We would like to thank Alex Miller for manuscript revisions. This work was supported with the research grants awarded to M.G. from Cure CMD, Struggle Against Muscular Dystrophy (SAM) and Muscular Dystrophy Association (218938).

1. Tissue Harvest and Freezing of Muscle Tissues
<ol>
	<li>Euthanize the mouse with an overdose of isoflurane (2-chloro-2-(difluoromethoxy)-1,1,1-trifluoro-ethane). Perform this step in a fume hood and use a secondary containment method such as a desiccator or a bell jar containing a cotton swab soaked in isoflurane.</li>
	<li>Confirm death by firmly squeezing footpad. Use a secondary method of euthanasia such as cervical dislocation.</li>
	<li>Wet the fur with 70% alcohol to reduce the sticking of loose hair strands on the muscles. Peel the skin off the limb using a fine forceps such as #5.</li>
	<li>Carefully separate the muscle of interest (tibialis anterior (TA) in this case) from the bones underneath, starting from the tendon and remove.</li>
	<li>Excise the muscle, cover it in OCT (Optimum Cutting Temperature compound), and lay it flat on a labeled disposable freezing mold. Make sure that the muscle is at its normal physiological orientation (head to tail) without stretching. Alternatively, freeze the muscle on small styrofoam squares and pin it using insect pins to ensure the correct length of the muscles.</li>
	<li>Chill 2-methylbutane (isopentane) in a steel beaker using liquid nitrogen. This takes on average 3 - 5 min. Keep stirring intermittently until white precipitates start to form on the bottom and walls of the beaker. 
	NOTE: When this occurs, isopentane has reached optimal freezing temperature (-150 &#176;C)</li>
	<li>Dip the molds containing muscles in the chilled 2-methylbutane. Freeze small muscles such as the diaphragm and extensor digitorum longus (EDL) for 6 - 12 sec and larger muscles like the gastrocnemius soleus (GS) and triceps for 15 - 20 sec. Do not freeze the muscles for too long as this may lead to cracking.</li>
	<li>Transfer the frozen tissues on to dry ice and let the isopentane evaporate (note that this process takes on average around 15 - 20 min). Wrap the tissues in aluminum foil and store them at ultra low temperature (-70 &#176;C to -80 &#176;C) until sectioning.</li>
</ol>
2. Embedding the Tissues in OCT to Prepare Tissue Block
<ol>
	<li>Transport tissues on dry ice to cyrostat to prevent thawing. Transfer tissue to cryostat chamber (set at -20 to -24 &#176;C to avoid full thawing of tissues) and let them equilibrate for 30 min.</li>
	<li>Turn the Peltier bay cooling on. If the cryostat does not have this cooling, use aerosol cooling spray to quickly freeze the OCT. Do not let the muscle thaw at any point during the embedding as this can result in freeze damage.</li>
	<li>Add a uniform thin layer of OCT on the specimen disc and let it cool. When most of the OCT is frozen on the bottom while still liquid on the top, insert the tissue at the correct orientation (perpendicular to OCT for transverse sections and parallel to OCT for longitudinal sections). Use aerosol cooling spray to quickly freeze OCT. Touch the unembeded part of the tissue with heat extractor and wait for 45 sec.</li>
	<li>Add another thin layer of OCT around the muscle, spray with aerosol cooling spray and extract the heat as in the previous step.</li>
	<li>Keep adding OCT in small increments and quickly freeze the OCT using a combination of aerosol cooling spray and heat extractor until the whole muscle is covered.</li>
	<li>Put the heat extractor on the top of the tissue block and wait for 5 min.</li>
</ol>
3. Preparing Sections and Identifying the Sections from Mid-belly Region of the Muscles
<ol>
	<li>Mount the specimen onto the specimen head. Tighten the knob to secure the disc. Make sure that the specimen disc is in good contact with the specimen head.</li>
	<li>Adjust the chamber temperature to between -21 and -24 &#176;C and wait until the set temperature is achieved.</li>
	<li>Adjust the thickness settings (7 &#181;m); trim the block by advancing or retracting the block using coarse and fine settings.</li>
	<li>Collect the sections on pre-warmed positively charged microscope slides by pressing the top of the slide onto the sections, using the attraction between opposite charges to facilitate the adherence of the cut sections to the slide.</li>
	<li>Identify the mid-belly sections by measuring cross-sectional area (CSA) of the sections. Do this using imaging software on the computer that is connected to the microscope. 
	NOTE: Phase contrast images are taken and circumference of the entire muscle is measured via a tracing function on the software program. This will yield both CSA as well as minimum ferret diameter (measure of fiber cross-sectional size that is expressed as the smallest distance between two parallel tangents on opposite sides of a particle) measurements. Note: When CSA and minimum ferret diameter measurements begin to plateau, mid belly has been reached.</li>
	<li>Inventory and archive the slides at -80 &#176;C for future staining. 
	NOTE: OCT does not need to be removed prior to staining procedures. Once slides are coverslipped, they are ready to be stained immediately.</li>
</ol>
4. Staining
NOTE: While detailed step-by-step procedures can be found on the product data sheet and should be followed for staining procedures, personal optimization may be required to obtain optimal staining.
<ol>
	<li>Because mounting media (see table) is not miscible with water, dehydrate slides through increasing grades of alcohol (2 min each in 70%, 95%, and 100% ethanol) and clear&#160;them with xylene (100% for 5 min) to ensure slides do not become opaque over time.</li>
