imaging investigations.</li>
</ol>
3. Analysis of individual mitochondrial morphology and LV-G1-MitoTimer ratio
NOTE: NIS General Analysis 3 (GA3) from Nikon was used to automatize morphometric analysis in this study.
<ol>
	<li>For each image sequence (baseline, 6 h, 12 h, 24 h), select the first frame for red and green channels by clicking on ND Processing &#62; Select Frame.</li>
	<li>Merge the red and the green channels by selecting Conversions &#62; Merge Channel.</li>
	<li>To correct image shading, select Preprocessing &#62; Auto Shading Correction.</li>
	<li>Apply the Rolling Ball algorithm by selecting Preprocessing &#62; Rolling Ball.</li>
	<li>To generate binary masks for each mitochondrion, select Segmentation &#62; Threshold.</li>
	<li>Remove any objects truncated by the border by selecting Binary processing &#62; Touching Border.</li>
	<li>To measure the surface area, select Measurement &#62; Object Area.</li>
	<li>To measure the diameter, select Measurement &#62; Eq Diameter.</li>
	<li>To measure the length, select Measurement &#62; Length.</li>
	<li>To measure the width, select Measurement &#62; Width.</li>
	<li>To measure roughness, select Measurement &#62; Roughness.</li>
	<li>To measure circularity, select Measurement &#62; Circularity.</li>
	<li>To measure elongation, select Measurement &#62; Elongation.</li>
	<li>Compose a group (right-click) with the above measurement and rename it as MorphoData.</li>
	<li>Measure mean green intensity by selecting Measurement &#62; Mean Intensity.</li>
	<li>Measure mean red intensity by selecting Measurement &#62; Mean Intensity.</li>
	<li>To measure the Red/Green ratio, select Measurement &#62; Ratio.</li>
	<li>Compose a group (right-click) with the above measurement and rename it as RatioData.</li>
	<li>Export the table to a CSV file by selecting Reference &#62; Table to CSV.</li>
	<li>Save the GA3 script of analysis by selecting Save As 
	NOTE: A non-exhaustive list of the criteria used in this procedure is summarized in Figure 1, Table 1, and Table 2. The analysis GA3 script file is available in supplemental (Supplemental Coding File 1 and Figure 2). The thresholds used were adapted to individualize as many mitochondria as possible (excluding large mitochondrial networks where possible). Wherever possible, mitochondrial networks are either individualized manually or excluded from the analyses. Due to intercellular variability, perform these analyses on at least 20-25 cells per condition (with a minimum of 50 mitochondria by cell).</li>
</ol>
4. Analysis of mitochondrial motility
NOTE: Due to the high complexity of mitochondrial movements, manual motility analysis is preferred. Here, Nikon&#39;s NIS Element system was used to manually track mitochondria.
<ol>
	<li>Open the tracking module in NIS, select View &#62; Analysis &#62; Tracking.</li>
	<li>Click on Define New ROI.</li>
	<li>With the Automatic Detection Tool, select 25-50 mitochondria on the first image of the image sequence.</li>
	<li>Click on Track Autodetected ROIs Analyze.</li>
	<li>If necessary, delete the incorrect ROI tracks.</li>
	<li>Export the table to a CSV file. 
	&#8203;NOTE: A non-exhaustive list of the criteria used in this procedure is summarized in Figure 1 and Table 3. A tracking analysis generally gives a path depicting the movements of the center of every tracked object. The different tracking options must be set in the tracking option. Favor the selection of isolated mitochondria that are sufficiently distant from each other to facilitate tracking. Keep only the objects that could consistently be tracked over the whole sequence. Proceed the same way to remove outliers due to bad quality tracking. Consequently, the set of objects analyzed in this section is different from the one analyzed for static morphological analyses and will generally be smaller.</li>
</ol>
5. Data transformation, normalization, and statistical analysis
NOTE: Mainly due to the high heterogeneity of the mitochondria, data generated often have a non-normal distribution.
<ol>
	<li>Manually log-transform the measurements prior to processing.</li>
	<li>For each analysis and time frame, manually normalize the resulting data by the mean of those obtained in the reference acquisition.</li>
	<li>In addition, consider a second/double normalization to a control condition, for example, to evaluate the effect of a treatment.</li>
	<li>Then, perform statistical analysis using a two-way matched ANOVA. Here GraphPad Prism V8 was used.</li>
</ol>

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The authors declare no competing interests.

