RNAi-mediated gene silencing in mosquitoes requires prior preparation and purification of specific dsRNAs that target the gene of interest. For dsRNA synthesis, we recommend the Ambion Megascript kit which makes use of a T7 RNA polymerase-mediated in vitro transcription reaction. For dsRNA purification, we recommend the Qiagen RNeasy kit. Samples of dsRNA should be quantified and adjusted to 3 &mu;g/&mu;L in water. Other materials you will need include: fine-tipped forceps, glass slide, glass microcapillary needles, microinjector (we use Drummond's Nanoject II), a light microscope mounted above a cold block, a covered glass Petri dish, paper towels and a bucket of ice. You will also need a way to collect mosquitoes and suitable container for them along with a food source such as cotton ball soaked in 10% sucrose.
<ol>
<li>Collect your mosquitoes. Using a battery-powered aspirator, collect the mosquitoes you wish to inject. Plug the nozzle with a paper towel or cotton so no mosquitoes can escape and remove the reservoir. Since cold temperatures anesthetize mosquitoes, bury the reservoir in a bucket of ice and wait 5-10 minutes for the mosquitoes to stop moving. Anesthetization can also be achieved by placing the reservoir in a cold room or refrigerator or by using CO2. During these 5-10 minutes, continue to the next step. </li>
<li>Prepare your work area. Set a flat surface cold block to 2&deg;C and place a glass slide on it. This is where the mosquitoes will rest as you inject them. Attach a glass needle onto the microinjector and use your forceps to break the tip of the needle to the desired width. It is important that the width is large enough to allow enough room for liquid to flow through at a reasonable rate but is narrow enough to inflict a minimal wound during injection. A good needle tip will be narrow enough to bend slightly but not break. Set your injection equipment to the desired output volume (for RNAi, we use 69 nL). Submerge the tip of your needle into your sample and draw your liquid sample into the needle using the manufacturer's instructions. The liquid sample can be a dsRNA solution, bacterial suspension, or other; the injection process is the same for all. Embed a glass Petri dish in the ice bucket so that the bottom of the dish is completely contacting the ice. This is where you will put mosquitoes until you are ready to inject them. </li>
<li>Prepare your mosquitoes. Transfer 50-100 mosquitoes from the reservoir to the glass Petri dish. Use your forceps to thin them to a single layer, making sure most have contact with the cold bottom of the dish to keep them anesthetized. Cover these mosquitoes with the dish cover when not in use. Return the reservoir to the ice bucket to keep the rest of the mosquitoes anesthetized. </li>
<li>Mount mosquitoes on cold block. Use your fine-tipped forceps to transfer mosquitoes one at a time from the dish to the glass slide mounted on the cold block under the light microscope. Handle the mosquitoes gently, preferably by the legs. Line up as many as 30 mosquitoes side-by-side on the slide, making sure you can get to each one with the microinjector and making sure each one makes contact with the cold slide. Make sure your mosquitoes are lined up orderly so that as you go along you know which have and which have not been injected. Leave other mosquitoes covered in the chilled Petri dish. </li>
<li>Inject your first group of mosquitoes. Hold your fine-tipped tipped forceps in one hand and hold the microinjector in the other hand like a pencil. Use the forceps to move the mosquito as you need (handle them by the legs to avoid injury) and to keep the mosquito steady as you inject. This works best if you use the forceps to support one side of the mosquito as you inject from the other side. Carefully insert just the needle tip into mosquito's thorax. It is best to inject into a taut yet thin part of the cuticle to minimize injury. Also, avoid injecting too deeply; you want just the tip to be inside the thorax; deeper injections cause greater wounds which will compromise survival. Once the needle tip is in position, press and release the foot pedal of the microinjector apparatus which will deliver your pre-set volume of dsRNA. Wait a second or two and remove the needle from the mosquito. If a drop of liquid appears outside the wound site, wait a few seconds for it to be absorbed into the wound. If it does not absorb within a few seconds, discard that mosquito and try again. Continue the injection process for all mosquitoes on your glass slide. </li>
<li>Store your mosquitoes. When you are finished, place your injected mosquitoes inside labeled containers (we prefer 1 pint wax-lined cardboard cups covered by mesh netting and secured with rubber bands and a cardboard lid). </li>
<li>Continue injections until finished. Continue to place mosquitoes on the slide, inject and transfer to cups until you have the sample size you desire. Account for some deaths-beginners will have many mosquitoes die from the trauma of injection. This will improve with practice until almost 100% of your mosquitoes survive injection. </li>
<li>When finished, place a folded, wet paper towel over the cup along with a food source and cover the cups with something to retain moisture such as plastic wrap or a plastic Petri lid. Injected mosquitoes are prone to drying out so the moisture provided by the wet towel and retained by the plastic will help prevent this. </li>
<li>Place your mosquitoes in an environmentally controlled chamber for incubation. </li>
</ol>
Note: Efficiency of gene silencing is highly variable and depends on a number of factors including transcript and protein turn-over rates, and dsRNA uptake efficiency by cells and organs. We have found that silencing begins as early as 1 day post injection, and can last up to 6 days post injection. Use transcript and protein detection methods such as quantitative PCR and Western blotting to validate silencing.
Note: There are several variations on several steps of the mosquito injection and RNAi-mediated gene silencing technique. Some variations are described by: Boisson, et al. (2006) and Blandin, et al.(2002).