	<li>Coverslip sections and let them dry. Image with microscope equipped with imaging software.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Bonnemann, C. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diagnostic+approach+to+the+congenital+muscular+dystrophies.">Diagnostic approach to the congenital muscular dystrophies.</a> Neuromuscular disorders : NMD. 24, 289-311 (2014).</li><li>Caughey, J. E., Pachomov, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+diaphragm+in+dystrophia+myotonica.">The diaphragm in dystrophia myotonica.</a> J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 22, 311-313 (1959).</li><li>Fetterman, G. H., Wratney, M. J., Donaldson, J. S., Danowski, T. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Muscular+dystrophy.+I.+History,+clinical+status,+muscle+strength,+and+biopsy+findings.">Muscular dystrophy. I. History, clinical status, muscle strength, and biopsy findings.</a> AMA J Dis Child. 91, 326-338 (1956).</li><li>Platzer, A. C., Chase, W. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Histologic+Alterations+in+Preclinical+Mouse+Muscular+Dystrophy.">Histologic Alterations in Preclinical Mouse Muscular Dystrophy.</a> The American journal of pathology. 44, 931-946 (1964).</li><li>Mercuri, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Muscle+magnetic+resonance+imaging+involvement+in+muscular+dystrophies+with+rigidity+of+the+spine.">Muscle magnetic resonance imaging involvement in muscular dystrophies with rigidity of the spine.</a> Ann Neurol. 67, 201-208 (2010).</li><li>Tasca, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Different+molecular+signatures+in+magnetic+resonance+imaging-staged+facioscapulohumeral+muscular+dystrophy+muscles.">Different molecular signatures in magnetic resonance imaging-staged facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy muscles.</a> PloS one. 7, e38779 (2012).</li><li>Girgenrath, M., Dominov, J. A., Kostek, C. A., Miller, J. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inhibition+of+apoptosis+improves+outcome+in+a+model+of+congenital+muscular+dystrophy.">Inhibition of apoptosis improves outcome in a model of congenital muscular dystrophy.</a> The Journal of clinical investigation. 114, 1635-1639 (2004).</li><li>Kumar, A., Yamauchi, J., Girgenrath, T., Girgenrath, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Muscle-specific+expression+of+insulin-like+growth+factor+1+improves+outcome+in+Lama2Dy-w+mice,+a+model+for+congenital+muscular+dystrophy+type+1A.">Muscle-specific expression of insulin-like growth factor 1 improves outcome in Lama2Dy-w mice, a model for congenital muscular dystrophy type 1A.</a> Human molecular genetics. 20, 2333-2343 (2011).</li><li>Mehuron, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dysregulation+of+matricellular+proteins+is+an+early+signature+of+pathology+in+laminin-deficient+muscular+dystrophy.">Dysregulation of matricellular proteins is an early signature of pathology in laminin-deficient muscular dystrophy.</a> Skeletal muscle. 4, 14 (2014).</li><li>Yamauchi, J., Kumar, A., Duarte, L., Mehuron, T., Girgenrath, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Triggering+regeneration+and+tackling+apoptosis:+a+combinatorial+approach+to+treating+congenital+muscular+dystrophy+type+1+A.">Triggering regeneration and tackling apoptosis: a combinatorial approach to treating congenital muscular dystrophy type 1 A.</a> Human molecular genetics. 22, 4306-4317 (2013).</li><li>Sheriffs, I. N., Rampling, D., Smith, V. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Paraffin+wax+embedded+muscle+is+suitable+for+the+diagnosis+of+muscular+dystrophy.">Paraffin wax embedded muscle is suitable for the diagnosis of muscular dystrophy.</a> Journal of clinical pathology. 54, 517-520 (2001).</li><li>Fox, C. H., Johnson, F. B., Whiting, J., Roller, P. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Formaldehyde+fixation.">Formaldehyde fixation.</a> Journal of Histochemistry &amp; Cytochemistry. 33, 845-853 (1985).</li><li>Maccarty, W. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Diagnostic+Reliability+of+Frozen+Sections.">The Diagnostic Reliability of Frozen Sections.</a> The American journal of pathology. 5, 377-380 (1929).</li><li>Shi, S. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+the+value+of+frozen+tissue+section+used+as+'gold+standard'+for+immunohistochemistry.">Evaluation of the value of frozen tissue section used as 'gold standard' for immunohistochemistry.</a> Am J Clin Pathol. 129, 358-366 (2008).</li><li>Turan, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Accuracy+of+frozen+sections+for+intraoperative+diagnosis+of+complex+atypical+endometrial+hyperplasia.">Accuracy of frozen sections for intraoperative diagnosis of complex atypical endometrial hyperplasia.</a> Asian Pacific journal of cancer prevention : APJCP. 13, 1953-1956 (2012).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Histology and immunohistochemistry have been used as key tools in understanding the manifestation and progression of pathology in various neuromuscular disorders. Classically, muscle biopsies were first fixed in formaldehyde and then embedded with paraffin wax. While formaldehyde fixation preserves tissue architecture and allows tissue storage and transport at RT, it also inactivates enzymes and crosslinks proteins necessitating further steps to achieve accurate immunostaining. This problem is eliminated with the use of ...