Here, a novel method to longitudinally follow the dynamics and turnover of the mitochondrial system in a cultured astrocyte is proposed. Unlike a time-lapse approach on a fixed group of cells or one individual cell at a time (most often used in the literature)24,25, researchers can follow the evolution of the mitochondrial system during several days on the same individual cells. In contrast to single well live imaging where high levels of light exposure are required, and the selection of many individual cells is less feasible, the proposed method takes advantage of this microscope&#39;s ability to image several different cells in different areas of a well and to come back to those same cells at various time points to re-image them. Thanks to normalization to a baseline carried out for each measured criterion on each cell of interest, it takes the mitochondrial system&#39;s complexity into account and investigates the effect of treatment on each cell relative to its own baseline image. The microscope&#39;s ability to autonomously carry out this type of imaging on up to 16 wells at a time (imaging 5 cells per well) allows for the heterogeneity of the mitochondrial system to be properly taken into account during analysis without the experimental variability that comes with imaging various conditions on different days.
The quality of the cultures, the levels of viral infections expressing the LV-G1-MitoTimer biosensor, the type of microscope and objectives, and the selection of suitable cells are critical variables that must remain as consistent as possible in this protocol. The cell densities, the type of vector, and the viral titers can be adapted according to the question. Although previous work shows that LV-G1-MitoTimer expression has no deleterious consequences for mitochondrial function and dynamics21,22,26,27, it is essential to verify that the concentration is not toxic for the cells (for example, checking the total number of cells in control well). As a single focal plane is used, astrocytes should be: (1) as flat as possible, (2) isolated from other labeled cells (to simplify the analysis in case of displacement in the dish), and (3) possessing high fluorescence levels. As cells in culture can be highly variable in morphology, the mitochondrial system can be highly heterogeneous. In this context, analyzing ROIs (and not the whole cell) compensates for some problematic regions, such as the perinuclear regions, and decreases variability. It is essential to do the baseline on relatively similar cells and sample as many cells as possible. Consequently, high content acquisition and analysis microscopes are ideally suited. During this longitudinal monitoring, it is also important not to overexpose the cells to light to avoid biosensor bleaching.
This imaging method is not without its complexities, and throughout the protocol, several notes are included, which take into account troubleshooting done during previous tests with the microscope. For example, the choice of plate coating used depends on the intended assay, but recommendations for the most suitable choices for astrocyte primary cultures have been included. Additionally, image acquisition should be performed on at least 5 cells per condition due to intercellular variability. More specifically, some cells selected at baseline imaging will die, some will move out of the frame of the assigned image acquisition area, and some will change their morphology, making the mitochondria very difficult to individualize in analysis. Imaging many cells from the beginning increase the likelihood of a large enough sample size of cells to analyze at the end of the experiment. In addition to the more complex aspects of this imaging technique, there are some outright limitations as far as who can benefit from this type of imaging and analysis. In order to take full advantage of the automatization of image acquisition, the microscope used must have an autofocus system that can handle the speed of time intervals between images (i.e., every 3 s in this protocol) and can consistently focus on the cell in question before each image is taken. Additionally, without the JOBS software, which automates the entire image acquisition process, this method becomes arduous and potentially impossible depending on the number of cells being imaged as it would require manually finding and imaging each cell again at the appropriate time point. Finally, this imaging method is not immune to the issue of photobleaching. For this reason, as with any long-term acquisition method, it is important to choose fluorescent markers that are less susceptible to photobleaching and to tailor image acquisition to avoid this issue as much as possible.
This technique differs from others currently used in a crucial way. Unlike other time-lapse studies, this technique does not require imaging on the same position in the well the entire time, nor does it require manual movement of the plate to image other areas. This allows researchers the ability to image many cells in many conditions in one 24 h timeframe. Consequently, the ability to carry out this imaging and analysis on many cells in each well gives the same population information one would obtain from broadly studying a large group of cells while additionally providing specific measures from each cell imaged. While some specificities to this method may not apply to other image acquisition methods (outlined above), the benefits outweigh the complications with the type of analysis possible after acquisition. This technique allows researchers to see the exact ramifications of various treatments on the mitochondrial system, and consequently, on the cultured astrocytes.
Additionally, this method is highly customizable to many different scientific questions regarding mitochondrial behavior and roles in specific contexts. Here the outlined protocol deals specifically with cultured astrocytes. However, many other cell types can be used, and the treatments that can be tested are limited only by the questions being investigated. This type of imaging has the potential to advance the collective knowledge and understanding of mitochondrial behavior, the underlying mechanisms that lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, and the effects of many pathologies on the innate dynamics present in different types of cells.

Astrocytes are critical players in the maintenance of brain homeostasis. They are perhaps most well known to have significant structural roles in the brain, as part of the blood-brain barrier1 and by supporting neurons and synapses throughout the brain2. Astrocyte support of neurons is both structural3 and metabolic4,5, with astrocytes promoting neurogenesis and synaptogenesis while also providing key metabolites like lactate to active neurons4,6,7. Beyond the role of structural support, astrocytes are active cells that take part in Ca2+ signaling and buffering (including spontaneous mitochondrial Ca2+ influxes)8,9, K+ buffering10, and can adapt and react to the needs of the brain in times of injury11,12. Being such dynamic cells, astrocytes have robust energy requirements, which necessitate an efficient mitochondrial network. These mitochondria also have a crucial role in buffering excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS)13. In addition to their individual or local roles of energy generation and ROS buffering, mitochondria function as a network14. In this sense, they maintain equilibrium between fissioning and fusioning mitochondria, representing new/reduced mitochondria and older/oxidized mitochondria, respectively15. The overall redox state of a cell can be gauged by the redox state of the mitochondrial network. In pathology, this is a critical piece of information that can shed light on which cells may not be functioning optimally.
In recent years, many sensors have been developed to study the dynamics and functions of mitochondria in cells. For example, sensors measuring energy exchange (ATP), redox state (NADH/NAD+, ROS), and enzymatic functionality (cAMP, Ca2+, Zn2+) are currently used in the study of mitochondrial function16. Among them, MitoTimer permits to follow the changes in mitochondrial morphology (size, shape, surface area), mobility (speed, displacement), and dynamics (fusioning and fissioning events), as well as the overall mitochondrial turnover rate and redox state. MitoTimer is a mutant red fluorescent protein, drFP58317, with a mitochondrial signal from subunit VIII of human cytochrome c oxidase18,19 to visualize newly synthesized mitochondria in green (488 nm) and oxidized mitochondria in red (555 nm). Using the green (488 nm) and red (555 nm) fluorescence ratio permits simultaneous evaluation of individual mitochondria, their morphology analysis, fusion/fission events, and redox state history20,21. This unique property can be used to investigate many scientific questions regarding mitochondria&#39;s physiological and pathological roles and is therefore very promising for unveiling the underlying mechanisms of mitochondrial dynamics within many different cell types.
We recently developed a new lentiviral vector (LV-G1-MitoTimer-MiR124T, hereafter called LV-G1-MitoTimer) to study mitochondria&#39;s dynamic and functions specifically in astrocytes in vitro and in vivo22. LV-G1-MitoTimer uses a truncated version of the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) promoter gfaABC1D, with a B3 enhancer (gfaABC1D(B3), hereafter called G1) combined with the previously described miR124T neuronal detargeting system23. It allows exclusive expression of the mitochondrial biosensor in astrocytes in vitro and in vivo22. Presented here are the different steps to perform a culture of rat hippocampal astrocytes and equip them with the LV-G1-MitoTimer biosensor, as well as the different microscopy steps to follow the behavior of astrocyte mitochondria during several consecutive hours/days.