<ol>
	<li>Boisson, ., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> , (2006).</li><li>Blandin, ., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> , (2002).</li></ol>

Efficiency of gene silencing is highly variable and depends on a number of factors including transcript and protein turn-over rates, and dsRNA uptake efficiency by cells and organs. We have found that silencing begins as early as 1 day post injection and can last up to 6 days post injection. Use transcript and protein detection methods such as quantitative PCR and Western blotting to validate silencing.

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		<div>
		<table border="1">
		<thead>
		<tr>
		<th>Material Name</th>
		<th>Type</th>
		<th>Company</th>
		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
		</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
		
<tr>
<td>Megascript</td>
<td>kit</td>
<td>Ambion</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>for dsRNA synthesis; T7 RNA polymerase-mediated in vitro transcription reaction</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>RNeasy</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Qiagen</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>For dsRNA purification</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>dsRNA</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>should be quantified and adjusted to 3 &#x03BC;g/ &#x03BC;L in water</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>fine-tipped forceps</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>glass slide</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>glass microcapillary needles</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>microinjector</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Drummond</td>
<td>Nanoject II</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>light microscope</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>mounted above a cold block</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Petri dish</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>covered, glass</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>paper towels</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>10% sucrose</td>
<td>food</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>A. gambiae</td>
<td>Animal</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>mosquitos</td>
</tr>		</tbody>
		</table>
		</div>

protocol for rnai assays in adult mosquitoes (a. gambiae)

Reverse genetic approaches have proven extremely useful for determining  which genes underly resistance to vector pathogens in mosquitoes.  This video protocol illustrates a method used by the Dimopoulos lab to inject dsRNA into Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes, which harbor the malaria parasite.  The technique manipulating the injection setup and injecting dsRNA into the thorax is illustrated.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Protocol for RNAi Assays in Adult Mosquitoes A. gambiae at JoVE.com

Protocol for RNAi Assays in Adult Mosquitoes A. gambiae

Reverse genetic approaches have proven extremely useful for determining which genes underly resistance to vector pathogens in mosquitoes. This video protocol illustrates a method used by the Dimopoulos lab to inject dsRNA into Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes, which harbor the malaria parasite. The technique manipulating the injection setup and injecting dsRNA into the thorax is illustrated.

Protocol for RNAi Assays in Adult Mosquitoes (A. gambiae)

Reverse genetic approaches have proven extremely useful for determining  which genes underly resistance to vector pathogens in mosquitoes.  This video ...