Examination of muscle histology plays a critical role in the understanding of different types of neuromuscular disorders1-4. When combined with other techniques, it allows researchers to get a better idea of the manifestation and progression of pathology and can also be essential to evaluate the efficacy of a therapeutic intervention5-10. However, to be accurate, the tissues need to be preserved in the proper manner so as to preserve the physiological state immediately before excision. This requires great care during removal, preservation, sectioning, and staining.
Tissues can be prepared in two different ways for light microscopic study. The first method, formalin fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) sections, requires tissues to be fixed in 10% natural buffered formaldehyde before being embedded with paraffin wax11,12. The fixation step helps to preserve morphology better but also cross links endogenous proteins thus necessitating intricate antigen retrieval procedures for immunostaining and eliminating the possibility of enzymatic staining on such sections12. Frozen sections, on the other hand, do not need to be pre-fixed or processed; therefore, proteins are able to retain native biological conformations13,14. Further, frozen sections also allow for quick turnaround time, which at times is necessary, for example in the intraoperative diagnosis of sarcomas and other surgical biopsies15. However, if not done properly, this method is prone to freeze damage, which introduces changes to muscle architecture making the sections unfit for histological examination. This paper will outline the most effective method to prepare muscle biopsies in order to achieve optimal staining for proper examination.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryostat</td>
			<td>Leica CM 1850&#160;</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems Inc.</td>
			<td>Buffalo Grove, IL 60089 United States, office phone 1-800 248 0123 
			Richard Allen Scientific</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon Eclipse 50i&#160;</td>
			<td>Nikon Instruments Inc.</td>
			<td>1300 Walt Whitman Road, Melville, N.Y. 11747-3064, U.S.A. 
			Phone: +1-631-547-8500 
			Olympus</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image analysis software</td>
			<td>Nikon Imaging Software Basic Research</td>
			<td>Nikon Instruments Inc.</td>
			<td>1300 Walt Whitman Road, Melville, N.Y. 11747-3064, U.S.A. 
			Phone: +1-631-547-8500 
			Image J, Metamorph</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>14043-220-05</td>
			<td>JD Medical Dist. Co., Inc.</td>
			<td>JD Medical Distrubuting Co., Inc 1923 West Peoria Avenue Phoenix, Arizona 85029</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OCT</td>
			<td>4583</td>
			<td>Sakura Inc.</td>
			<td>Sakrua Fintek, USA, Torrence, CA 90501, USA 
			Leica Microsystem</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Freeze It</td>
			<td>23-022524</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
			<td>790 Memorial Dr, Cambridge, MA, USA, 02139 
			VWR Scientific</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable tissue mold</td>
			<td>22-363-554</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
			<td>790 Memorial Dr, Cambridge, MA, USA, 02139 
			VWR Scientific</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Colorfrost plus slides</td>
			<td>9991001</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
			<td>790 Memorial Dr, Cambridge, MA, USA, 02139 
			VWR Scientific</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>650501-4L</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>3050 Spruce Street, St.Louis MO, 63103 
			VWR Scientific</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethyl alcohol</td>
			<td>HC-1300-1GL</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
			<td>790 Memorial Dr, Cambridge, MA, USA, 02139 
			VWR Scientific</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2-methyl butane</td>
			<td>M 32631-SL</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>3050 Spruce Street, St.Louis MO, 63103 
			VWR Scientific</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylene</td>
			<td>HC-7001GA</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
			<td>790 Memorial Dr, Cambridge, MA, USA, 02139 
			VWR Scientific</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cytoseal 280</td>
			<td>8311-4</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
			<td>790 Memorial Dr, Cambridge, MA 02139 
			VWR Scientific</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hematoxylin Gill #3</td>
			<td>CS402-1D</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
			<td>790 Memorial Dr, Cambridge, MA, USA, 02139 
			VWR Scientific</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eosin</td>
			<td>6766007</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
			<td>790 Memorial Dr, Cambridge, MA, USA, 02139 
			VWR Scientific</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