<table><tbody><tr><td>&amp;micro;-Slide 8 Well</td><td>IBIDI</td><td>80807</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>19 G needle</td><td>Plexus SANTE</td><td>PL001213</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>21 G needle</td><td>Plexus SANTE</td><td>PL000142</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>25 G needle</td><td>Plexus SANTE</td><td>PL000133</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bovin Serum Albumin</td><td>LIFE TECH</td><td>15260037</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Camera</td><td>HAMAMATSU</td><td>ORCA-flash4.0 V3 - C13440-20CU</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DMEM, high glucose, GlutaMAX(TM)</td><td>THERMOFISHER</td><td>61965059</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glutamax Supplement</td><td>THERMOFISHER</td><td>35050061</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Horse Serum</td><td>SIGMA</td><td>16050122</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Lens</td><td>Nikon Instruments</td><td>CFI Plan Fluor 100x Oil</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Light Engines</td><td>LUMENCOR</td><td>SPECTRA X</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Linear-encoded motorized platine</td><td>Nikon Instruments</td><td>N/A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Microscope</td><td>Nikon Instruments</td><td>ECLIPSE Ti2-E MICROSCOPE INVERSE</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Microscope Stage Incubator with 3-channel manual gas mixer and gas bubbler/ humidity module</td><td>OKOLAB</td><td>H201-NIKON-TI-S-ER</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PBS 1x liquid</td><td>THERMOFISHER</td><td>20012068</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Penicillin-Streptomycin</td><td>SIGMA</td><td>15140122</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Petri dishes 100 mm</td><td>SIGMA</td><td>P5731</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Petri dishes 35 mm</td><td>SIGMA</td><td>CLS430165</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pregnant Rats</td><td>CHARLES RIVERS</td><td>3</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Software Nikon NIS-HC</td><td>Nikon Instruments</td><td>NIS-Elements HC</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sofware Prism</td><td>GraphPad</td><td>V8.02</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Stericup 500 mL</td><td>MERCK MILLIPORE</td><td>10412701</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

live-imaging of mitochondrial system in cultured astrocytes

While much attention has been given to mitochondrial alterations at the neuronal level, recent evidence demonstrates that mitochondrial dynamics and function in astrocytes are implicated in cognition. This article describes the method for time-lapse imaging of astrocyte cultures equipped with a mitochondrial biosensor: MitoTimer. MitoTimer is a powerful and unique tool to assess mitochondrial dynamics, mobility, morphology, biogenesis, and redox state. Here, the different procedures for culture, image acquisitions, and subsequent mitochondrial analysis are presented.