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12.6K Views.  Johns Hopkins University. Reverse genetic approaches have proven extremely useful for determining which genes underly resistance to vector pathogens in mosquitoes. This video protocol illustrates a method used by the Dimopoulos lab to inject dsRNA into Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes, which harbor the malaria parasite. The technique manipulating the injection setup and injecting dsRNA into the thorax is illustrated.

Video: Protocol for RNAi Assays in Adult Mosquitoes A. gambiae

Protocol for Dengue Infections in Mosquitoes (A. aegypti) and Infection Phenotype Determination

The purpose of this procedure is to infect the Aedes mosquito with dengue virus in a laboratory condition and examine the infection level and dynamic of the virus in the mosquito tissues. This protocol is routinely used for studying mosquito-virus interactions, especially for identification of novel host factors that are able to determine vector competence. The entire experiment must be conducted in a BSL2 laboratory. Similar to Plasmodium falciparum infections, proper attire including gloves and lab coat must be worn at all times. After the experiment, all the materials that came in contact with the virus need to be treated with 75% ethanol and bleached before proceeding with normal washing. All other materials need to be autoclaved before discarding them.

Protocol for Dengue Infections in Mosquitoes A. aegypti and Infection Phenotype Determination

Once a gene is identified as potentially refractory for the dengue virus, it must be evaluated for it's role in preventing viral infections within the mosquito. This protocol illustrates how the extent of dengue infections of mosquitoes can be assayed. The techniques for growing up the virus in culture, membrane feeding mosquitoes human blood, and assaying viral titers in the mosquito midgut are demonstrated.

The purpose of this procedure is to infect the Aedes mosquito with dengue virus in a laboratory condition and examine the infection level and dynamic of ...

Protocol for Mosquito Rearing (A. gambiae)

This protocol describes mosquito rearing in the insectary. The insectary rooms are maintained at 28&deg;C and ~80% humidity, with a 12 hr. day/night cycle. For this procedure, you'll need mosquito cages, 10% sterile sucrose solution, paper towels, beaker, whatman filter paper, glass feeders, human blood and serum, water bath, parafilm, distilled water, clean plastic trays, mosquito food (described below), mosquito net to cover the trays, vacuum, and a collection chamber to collect adults.

Protocol for Mosquito Rearing A. gambiae

This video illustrates the general techniques used to rear Anopheles gambiae in the laboratory. The methods for caring for laboratory mosquitoes are demonstrated through all stages of the organism's life cycle from larvae to pupae to blood-feeding adults.

This protocol describes mosquito rearing in the insectary. The insectary rooms are maintained at 28&deg;C and ~80% humidity, with a 12 hr. day/night ...

Protocol for Plasmodium falciparum Infections in Mosquitoes and Infection Phenotype Determination

Once a gene is identified as potentially refractory for malaria, it must be evaluated for its role in preventing Plasmodium infections within the mosquito.    This protocol illustrates how the extent of plasmodium infections of mosquitoes can be assayed.  The techniques for preparing the gametocyte culture, membrane feeding mosquitoes human blood, and assaying viral titers in the mosquito midgut are demonstrated.

Once a gene is identified as potentially refractory for malaria, it must be evaluated for its role in preventing Plasmodium infections within the mosquito. This protocol illustrates how the extent of plasmodium infections of mosquitoes can be assayed. The techniques for preparing the gametocyte culture, membrane feeding mosquitoes human blood, and assaying viral titers in the mosquito midgut are demonstrated.

Once a gene is identified as potentially refractory for malaria, it must be evaluated for its role in preventing Plasmodium infections within the ...