do's and don'ts in the preparation of muscle cryosections for histological analysis

Histological evaluation of muscle biopsies has served as an indispensable tool in the understanding of the development and progression of pathology of neuromuscular disorders. However, in order to do so, proper care needs to be taken when excising and preserving tissues to achieve optimal staining. One method of tissue preservation involves fixing tissues in formaldehyde and then embedding them with paraffin wax. This method preserves morphology well and allows for long-term storage at RT but is cumbersome and requires handling of toxic chemicals. Further, formaldehyde fixation results in antigen cross-linking, which necessitates antigen retrieval protocols for effective immunostaining. On the contrary, frozen sectioning does not require fixation and thus retains biological antigen conformation. This method also provides a distinct advantage in quick turn around time, making it especially useful in situations needing quick histological evaluation like intraoperative surgical biopsies. Here we describe the most effective method of preparing muscle biopsies for visualization with different histological and immunological stains.

The set-up for harvesting and freezing of tissues can be seen in Figure 1. Excised tissues should be stored on a gauze soaked in PBS to avoid drying (Figure 1A). When tissues are selected to be used for histological analysis they should be dipped in OCT and laid out on cryo mold in the proper orientation and as close to physiological length as possible to ensure accurate morphology (Figure 1B). Slurry of isopentane suitable for tissue freezing can be achieved by cooling ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Do's and Don'ts in the Preparation of Muscle Cryosections for Histological Analysis at JoVE.com

Do's and Don'ts in the Preparation of Muscle Cryosections for Histological Analysis

Here we demonstrate the most efficient methods for freezing, embedding, cryosectioning, and staining of muscle biopsies to avoid freezing artifacts.