Primary culture of astrocytes infected with LV-G1-MitoTimer exhibited typical mitochondrial networks. Before treatment, astrocytes expressing LV-G1-MitoTimer showed the heterogeneous mitochondrial size and various green/red fluorescence intensities (Figure 3, Figure 4, and Video 1). The mitochondrial system of astrocyte cultures expressing LV-G1-MitoTimer was monitored before and after incubation with H202 (10 &#181;M). The different mitochondrial features described above were calculated over 12 h (every 3 h) and normalized (cell by cell) to their initial state. At the morphological level (Figure 3B), the effects of H2O2 start to be visible at about 6 h. Indeed, the mitochondria were fragmented (decrease of length, surface area, and elongation factor). This fragmentation is even more obvious 12 h after the treatment. Note that the diameters, widths, and sphericity were not reduced. Concerning redox state and turnover (Figure 3C), 3 h after H2O2 treatment, the proportion of green mitochondria increased in astrocytes (the consequence of a rapid increase in mitochondrial biogenesis). At 6 h, the green/red ratio returned to baseline levels, but the number of purely red mitochondria increased significantly from basal levels. After 12 h, the consequences of the oxidative treatment of H2O2 were visible and resulted in a substantial increase in the ratio and number of red puncta. Concerning the dynamics and mobility (Figure 3D), 3 h after the treatment, all the criteria were transiently increased. In the longer term (12 h), the mitochondria moved more slowly and over shorter distances.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62957/62957fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Astrocyte culture expressing LV-G1-MitoTimer biosensor. (A) Confocal photographs of astrocytes expressing LV-G1-MitoTimer. (B) Selection of confocal photographs of reduced (green) balanced (orange) and oxidized (red) mitochondria with different levels of fragmentation. (C) Summary diagram of the different criteria available for analysis in an astrocyte expressing LV-G1-MitoTimer. Scale bar: (A) Upper panel: 50 &#181;m, lower panel: 10 &#181;m, (B) 1 &#181;m. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62957/62957fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62957/62957fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Mitochondrial morphology and ratio analysis. (A) GA3 script overview for the analysis of individual mitochondrial morphology and ratio. (B) Initial photographs of an astrocyte expressing LV-G1-MitoTimer analyzed with the GA3 script. (C) Example of binary masks generated for the mitochondrial system of astrocytes. Scale bar: 10 &#181;m (B-C). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62957/62957fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62957/62957fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: The effects of H2O2 on the mitochondrial system of astrocytes. (A) Photographs of astrocytes expressing LV-G1-MitoTimer 1 h before and 6 h, 24 h after treatment with PBS (CTRL) and 10 &#181;M of H2O2. (B) Radar charts of mitochondrial morphology, (C) redox state and turnover, and (D) mobility criteria evaluated on astrocytes during baseline and 3 h, 6 h, and 12 h after H2O2 treatment. SA: Surface area; D: Diameter; L: Length; W: Width; R: Roundness; S: Sphericity; EF: Elongation factor (=L/W); G/R: Individual red/green ratio; Gpuncta: Percentage of green puncta mitochondria; Rpuncta: Percentage of red puncta mitochondria; Dis: Displacement; Tr: Track Length; Sp and SpV: Speed and speed variance; Str: Straightness. Scale bar: 20 &#181;m (A) and 2.5 &#181;m (inset). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62957/62957fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62957/62957fig04.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Photographs of astrocytes expressing LV-G1-MitoTimer and showing a homogeneous and balanced mitochondrial network during baseline. Scale bar: 20 &#181;m <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62957/62957fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Video 1: Effect of H2O2 treatment on the mitochondrial system of cultured astrocytes. Astrocytic mitochondria before H2O2 treatment (baseline), as well as 6 h and 24 h after H2O2 treatment compared to non-treated control cell. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62957/movie.mp4" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Morphology criteria</td>
			<td>Range</td>
			<td colspan="3">Remarks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surface Area (SA)</td>
			<td>0.5&#8211;4 &#181;m2</td>
			<td colspan="3" rowspan="7">These criteria inform on the fragmented-elongated features of mitochondria. They generally evolve in the same direction. Fragmented mitochondria will have decreased surface area, diameter, length, and elongation factor while roundness, sphericity, and width may be unchanged or increased.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diameter (D)</td>
			<td>0.5&#8211;1.5 &#181;m</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Length (L)</td>
			<td>0.5&#8211;5 &#181;m</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Width (W)</td>
			<td>0.5&#8211;2 &#181;m</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Roundness (R)</td>
			<td>0&#8211;1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sphericity (S)</td>
			<td>0&#8211;1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Elongation factor (EF = L/W)</td>
			<td>1&#8211;10</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1: Summary of selected parameters for mitochondrial morphology.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Redox State criteria</td>
			<td>Range</td>
			<td colspan="3">Remarks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Individual ratio (G/R)</td>
			<td>0&#8211;10</td>
			<td colspan="3" rowspan="3">The ratio indicates the result of the redox state. It informs about the general state and age of the mitochondria in the cell. It is essential to consider that this ratio is the balance of biogenesis and degradation of mitochondria and the fission/fusion of oxidized mitochondria with reduced mitochondria. Therefore the evaluation of the number of green and red puncta can powerfully help interpret the results.&#160; Green puncta mitochondria are determined when the intensity of green is 10 times that of red. Red puncta mitochondria are determined when the intensity of red is 10 times greater than that of green. The redox state of an astrocyte is the average of all the mitochondria ratios of that cell.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Percentage of green puncta mitochondria (Gpuncta)</td>
			<td>0%&#8211;100%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Percentage of red puncta mitochondria (Rpuncta)</td>
			<td>0%&#8211;100%</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 2: Summary of selected parameters for mitochondrial redox state.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Mobility criteria</td>
			<td>Range</td>
			<td colspan="3">Remarks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Displacement (Dis)</td>
			<td>0&#8211;10 &#181;m</td>
			<td colspan="3" rowspan="5">Together these features inform the general motility dynamics of the network. Stationary mitochondria display short displacement &#38; track length with a low speed. On the other hand, oscillatory particles can be differentiated with a difference between the track length and displacement (resulting in low straightness) and an increased speed compared to static.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Track Length (Tr)</td>
			<td>0&#8211;10 &#181;m</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Speed and speed variance (Sp and SpV)</td>
			<td>0&#8211;1.5&#160; &#181;m/s &#177; 0.2 &#181;m/s</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Straightness&#160;</td>
			<td rowspan="2">0&#8211;1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>(Str = displacement/track length)</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 3: Summary of selected parameters for mitochondrial mobility.
Supplemental Coding File 1: GA3 script file for analysis of individual mitochondrial morphology. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62957/Mito_Morpho.ga3" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Live-imaging of Mitochondrial System in Cultured Astrocytes at JoVE.com

Live-imaging of Mitochondrial System in Cultured Astrocytes

This article describes the method for mitochondrial time-lapse imaging of astrocyte cultures equipped with MitoTimer biosensor and the resulting multiparametric analysis of mitochondrial dynamics, mobility, morphology, biogenesis, redox state, and turnover.

