This work is supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China 81825005 (L.Y.), 82201045 (F.Y.), and 82100982 (F.L.), and by Sichuan Province Science and Technology Program 2021JDRC0144 (F.L.), 2022JDRC0130 (F.Y.).

All animal procedures in this study were reviewed and approved by the Ethical Committee of the West China School of Stomatology, Sichuan University (WCHSIRB-D-2017-041). Adult C57BL/6 mice, obtained from a commercial source (see Table of Materials), were used for the present study.
1. Presurgical preparation
<ol>
	<li>Instrument preparation
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare various needles of disposable syringes (26G, 25G, 23G; see Table of Materials) to be used as elevators. Inflect the needle head approximately 20&#176;-40&#176;, as shown in Figure 1.</li>
		<li>Prepare toothed ophthalmic tweezers as forceps. Ensure that it fits the size of the mice&#39;s molars and can grab the molars firmly. The ideal tweezer size is shown in Figure 1A, B3.</li>
		<li>Obtain a rubber band (which can be torn from a medical latex glove) to be used as a mouth opener, a foam board or corkboard as the surgical platform, a headlamp to light up the surgical area, and a heating pad for postoperative revival. Tear a dry cotton ball into small pieces&#160;and apply it to the surgical site if bleeding occurs&#160;during the procedure.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Anesthesia preparation
	<ol>
		<li>The mouse can be anesthetized by any suitable anesthetic protocol that achieves general anesthesia confirmed through the &#39;toe pinch&#39; method. Following anesthesia, apply veterinary ointment on the eyes of the mouse. 
		&#8203;NOTE: Preferred general anesthetic protocol could be: induction and maintenance with xylazine (10 mg/kg) and ketamine (100 mg/kg) intraperitoneally (IP); 
		For this study,&#160;isoflurane and 1% pentobarbital sodium (50 mg/kg, IP) were used for anesthesia induction and maintenance with additional doses as needed.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Disinfection and Sterilization preparation
	<ol>
		<li>Disinfect the operation platform and the open-air overhead with a 75% ethanol sprayer. Prior to each mouse procedure, the use of a new set of disposable needles is recommended. 
		NOTE: The toothed tweezers are reusable and can be sterilized using any preferred&#160;method such as steam sterilization.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Surgical process
<ol>
	<li>Fixation of the mouse and its mandible
	<ol>
		<li>Tie the mouse to a surgical platform in a supine position using adhesive tape. Pin two 26 G needles in line with the orbital ear plane and another two 26 G needles at ease below the mandible.</li>
		<li>Apply the rubber band around the needles and cross the incisors to hold the mouth open. Slightly pull the tongue out and fix it under the rubber band opposite the surgical side, to prevent it from obstructing the field of view (Figure 1C).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Eliminating the distal resistance
	<ol>
		<li>Hold the molar with tweezers mesially, force a 23 G needle into the buccal alveolar bone of the distal root, and render an interval. 
		NOTE: This step must be taken with great caution, as a needle that is embedded too deep will likely snap the root.</li>
		<li>Next, change to a 25 G needle to continue to expand the interval, and progress delicately toward the periapical area while slowly rotating the needle forward and lingually (with the mouse anatomical position) to press the root out of the alveolar fossa.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Eliminating the mesial resistance
	<ol>
		<li>When there is enough space, use a 23 G needle to insert into the root fork and lift the molar occlusally. After holding the molar tightly, take another 23 G needle and force it into the lingual mesial periodontal membrane to create an interval.</li>
		<li>Then, substitute with a 25 G needle and slowly rotate forward and buccally. If some underlying hindrances impede the luxation of the molar, use a 26 G needle to penetrate the root apex, and repeat the operations.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Final extraction
	<ol>
		<li>Extract the tooth and, while extracting, ensure that the crown rises high above the occlusal plane and that two intact roots can be clearly seen. 
		NOTE: The luxation (dislocation) of the tooth is considered the most painful and distressing moment of the procedure. Prior to dislocating the tooth, the anesthetic depth should be reassessed using the toe pinch test, and accordingly, a moderate dose of an anesthetic agent should be administered if necessary.&#160;</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Post-operative care
	<ol>
		<li>After extracting the tooth, apply dry cotton to stop bleeding, reposition the tongue, administer carprofen (5 mg/kg) subcutaneously, and put the mouse on a constant temperature heating pad until recovery from anesthesia.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Imaging of the mouse mandible and the extraction socket
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of the samples
	<ol>
		<li>Euthanize the mouse by cervical dislocation. Use ophthalmic scissors to cut the skeleton muscles attached to the mandible and the zygomatic arch. Cut from the throat along the lower edge of the mandible to the ascending branch and then to the backside of the condyle, and then pull the mandible down and cut along the lower incisor midline. This way, the two separate mandibles are harvested.</li>
		<li>Perform fixation, demineralization, and dehydration following the standard procedure17. When embedding17, ensure that the occlusal plane is parallel with the edge of the cassette (see Table of Materials). Fix the mandible on the bottom of the cassette, with its lower edge cocked (Figure 2). 
		NOTE: This protocol offers the sagittal plane of the mandible area.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Fixing the sample on the microtome
	<ol>
		<li>Regulate the specimen clamp in the microtome to protrude the condyle and the crown side 5&#176;-20&#176; more, to attain an integrated image of crown pulp concomitant with root pulp (Figure 2).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Preparing the sections 
	NOTE: The condyle is always the first anatomical structure to be cut. When it fades away, the molar area can then be cut into several slices.
	<ol>
		<li>Shift the microtome range to 5 &#181;m, collect every eight slices, and scout for dentin in the last slice. If the crown dentin first appears without any root apical dentin, adjust the specimen clamp to make the root area protrude, and vice versa.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Collecting the sections 
	NOTE: The cutting angle is appropriate until the dentin is equally attained in both the crown and apical area.
	<ol>
		<li>Cut along this direction and watch the slices under the microscope until the dental pulp appears in both the crown and the roots. Collect the sections when an obscure contour of molars appears on the surface of the paraffin sample17.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intramembranous+bone+healing+process+subsequent+to+tooth+extraction+in+mice:+micro-computed+tomography,+histomorphometric+and+molecular+characterization.">Intramembranous bone healing process subsequent to tooth extraction in mice: micro-computed tomography, histomorphometric and molecular characterization.</a> PLoS One. 10 (5), 0128021 (2015).</li><li>Min, K. -. 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All the original data and images are included in this paper. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