Histological evaluation of muscle biopsies has served as an indispensable tool in the understanding of the development and progression of pathology of ...

do-s-don-ts-preparation-muscle-cryosections-for-histological

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

31.7K Views.  Boston University. Here we demonstrate the most efficient methods for freezing, embedding, cryosectioning, and staining of muscle biopsies to avoid freezing artifacts.

Video: Do's and Don'ts in the Preparation of Muscle Cryosections for Histological Analysis

Myo-mechanical Analysis of Isolated Skeletal Muscle

To assess the in vivo effects of therapeutic interventions for the treatment of muscle disease 1,2,3, quantitative methods are needed that measure force generation and fatigability in treated muscle. We describe a detailed approach to evaluating myo-mechanical properties in freshly explanted hindlimb muscle from the mouse. We describe the atraumatic harvest of mouse extensor digitorum longus muscle, mounting the muscle in a muscle strip myograph (Model 820MS; Danish Myo Technology), and the measurement of maximal twitch and tetanic tension, contraction time, and half-relaxation time, using a square pulse stimulator (Model S48; Grass Technologies). Using these measurements, we demonstrate the calculation of specific twitch and tetanic tension normalized to muscle cross-sectional area, the twitch-to-tetanic tension ratio, the force-frequency relationship curve and the low frequency fatigue curve 4. This analysis provides a method for quantitative comparison between therapeutic interventions in mouse models of muscle disease 1,2,3,5, as well as comparison of the effects of genetic modification on muscle function 6,7,8,9.

To assess the in vivo effects of therapeutic interventions for muscle disease, methods are needed to quantitate force generation and fatigability in treated muscle. We detail an approach to evaluating myo-mechanical properties in explanted mouse hindlimb muscle. This analysis provides a robust approach to quantitating the effects of genetic modification on muscle function, as well as comparison of therapies in mouse models of muscle disease.

To assess the in vivo effects of therapeutic interventions for the treatment of muscle disease 1,2,3, quantitative methods are needed that measure force ...

In Vivo Canine Muscle Function Assay

We describe a minimally-invasive and reproducible method to measure canine pelvic limb muscle strength and muscle response to repeated eccentric 
contractions. The pelvic limb of an anesthetized dog is immobilized in a stereotactic frame to align the tibia at a right angle to the femur. Adhesive wrap affixes the 
paw to a pedal mounted on the shaft of a servomotor to measure torque. Percutaneous nerve stimulation activates pelvic limb muscles of the paw to either push (extend) or 
pull (flex) against the pedal to generate isometric torque. Percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation activates tibiotarsal extensor muscles. Repeated eccentric (lengthening) 
contractions are induced in the tibiotarsal flexor muscles by percutaneous peroneal nerve stimulation. The eccentric protocol consists of an initial isometric contraction 
followed by a forced stretch imposed by the servomotor. The rotation effectively lengthens the muscle while it contracts, e.g., an eccentric contraction. During 
stimulation flexor muscles are subjected to an 800 msec isometric and 200 msec eccentric contraction. This procedure is repeated every 5 sec. To avoid fatigue, 4 min rest 
follows every 10 contractions with a total of 30 contractions performed.

In Vivo Canine Muscle Function Assay

We describe a minimally-invasive and painless method to measure canine hindlimb muscle strength and muscle response to repeated eccentric contractions.

We describe a minimally-invasive and reproducible method to measure canine pelvic limb muscle strength and muscle response to repeated eccentric 
...