While much attention has been given to mitochondrial alterations at the neuronal level, recent evidence demonstrates that mitochondrial dynamics and ...

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Neuroscience

3.9K Views.  Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV) and University of Lausanne. Dit protocol maximaliseert de kracht van microscopie aanzienlijk als een methode om mitochondriale dynamiek binnen individuele cellen gedurende lange acquisitieperioden te volgen. In tegenstelling tot time-lapse op een vaste groep cellen, of op één cel tegelijk, normaliseert normalisatie naar een basislijn voor elk gemeten criterium in elke cel voor de heterogeniteit tussen cellen. Met een microscoop uitgerust met geautomatiseerd platform en virale vector aangepast, kunnen we dit protocol g...

Video: Live-imaging of Mitochondrial System in Cultured Astrocytes

Neuromodulation and Mitochondrial Transport: Live Imaging in Hippocampal Neurons over Long Durations

To understand the relationship between mitochondrial transport and neuronal function, it is critical to observe mitochondrial behavior in live cultured neurons for extended durations1-3. This is now possible through the use of vital dyes and fluorescent proteins with which cytoskeletal components, organelles, and other structures in living cells can be labeled and then visualized via dynamic fluorescence microscopy. For example, in embryonic chicken sympathetic neurons, mitochondrial movement was characterized using the vital dye rhodamine 1234. In another study, mitochondria were visualized in rat forebrain neurons by transfection of mitochondrially targeted eYFP5. However, imaging of primary neurons over minutes, hours, or even days presents a number of issues. Foremost among these are: 1) maintenance of culture conditions such as temperature, humidity, and pH during long imaging sessions; 2) a strong, stable fluorescent signal to assure both the quality of acquired images and accurate measurement of signal intensity during image analysis; and 3) limiting exposure times during image acquisition to minimize photobleaching and avoid phototoxicity.
Here, we describe a protocol that permits the observation, visualization, and analysis of mitochondrial movement in cultured hippocampal neurons with high temporal resolution and under optimal life support conditions. We have constructed an affordable stage-top incubator that provides good temperature regulation and atmospheric gas flow, and also limits the degree of media evaporation, assuring stable pH and osmolarity. This incubator is connected, via inlet and outlet hoses, to a standard tissue culture incubator, which provides constant humidity levels and an atmosphere of 5-10% CO2/air. This design offers a cost-effective alternative to significantly more expensive microscope incubators that don't necessarily assure the viability of cells over many hours or even days. To visualize mitochondria, we infect cells with a lentivirus encoding a red fluorescent protein that is targeted to the mitochondrion. This assures a strong and persistent signal, which, in conjunction with the use of a stable xenon light source, allows us to limit exposure times during image acquisition and all but precludes photobleaching and phototoxicity. Two injection ports on the top of the stage-top incubator allow the acute administration of neurotransmitters and other reagents intended to modulate mitochondrial movement. In sum, lentivirus-mediated expression of an organelle-targeted red fluorescent protein and the combination of our stage-top incubator, a conventional inverted fluorescence microscope, CCD camera, and xenon light source allow us to acquire time-lapse images of mitochondrial transport in living neurons over longer durations than those possible in studies deploying conventional vital dyes and off-the-shelf life support systems.

We describe a protocol that allows imaging of mitochondria in living neurons via fluorescence microscopy over long durations. Imaging over extended periods is accomplished through lentivirus-mediated expression of a mitochondrially targeted fluorescent protein and use of an inexpensive stage-top incubator that was designed and built in our laboratory.

To understand the relationship between mitochondrial transport and neuronal function, it is critical to observe mitochondrial behavior in live cultured ...

Measuring Near Plasma Membrane and Global Intracellular Calcium Dynamics in Astrocytes

The brain contains glial cells.  Astrocytes, a type of glial cell, have long been known to provide a passive supportive role to neurons. However, increasing evidence suggests that astrocytes may also actively participate in brain function through functional interactions with neurons.  However, many fundamental aspects of astrocyte biology remain controversial, unclear and/or experimentally unexplored. One important issue is the dynamics of intracellular calcium transients in astrocytes. This is relevant because calcium is well established as an important second messenger and because it has been proposed that astrocyte calcium elevations can trigger the release of transmitters from astrocytes. However, there has not been any detailed or satisfying description of near plasma membrane calcium signaling in astrocytes. Total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy is a powerful tool to analyze physiologically relevant signaling events within about 100 nm of the plasma membrane of live cells. Here, we use TIRF microscopy and describe how to monitor near plasma membrane and global intracellular calcium dynamics almost simultaneously. The further refinement and systematic application of this approach has the potential to inform about the precise details of astrocyte calcium signaling. A detailed understanding of astrocyte calcium dynamics may provide a basis to understand if, how, when and why astrocytes and neurons undergo calcium-dependent functional interactions.