Building a Better Mosquito: Identifying the Genes Enabling Malaria and Dengue Fever Resistance in A. gambiae and A. aegypti Mosquitoes

In this interview, George Dimopoulos focuses on the physiological mechanisms used by mosquitoes to combat Plasmodium falciparum and dengue virus infections.   Explanation is given for how key refractory genes, those genes conferring resistance to vector pathogens, are identified in the mosquito and how this knowledge can be used to generate transgenic mosquitoes that are unable to carry the malaria parasite or dengue virus.

In this interview, George Dimopoulos focuses on the physiological mechanisms used by mosquitoes to combat Plasmodium falciparum and dengue virus infections. Explanation is given for how key refractory genes, those genes conferring resistance to vector pathogens, are identified in the mosquito and how this knowledge can be used to generate transgenic mosquitoes that are unable to carry the malaria parasite or dengue virus.

In this interview, George Dimopoulos focuses on the physiological mechanisms used by mosquitoes to combat Plasmodium falciparum and dengue virus ...

MISSION esiRNA for RNAi Screening in Mammalian Cells

RNA interference (RNAi) is a basic cellular mechanism for the control of gene expression. RNAi is induced by short double-stranded RNAs also known as small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). The short double-stranded RNAs originate from longer double stranded precursors by the activity of Dicer, a protein of the RNase III family of endonucleases. The resulting fragments are components of the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), directing it to the cognate target mRNA. RISC cleaves the target mRNA thereby reducing the expression of the encoded protein1,2,3. RNAi has become a powerful and widely used experimental method for loss of gene function studies in mammalian cells utilizing small interfering RNAs.
Currently two main methods are available for the production of small interfering RNAs. One method involves chemical synthesis, whereas an alternative method employs endonucleolytic cleavage of target specific long double-stranded RNAs by RNase III in vitro. Thereby, a diverse pool of siRNA-like oligonucleotides is produced which is also known as endoribonuclease-prepared siRNA or esiRNA. A comparison of efficacy of chemically derived siRNAs and esiRNAs shows that both triggers are potent in target-gene silencing. Differences can, however, be seen when comparing specificity. Many single chemically synthesized siRNAs produce prominent off-target effects, whereas the complex mixture inherent in esiRNAs leads to a more specific knockdown10.
In this study, we present the design of genome-scale MISSION esiRNA libraries and its utilization for RNAi screening exemplified by a DNA-content screen for the identification of genes involved in cell cycle progression. We show how to optimize the transfection protocol and the assay for screening in high throughput. We also demonstrate how large data-sets can be evaluated statistically and present methods to validate primary hits. Finally, we give potential starting points for further functional characterizations of validated hits.

Here we use a human esiRNA library in a high-throughput screen for genes involved in cell division. We demonstrate how to set up and conduct an esiRNA screens, as well as how to analyze and validate the results.

RNA interference (RNAi) is a basic cellular mechanism for the control of gene expression. RNAi is induced by short double-stranded RNAs also known as ...

RNAi-mediated Gene Knockdown and In Vivo Diuresis Assay in Adult Female Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes

This video protocol demonstrates an effective technique to knockdown a particular gene in an insect and conduct a novel bioassay to measure excretion rate. This method can be used to obtain a better understanding of the process of diuresis in insects and is especially useful in the study of diuresis in blood-feeding arthropods that are able to take up huge amounts of liquid in a single blood meal. 
This RNAi-mediated gene knockdown combined with an in vivo diuresis assay was developed by the Hansen lab to study the effects of RNAi-mediated knockdown of aquaporin genes on Aedes aegypti mosquito diuresis1. 
The protocol is setup in two parts: the first demonstration illustrates how to construct a simple mosquito injection device and how to prepare and inject dsRNA into the thorax of mosquitoes for RNAi-mediated gene knockdown. The second demonstration illustrates how to determine excretion rates in mosquitoes using an in vivo bioassay.

RNAi-mediated Gene Knockdown and In Vivo Diuresis Assay in Adult Female Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes

In this protocol we combine RNAi-mediated gene silencing with an in vivo diuresis assay to study the effects knockdown of genes of interest has on mosquito fluid excretion.