High-throughput Flow Cytometry Cell-based Assay to Detect Antibodies to N-Methyl-D-aspartate Receptor or Dopamine-2 Receptor in Human Serum

Over the recent years, antibodies against surface and conformational proteins involved in neurotransmission have been detected in autoimmune CNS diseases in children and adults. These antibodies have been used to guide diagnosis and treatment. Cell-based assays have improved the detection of antibodies in patient serum. They are based on the surface expression of brain antigens on eukaryotic cells, which are then incubated with diluted patient sera followed by fluorochrome-conjugated secondary antibodies. After washing, secondary antibody binding is then analyzed by flow cytometry. Our group has developed a high-throughput flow cytometry live cell-based assay to reliably detect antibodies against specific neurotransmitter receptors. This flow cytometry method is straight forward, quantitative, efficient, and the use of a high-throughput sampler system allows for large patient cohorts to be easily assayed in a short space of time. Additionally, this cell-based assay can be easily adapted to detect antibodies to many different antigenic targets, both from the central nervous system and periphery. Discovering additional novel antibody biomarkers will enable prompt and accurate diagnosis and improve treatment of immune-mediated disorders.

Over the recent years, live cell-based assays have been used successfully to detect antibodies against surface and conformational antigens. Here, we describe a method using high-throughput flow cytometry enabling the analysis of large cohorts of patients. Detection of novel antibodies will improve diagnosis and treatment of immune-mediated disorders.

Over the recent years, antibodies against surface and conformational proteins involved in neurotransmission have been detected in autoimmune CNS diseases ...

Collection and Extraction of Saliva DNA for Next Generation Sequencing

The preferred source of DNA in human genetics research is blood, or cell lines derived from blood, as these sources yield large quantities of high quality DNA. However, DNA extraction from saliva can yield high quality DNA with little to no degradation/fragmentation that is suitable for a variety of DNA assays without the expense of a phlebotomist and can even be acquired through the mail. However, at present, no saliva DNA collection/extraction protocols for next generation sequencing have been presented in the literature. This protocol optimizes parameters of saliva collection/storage and DNA extraction to be of sufficient quality and quantity for DNA assays with the highest standards, including microarray genotyping and next generation sequencing.

DNA extraction from saliva can provide a readily available source of high molecular weight DNA, with little to no degradation/fragmentation. This protocol provides optimized parameters for saliva collection/storage and DNA extraction to be of sufficient quality and quantity for downstream DNA assays with high quality requirements.

The preferred source of DNA in human genetics research is blood, or cell lines derived from blood, as these sources yield large quantities of high quality ...

Carotid Artery Infusions for Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Analysis of Taxanes in Mice

When proposing the use of a drug, drug combination, or drug delivery into a novel system, one must assess the pharmacokinetics of the drug in the study model. As the use of mouse models are often a vital step in preclinical drug discovery and drug development1-8, it is necessary to design a system to introduce drugs into mice in a uniform, reproducible manner. Ideally, the system should permit the collection of blood samples at regular intervals over a set time course. The ability to measure drug concentrations by mass-spectrometry, has allowed investigators to follow the changes in plasma drug levels over time in individual mice1, 9, 10. In this study, paclitaxel was introduced into transgenic mice as a continuous arterial infusion over three hours, while blood samples were simultaneously taken by retro-orbital bleeds at set time points. Carotid artery infusions are a potential alternative to jugular vein infusions, when factors such as mammary tumors or other obstructions make jugular infusions impractical. Using this technique, paclitaxel concentrations in plasma and tissue achieved similar levels as compared to jugular infusion. In this tutorial, we will demonstrate how to successfully catheterize the carotid artery by preparing an optimized catheter for the individual mouse model, then show how to insert and secure the catheter into the mouse carotid artery, thread the end of the catheter out through the back of the mouse&#8217;s neck, and hook the mouse to a pump to deliver a controlled rate of drug influx. Multiple low volume retro-orbital bleeds allow for analysis of plasma drug concentrations over time.

This method was developed with the goal of delivering a steady drug solution via the carotid artery, to assess the pharmacokinetics of novel drugs in mouse models.

When proposing the use of a drug, drug combination, or drug delivery into a novel system, one must assess the pharmacokinetics of the drug in the study ...