We describe how to measure near membrane and global intracellular calcium dynamics in cultured astrocytes using total internal reflection and epifluorescence microscopy.

The brain contains glial cells.  Astrocytes, a type of glial cell, have long been known to provide a passive supportive role to neurons. However, ...

Biology

Imaging Analysis of Neuron to Glia Interaction in Microfluidic Culture Platform (MCP)-based Neuronal Axon and Glia Co-culture System

Proper neuron to glia interaction is critical to physiological function of the central nervous system (CNS). This bidirectional communication is sophisticatedly mediated by specific signaling pathways between neuron and glia1,2 . Identification and characterization of these signaling pathways is essential to the understanding of how neuron to glia interaction shapes CNS physiology. Previously, neuron and glia mixed cultures have been widely utilized for testing and characterizing signaling pathways between neuron and glia. What we have learned from these preparations and other in vivo tools, however, has suggested that mutual signaling between neuron and glia often occurred in specific compartments within neurons (i.e., axon, dendrite, or soma)3. This makes it important to develop a new culture system that allows separation of neuronal compartments and specifically examines the interaction between glia and neuronal axons/dendrites. In addition, the conventional mixed culture system is not capable of differentiating the soluble factors and direct membrane contact signals between neuron and glia. Furthermore, the large quantity of neurons and glial cells in the conventional co-culture system lacks the resolution necessary to observe the interaction between a single axon and a glial cell.
	In this study, we describe a novel axon and glia co-culture system with the use of a microfluidic culture platform (MCP). In this co-culture system, neurons and glial cells are cultured in two separate chambers that are connected through multiple central channels. In this microfluidic culture platform, only neuronal processes (especially axons) can enter the glial side through the central channels. In combination with powerful fluorescent protein labeling, this system allows direct examination of signaling pathways between axonal/dendritic and glial interactions, such as axon-mediated transcriptional regulation in glia, glia-mediated receptor trafficking in neuronal terminals, and glia-mediated axon growth. The narrow diameter of the chamber also significantly prohibits the flow of the neuron-enriched medium into the glial chamber, facilitating probing of the direct membrane-protein interaction between axons/dendrites and glial surfaces.

Imaging Analysis of Neuron to Glia Interaction in Microfluidic Culture Platform MCP-based Neuronal Axon and Glia Co-culture System

This study describes the procedures of setting up a novel neuronal axon and (astro)glia co-culture platform. In this co-culture system, manipulation of direct interaction between a single axon (and single glial cell) becomes feasible, allowing mechanistic analysis of the mutual neuron to glial signaling.

Proper  neuron to glia interaction is critical to physiological function of the central  nervous system (CNS). This bidirectional communication is ...

Culturing In Vivo-like Murine Astrocytes Using the Fast, Simple, and Inexpensive AWESAM Protocol

The AWESAM (a low-cost easy stellate astrocyte method) protocol entails a fast, simple, and inexpensive way to generate large quantities of in vivo-like mouse and rat astrocyte monocultures: Brain cells can be isolated from different brain regions, and after a week of cell culture, non-astrocytic cells are shaken off by placing the culture dishes on a shaker for 6 h in the incubator. The remaining astrocytes are then passaged into new plates with an astrocyte-specific medium (termed NB+H). NB+H contains low concentrations of heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HBEGF), which is used in place of serum in medium. After growing in NB+H, AWESAM astrocytes have a stellate morphology and feature fine processes. Moreover, these astrocytes have more in vivo-like gene expression than astrocytes generated by previously published methods. Ca2+ imaging, vesicle dynamics, and other events close to the membrane can thus be studied in the fine astrocytic processes in vitro, e.g., using live cell confocal or TIRF microscopy. Notably, AWESAM astrocytes also exhibit spontaneous Ca2+ signaling similar to astrocytes in vivo.

Culturing In Vivo-like Murine Astrocytes Using the Fast, Simple, and Inexpensive AWESAM Protocol

The AWESAM protocol described here is optimal for culturing murine astrocytes in isolation from other brain cells in a fast, simple, and inexpensive manner. AWESAM astrocytes exhibit spontaneous Ca2+ signaling, morphology, and gene expression profiles similar to astrocytes in vivo.

The AWESAM (a low-cost easy stellate astrocyte method) protocol entails a fast, simple, and inexpensive way to generate large quantities of in vivo-like ...

Visualizing and Analyzing Intracellular Transport of Organelles and Other Cargos in Astrocytes

Astrocytes are among the most abundant cell types in the adult brain, where they play key roles in a multiplicity of functions. As a central player in brain homeostasis, astrocytes supply neurons with vital metabolites and buffer extracellular water, ions, and glutamate. An integral component of the &#8220;tri-partite&#8221; synapse, astrocytes are also critical in the formation, pruning, maintenance, and modulation of synapses. To enable these highly interactive functions, astrocytes communicate among themselves and with other glial cells, neurons, the brain vasculature, and the extracellular environment through a multitude of specialized membrane proteins that include cell adhesion molecules, aquaporins, ion channels, neurotransmitter transporters, and gap junction molecules. To support this dynamic flux, astrocytes, like neurons, rely on tightly coordinated and efficient intracellular transport. Unlike neurons,&#160;where intracellular trafficking has been extensively delineated, microtubule-based transport in astrocytes has been less studied. Nonetheless, exo- and endocytic trafficking of cell membrane proteins and intracellular organelle transport orchestrates astrocytes&#8217; normal biology, and these processes are often affected in disease or in response to injury. Here we present a straightforward protocol to culture high quality murine astrocytes, to fluorescently label astrocytic proteins and organelles of interest, and to record their intracellular transport dynamics using time-lapse confocal microscopy. We also demonstrate how to extract and quantify relevant transport parameters from the acquired movies using available image analysis software (i.e., ImageJ/FIJI) plugins.