This video protocol demonstrates an effective technique to knockdown a particular gene in an insect and conduct a novel bioassay to measure excretion ...

Endurance Training Protocol and Longitudinal Performance Assays for Drosophila melanogaster

One of the most pressing problems facing modern medical researchers is the surging levels of obesity, with the consequent increase in associated disorders such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease 1-3. An important topic of research into these associated health problems involves the role of endurance exercise as a beneficial intervention.
Exercise training is an inexpensive, non-invasive intervention with several beneficial results, including reduction in excess body fat 4, increased insulin sensitivity in skeletal muscle 5, increased anti-inflammatory and antioxidative responses 6, and improved contractile capacity in cardiomyocytes 7. Low intensity exercise is known to increase mitochondrial activity and biogenesis in humans 8 and mice, with the transcriptional coactivator PGC1-&alpha; as an important intermediate 9,10. 
Despite the importance of exercise as a tool for combating several important age-related diseases, extensive longitudinal genetic studies have been impeded by the lack of an endurance training protocol for a short-lived genetic model species. The variety of genetic tools available for use with Drosophila, together with its short lifespan and inexpensive maintenance, make it an appealing model for further study of these genetic mechanisms. With this in mind we have developed a novel apparatus, known as the Power Tower, for large scale exercise-training in Drosophila melanogaster 11. The Power Tower utilizes the flies' instinctive negative geotaxis behavior to repetitively induce rapid climbing. Each time the machine lifts, then drops, the platform of flies, the flies are induced to climb. Flies continue to respond as long as the machine is in operation or until they become too fatigued to respond. Thus, the researcher can use this machine to provide simultaneous training to large numbers of age-matched and genetically identical flies. Additionally, we describe associated assays useful to track longitudinal progress of fly cohorts during training.

Endurance Training Protocol and Longitudinal Performance Assays for Drosophila melanogaster

We describe the first endurance training protocol for an important genetic model species, Drosophila melanogaster, and outline several assays to chart improvements in mobility following training.

One of the most pressing problems facing modern medical researchers is the surging levels of obesity, with the consequent increase in associated disorders ...

Coupled Assays for Monitoring Protein Refolding in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Proteostasis, defined as the combined processes of protein folding/biogenesis, refolding/repair, and degradation, is a delicate cellular balance that must be maintained to avoid deleterious consequences 1. External or internal factors that disrupt this balance can lead to protein aggregation, toxicity and cell death. In humans this is a major contributing factor to the symptoms associated with neurodegenerative disorders such as Huntington's, Parkinson's, and Alzheimer's diseases 10. It is therefore essential that the proteins involved in maintenance of proteostasis be identified in order to develop treatments for these debilitating diseases. This article describes techniques for monitoring in vivo protein folding at near-real time resolution using the model protein firefly luciferase fused to green fluorescent protein (FFL-GFP). FFL-GFP is a unique model chimeric protein as the FFL moiety is extremely sensitive to stress-induced misfolding and aggregation, which inactivates the enzyme 12. Luciferase activity is monitored using an enzymatic assay, and the GFP moiety provides a method of visualizing soluble or aggregated FFL using automated microscopy. These coupled methods incorporate two parallel and technically independent approaches to analyze both refolding and functional reactivation of an enzyme after stress. Activity recovery can be directly correlated with kinetics of disaggregation and re-solubilization to better understand how protein quality control factors such as protein chaperones collaborate to perform these functions. In addition, gene deletions or mutations can be used to test contributions of specific proteins or protein subunits to this process. In this article we examine the contributions of the protein disaggregase Hsp104 13, known to partner with the Hsp40/70/nucleotide exchange factor (NEF) refolding system 5, to protein refolding to validate this approach.

Coupled Assays for Monitoring Protein Refolding in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

This article describes the use of a firefly luciferase-GFP fusion protein to investigate in vivo protein folding in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Using this reagent, refolding of a model heat-denatured protein can be monitored simultaneously by fluorescence microscopy and an enzymatic assay to probe the roles of proteostasis network components in protein quality control.