Ultrasound Based Assessment of Coronary Artery Flow and Coronary Flow Reserve Using the Pressure Overload Model in Mice

Transthoracic Doppler echocardiography (TTDE) is a clinically useful, noninvasive tool for studying coronary artery flow velocity and coronary flow reserve (CFR) in humans. Reduced CFR is accompanied by marked intramyocardial and pericoronary fibrosis and is used as an indication of the severity of dysfunction. This study explores, step-by-step, the real-time changes measured in the coronary flow velocity, CFR and systolic to diastolic peak velocity (S/D) ratio in the setting of an aortic banding model in mice. By using a Doppler transthoracic imaging technique that yields reproducible and reliable data, the method assesses changes in flow in the septal coronary artery (SCA), for a period of over two weeks in mice, that previously either underwent aortic banding or thoracotomy. 
During imaging, hyperemia in all mice was induced by isoflurane, an anesthetic that increased coronary flow velocity when compared with resting flow. All images were acquired by a single imager. Two ratios, (1) CFR, the ratio between hyperemic and baseline flow velocities, and (2) systolic (S) to diastolic (D) flow were determined, using a proprietary software and by two independent observers. Importantly, the observed changes in coronary flow preceded LV dysfunction as evidenced by normal LV mass and fractional shortening (FS). 
The method was benchmarked against the current gold standard of coronary assessment, histopathology. The latter technique showed clear pathologic changes in the coronary artery in the form of peri-coronary fibrosis that correlated to the flow changes as assessed by echocardiography. 
The study underscores the value of using a non-invasive technique to monitor coronary circulation in mouse hearts. The method minimizes redundant use of research animals and demonstrates that advanced ultrasound-based indices, such as CFR and S/D ratios, can serve as viable diagnostic tools in a variety of investigational protocols including drug studies and the study of genetically modified strains.

Coronary flow reserve (CFR) is useful for assessment of myocardial oxygen demand and evaluation of cardiovascular risk. This study establishes a step-by-step transthoracic Doppler echocardiographic (TTDE) method for longitudinal monitoring of the changes in CFR, as measured from coronary artery in mice, under the experimental pressure overload of aortic banding.

Transthoracic Doppler echocardiography (TTDE) is a clinically useful, noninvasive tool for studying coronary artery flow velocity and coronary flow ...

Human Vastus Lateralis Skeletal Muscle Biopsy Using the Weil-Blakesley Conchotome

Percutaneous muscle biopsy using the Weil-Blakesley conchotome is well established in both clinical and research practice. It is a safe, effective and well tolerated technique. The Weil-Blakesley conchotome has a sharp biting tip with a 4 - 6 mm wide hollow. It is inserted through a 5 - 10 mm skin incision and can be maneuvered for controlled tissue penetration. The tip is opened and closed within the tissue and then rotated through 90 -180&#176; to cut the muscle. The amount of muscle obtained following repeated sampling can vary from 20 mg to 290 mg which can be processed for both histology and molecular studies. The wound needs to be kept dry and vigorous physical activity kept to a minimum for approximately 72 hr although normal levels of activity can restart immediately following the procedure. This procedure is safe and effective when close attention is paid to the selection of subjects, full asepsis and post procedure care. &#160;Both right and left vastus lateralis are suitable for biopsy dependent on participant preference.

Human Vastus Lateralis Skeletal Muscle Biopsy Using the Weil-Blakesley Conchotome

This video demonstrates the technique of percutaneous muscle biopsy of the human vastus lateralis using the Weil-Blakesley conchotome.

Percutaneous muscle biopsy using the Weil-Blakesley conchotome is well established in both clinical and research practice. It is a safe, effective and ...