Here we describe an in vitro live-imaging method to visualize intracellular transport of organelles and trafficking of plasma membrane proteins in murine astrocytes. This protocol also presents an image analysis methodology to determine cargo transport itineraries and kinetics.

Astrocytes are among the most abundant cell types in the adult brain, where they play key roles in a multiplicity of functions. As a central player in ...

Imaging of Intracellular ATP in Organotypic Tissue Slices of the Mouse Brain using the FRET-based Sensor ATeam1.03YEMK

Neuronal activity in the central nervous system (CNS) evokes a high demand on cellular energy provided by the breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). A large share of ATP is needed to re-install ion gradients across plasma membranes degraded by electrical signaling of neurons. There is evidence that astrocytes - while not generating fast electrical signals themselves - undergo increased production of ATP in response to neuronal activity and support active neurons by providing energy metabolites to them. The recent development of genetically encoded sensors for different metabolites now enables the study of such metabolic interactions between neurons and astrocytes. Here, we describe a protocol for cell-type specific expression of the ATP-sensitive Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer- (FRET-) sensor ATeam1.03YEMK in organotypic tissue slice cultures of the mouse hippocampus and cortex using adeno-associated viral vectors (AAV). Furthermore, we demonstrate how this sensor can be employed for dynamic measurement of changes in cellular ATP levels in neurons and astrocytes upon increases in extracellular potassium and following induction of chemical ischemia (i.e., an inhibition of cellular energy metabolism).

Imaging of Intracellular ATP in Organotypic Tissue Slices of the Mouse Brain using the FRET-based Sensor ATeam1.03YEMK

We describe a protocol for cell-type specific expression of the genetically encoded FRET-based sensor ATeam1.03YEMK in organotypic slice cultures of the mouse forebrain. Furthermore, we show how to use this sensor for dynamic imaging of cellular ATP levels in neurons and astrocytes.

Neuronal activity in the central nervous system (CNS) evokes a high demand on cellular energy provided by the breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). A ...

Imaging Mitochondrial Ca2+ Uptake in Astrocytes and Neurons using Genetically Encoded Ca2+ Indicators (GECIs)

Mitochondrial Ca2+ plays a critical role in controlling cytosolic Ca2+ buffering, energy metabolism, and cellular signal transduction. Overloading of mitochondrial Ca2+ contributes to various pathological conditions, including neurodegeneration and apoptotic cell death in neurological diseases. Here we present a cell-type specific and mitochondria targeting molecular approach for mitochondrial Ca2+ imaging in astrocytes and neurons in vitro and in vivo. We constructed DNA plasmids encoding mitochondria-targeting genetically encoded Ca2+ indicators (GECIs) GCaMP5G or GCaMP6s (GCaMP5G/6s) with astrocyte- and neuron-specific promoters gfaABC1D and CaMKII and mitochondria-targeting sequence (mito-). For in vitro mitochondrial Ca2+ imaging, the plasmids were transfected in cultured astrocytes and neurons to express GCaMP5G/6s. For in vivo mitochondrial Ca2+ imaging, adeno-associated viral vectors (AAVs) were prepared and injected into the mouse brains to express GCaMP5G/6s in mitochondria in astrocytes and neurons. Our approach provides a useful means to image mitochondrial Ca2+ dynamics in astrocytes and neurons to study the relationship between cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca2+ signaling, as well as astrocyte-neuron interactions.

Imaging Mitochondrial Ca2+ Uptake in Astrocytes and Neurons using Genetically Encoded Ca2+ Indicators GECIs

This proctocol aims to provide a method for in vitro and in vivo mitochondrial Ca2+ imaging in astrocytes and neurons.

Mitochondrial Ca2+ plays a critical role in controlling cytosolic Ca2+ buffering, energy metabolism, and cellular signal transduction. Overloading of ...

Live Imaging of the Mitochondrial Glutathione Redox State in Primary Neurons using a Ratiometric Indicator

Mitochondrial redox homeostasis is important for neuronal viability and function. Although mitochondria contain several redox systems, the highly abundant thiol-disulfide redox buffer glutathione is considered a central player in antioxidant defenses. Therefore, measuring the mitochondrial glutathione redox potential provides useful information about mitochondrial redox status and oxidative stress. Glutaredoxin1-roGFP2 (Grx1-roGFP2) is a genetically encoded, green fluorescent protein (GFP)-based ratiometric indicator of the glutathione redox potential that has two redox-state-sensitive excitation peaks at 400 nm and 490 nm with a single emission peak at 510 nm. This article describes how to perform confocal live microscopy of mitochondria-targeted Grx1-roGFP2 in primary hippocampal and cortical neurons. It describes how to assess steady-state mitochondrial glutathione redox potential (e.g., to compare disease states or long-term treatments) and how to measure redox changes upon acute treatments (using the excitotoxic drug N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) as an example). In addition, the article presents co-imaging of Grx1-roGFP2 and the mitochondrial membrane potential indicator, tetramethylrhodamine, ethyl ester (TMRE), to demonstrate how Grx1-roGPF2 can be multiplexed with additional indicators for multiparametric analyses. This protocol provides a detailed description of how to (i) optimize confocal laser scanning microscope settings, (ii) apply drugs for stimulation followed by sensor calibration with diamide and dithiothreitol, and (iii) analyze data with ImageJ/FIJI.