Proteostasis, defined as the combined processes of protein folding/biogenesis, refolding/repair, and degradation, is a delicate cellular balance that must ...

A Multi-detection Assay for Malaria Transmitting Mosquitoes

The Anopheles gambiae species complex includes the major malaria transmitting mosquitoes in Africa. Because these species are of such medical importance, several traits are typically characterized using molecular assays to aid in epidemiological studies. These traits include species identification, insecticide resistance, parasite infection status, and host preference. Since populations of the Anopheles gambiae complex are morphologically indistinguishable, a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is traditionally used to identify species. Once the species is known, several downstream assays are routinely performed to elucidate further characteristics. For instance, mutations known as KDR in a para gene confer resistance against DDT and pyrethroid insecticides. Additionally, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) or Plasmodium parasite DNA detection PCR assays are used to detect parasites present in mosquito tissues. Lastly, a combination of PCR and restriction enzyme digests can be used to elucidate host preference (e.g., human vs. animal blood) by screening the mosquito bloodmeal for host-specific DNA. We have developed a multi-detection assay (MDA) that combines all of the aforementioned assays into a single multiplex reaction genotyping 33SNPs for 96 or 384 samples at a time. Because the MDA includes multiple markers for species, Plasmodium detection, and host blood identification, the likelihood of generating false positives or negatives is greatly reduced from previous assays that include only one marker per trait. This robust and simple assay can detect these key mosquito traits cost-effectively and in a fraction of the time of existing assays.

Malaria transmitting mosquitoes have a number of epidemiologically important characteristics that can only be detected using molecular techniques. Utilizing a MALDI-TOF based SNP genotyping platform, we developed an assay for simultaneously detecting multiple key traits (species, insecticide resistance, parasite infection and host choice) of malaria vectors.

The Anopheles gambiae species complex includes the major malaria transmitting mosquitoes in Africa. Because these species are of such medical importance, ...

RNAi Trigger Delivery into Anopheles gambiae Pupae

RNA interference (RNAi), a naturally occurring phenomenon in eukaryotic organisms, is an extremely valuable tool that can be utilized in the laboratory for functional genomic studies. The ability to knockdown individual genes selectively via this reverse genetic technique has allowed many researchers to rapidly uncover the biological roles of numerous genes within many organisms, by evaluation of loss-of-function phenotypes. In the major human malaria vector Anopheles gambiae, the predominant method used to reduce the function of targeted genes involves injection of double-stranded (dsRNA) into the hemocoel of the adult mosquito. While this method has been successful, gene knockdown in adults excludes the functional assessment of genes that are expressed and potentially play roles during pre-adult stages, as well as genes that are expressed in limited numbers of cells in adult mosquitoes. We describe a method for the injection of Serine Protease Inhibitor 2 (SRPN2) dsRNA during the early pupal stage and validate SRPN2 protein knockdown by observing decreased target protein levels and the formation of melanotic pseudo-tumors in SRPN2 knockdown adult mosquitoes. This evident phenotype has been described previously for adult stage knockdown of SRPN2 function, and we have recapitulated this adult phenotype by SRPN2 knockdown initiated during pupal development. When used in conjunction with a dye-labeled dsRNA solution, this technique enables easy visualization by simple light microscopy of injection quality and distribution of dsRNA in the hemocoel.

RNAi Trigger Delivery into Anopheles gambiae Pupae

RNA interference (RNAi) is an extremely valuable tool for uncovering gene function. However, the ability to target genes using RNAi during pre-adult stages is limited in the major human malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. We describe an RNAi protocol to reduce gene function via direct injection during pupal development.

RNA interference (RNAi), a naturally occurring phenomenon in eukaryotic organisms, is an extremely valuable tool that can be utilized in the laboratory ...