Calcification of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells and Imaging of Aortic Calcification and Inflammation

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the world. Atherosclerotic plaques, consisting of lipid-laden macrophages and calcification, develop in the coronary arteries, aortic valve, aorta, and peripheral conduit arteries and are the hallmark of cardiovascular disease. In humans, imaging with computed tomography allows for the quantification of vascular calcification; the presence of vascular calcification is a strong predictor of future cardiovascular events. Development of novel therapies in cardiovascular disease relies critically on improving our understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms of atherosclerosis. Advancing our knowledge of atherosclerotic mechanisms relies on murine and cell-based models. Here, a method for imaging aortic calcification and macrophage infiltration using two spectrally distinct near-infrared fluorescent imaging probes is detailed. Near-infrared fluorescent imaging allows for the ex vivo quantification of calcification and macrophage accumulation in the entire aorta and can be used to further our understanding of the mechanistic relationship between inflammation and calcification in atherosclerosis. Additionally, a method for isolating and culturing animal aortic vascular smooth muscle cells and a protocol for inducing calcification in cultured smooth muscle cells from either murine aortas or from human coronary arteries is described. This in vitro method of modeling vascular calcification can be used to identify and characterize the signaling pathways likely important for the development of vascular disease, in the hopes of discovering novel targets for therapy.

Vascular calcification is an important predictor of and contributor to human cardiovascular disease. This protocol describes methods for inducing calcification of cultured primary vascular smooth muscle cells and for quantifying calcification and macrophage burden in animal aortas using near-infrared fluorescence imaging.

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the world.  Atherosclerotic plaques, consisting of lipid-laden macrophages and ...

Dissection of the Mouse Pancreas for Histological Analysis and Metabolic Profiling

We have been investigating the pancreas specific transcription factor, 1a cre-recombinase; lox-stop-lox- Kristen rat sarcoma, glycine to aspartic acid at the 12 codon (Ptf1acre/+;LSL-KrasG12D/+) mouse strain as a model of human pancreatic cancer. The goal of our current studies is to identify novel metabolic biomarkers of pancreatic cancer progression. We have performed metabolic profiling of urine, feces, blood, and pancreas tissue extracts, as well as histological analyses of the pancreas to stage the cancer progression. The mouse pancreas is not a well-defined solid organ like in humans, but rather is a diffusely distributed soft tissue that is not easily identified by individuals unfamiliar with mouse internal anatomy or by individuals that have little or no experience performing mouse organ dissections. The purpose of this article is to provide a detailed step-wise visual demonstration to guide novices in the removal of the mouse pancreas by dissection. This article should be especially valuable to students and investigators new to research that requires harvesting of the mouse pancreas by dissection for metabolic profiling or histological analyses.

This video article provides a detailed demonstration of the procedures required to successfully remove the pancreas from a mouse by dissection for histological analysis and metabolic profiling.

We have been investigating the pancreas specific transcription factor, 1a cre-recombinase; lox-stop-lox- Kristen rat sarcoma, glycine to aspartic acid at ...

Echocardiographic and Histological Examination of Cardiac Morphology in the Mouse

An increasing number of genetically modified mouse models has become available in recent years. Moreover, the number of pharmacological studies performed in mice is high. Phenotypic characterization of these mouse models also requires the examination of cardiac function and morphology. Echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are commonly used approaches to characterize cardiac function and morphology in mice. Echocardiographic and MRI equipment specialized for use in small rodents is&#160;expensive and requires a dedicated space. This protocol describes cardiac measurements in mice using a clinical echocardiographic system with a 15 MHz human vascular probe. Measurements are performed on anesthetized adult mice. At least three image sequences are recorded and analyzed for each animal in M-mode in the parasternal short-axis view. Afterwards, cardiac histological examination is performed, and cardiomyocyte diameters are determined on hematoxylin-eosin- or wheat germ agglutinin (WGA)-stained paraffin sections. Vessel density is determined morphometrically after Pecam-1 immunostaining. The protocol has been applied successfully to pharmacological studies and different genetic animal models under baseline conditions, as well as after experimental myocardial infarction by the permanent ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD). In our experience, echocardiographic investigation is limited to anesthetized animals and is feasible in adult mice weighing at least 25 g.

Echocardiographic examination is frequently used in mice. Expensive high-resolution ultrasound devices have been developed for this purpose. This protocol describes an affordable echocardiographic procedure combined with histological morphometric analyses to determine cardiac morphology.

An increasing number of genetically modified mouse models has become available in recent years. Moreover, the number of pharmacological studies performed ...