This article describes a protocol to determine differences in basal redox state and redox responses to acute perturbations in primary hippocampal and cortical neurons using confocal live microscopy. The protocol can be applied to other cell types and microscopes with minimal modifications.

Mitochondrial redox homeostasis is important for neuronal viability and function. Although mitochondria contain several redox systems, the highly abundant ...

Primary Cultures of Rat Astrocytes and Microglia and Their Use in the Study of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

This protocol demonstrates how to prepare primary cultures of glial cells, astrocytes, and microglia from the cortices of Sprague Dawley rats and how to use these cells for the purpose of studying the pathophysiology of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) in the rat hSOD1G93A model. First, the protocol shows how to isolate and culture astrocytes and microglia from postnatal rat cortices, and then how to characterize and test these cultures for purity by immunocytochemistry using the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) marker of astrocytes and the ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1) microglial marker. In the next stage, methods are described for dye-loading (calcium-sensitive Fluo 4-AM) of cultured cells and the recordings of Ca2+ changes in video imaging experiments on live cells.
The examples of video recordings consist of: (1) cases of Ca2+ imaging of cultured astrocytes acutely exposed to immunoglobulin G (IgG) isolated from ALS patients, showing a characteristic and specific response compared to the response to ATP as demonstrated in the same experiment. Examples also show a more pronounced transient rise in intracellular calcium concentration evoked by ALS IgG in hSOD1G93A astrocytes compared to non-transgenic controls; (2) Ca2+ imaging of cultured astrocytes during a depletion of calcium stores by thapsigargin (Thg), a non-competitive inhibitor of the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase, followed by store-operated calcium entry elicited by the addition of calcium in the recording solution, which demonstrates the difference between Ca2+ store operation in hSOD1G93A and in non-transgenic astrocytes; (3) Ca2+ imaging of the cultured microglia showing predominantly a lack of response to ALS IgG, whereas ATP application elicited a Ca2+ change. This paper also emphasizes possible caveats and cautions regarding critical cell density and purity of cultures, choosing the correct concentration of the Ca2+ dye and dye-loading techniques.

We present here a protocol on how to prepare primary cultures of glial cells, astrocytes, and microglia from rat cortices for time-lapse video imaging of intracellular Ca2+ for research on pathophysiology of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in the hSOD1G93A rat model.

This protocol demonstrates how to prepare primary cultures of glial cells, astrocytes, and microglia from the cortices of Sprague Dawley rats and how to ...

MATLAB Optimization for Analyzing Mitochondrial Networks in Neuroscience

Optimized Automated Analysis of Live Neuronal Mitochondria Homeostasis Modulation by Isoform-Specific Retinoic Acid Receptors

The complex mitochondrial network makes it very challenging to segment, follow, and analyze live cells. MATLAB tools allow the analysis of mitochondria in timelapse files, considerably simplifying and speeding up the process of image processing. Nonetheless, existing tools produce a large output volume, requiring individual manual attention, and basic experimental setups have an output of thousands of files, each requiring extensive and time-consuming handling. 
To address these issues, a routine optimization was developed, in both MATLAB code and live-script forms, allowing for swift file analysis and significantly reducing document reading and data processing. With a speed of 100 files/min, the optimization allows an overall rapid analysis. The optimization achieves the results output by averaging frame-specific data for individual mitochondria throughout time frames, analyzing data in a defined manner, consistent with those output from existing tools. Live confocal imaging was performed using the dye tetramethylrhodamine methyl ester, and the routine optimization was validated by treating neuronal cells with retinoic acid receptor (RAR) agonists, whose effects on neuronal mitochondria are established in the literature. The results were consistent with the literature and allowed further characterization of mitochondrial network behavior in response to isoform-specific RAR modulation. 
This new methodology allowed rapid and validated characterization of whole-neuron mitochondria network, but it also allows for differentiation between axon and cell body mitochondria, an essential feature to apply in the neuroscience field. Moreover, this protocol can be applied to experiments using fast-acting treatments, allowing the imaging of the same cells before and after treatments, transcending the field of neuroscience.

Author Spotlight: An Optimized Automated Method for Investigating Retinoic Acid Receptors in Neuronal Mitochondria

The mitochondrial network is extremely complex, making it very challenging to analyze. A novel MATLAB tool analyzes live confocal imaged mitochondria in timelapse images but results in a large output volume requiring individual manual attention. To address this issue, a routine optimization was developed, allowing for speedy file analysis.

The complex mitochondrial network makes it very challenging to segment, follow, and analyze live cells. MATLAB tools allow the analysis of mitochondria in ...

Live-imaging of Mitochondrial System in Cultured Astrocytes

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