The murine socket healing model is an important method for unraveling the underlying mechanisms in bone healing and regeneration, ultimately solving clinical challenges. Existing studies have demonstrated the possibility of the incisor extraction model and the maxillary molar extraction model, whereas studies have not used the mandibular first molar model13,17,18. However, incisors are crucial for rodent living, and their impair...

Socket healing after tooth extraction is a common clinical scenario, which can result in unbecoming complications such as socket hemorrhage, dry socket, or even jaw osteomyelitis under undesirable healing1,2,3. These comorbidities may impair the quality of life of patients and, even worse, vitally challenge prosthetic rehabilitation due to massive bone loss4. Though the socket healing stages have been elucidated, they are inadequate to direct clinical care post-tooth extraction surgery when encountering various prognosis challenges4.
Multiple studies based on animal models have been conducted to gain a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms in the socket healing process and avert the above situations. Sp7 is a master regulator in osteoblast differentiation, playing a vital role in skeleton development, bone hemostasis, and bone regeneration5,6. Rational socket healing models could display the redundancy of Sp7 post-traumatic in bone regeneration. In addition, distinct from long bone fracture healing, only a single osteogenic process, intramembranous ossification, involves the healing process of the extraction socket7. This makes the animal tooth extraction model optimal for studying implant-based therapies, as implant osseointegration obeys the same osteogenic rule8.
For decades, the tooth extraction model has been performed in rats, rabbits, and dogs, since these species have big teeth that are convenient to operate on9,10,11. However, given the flourishing demands for genetic modification and as a more adaptive genetic background to humans, mice are increasingly being used to establish a tooth extraction model. Thenceforward, researchers could unravel a specific cell population&#39;s role in the socket healing process using genome-modified mice instead of observing phenotypes only12. Among murine tooth extraction socket models, preceding studies have demonstrated the establishment and healing process of murine maxillary tooth and incisor extraction sockets13,14,15,16. However, the healing pattern of the prognosis, and the detective and observative time points, may differ across protocols. This appeals to a universal criterion for scholars to establish a murine socket healing model.
This study aimed to constitute a practicable murine socket healing model for the above issues. Mandible molars in mice have distinctive morphological traits compared to maxillary molars and incisors, bringing unique advantages and disadvantages. As the models focusing on the murine mandible are currently vacuum-based, this protocol tried to provide an accomplished method to extract the mandibular first molar in mice. We hope this protocol will enlighten basic researchers with new ideas to uncover underlying mechanisms of socket healing and indicate clinical care.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>23/25/26 G needle</td>
			<td>Chengdu Xinjin Shifeng Medical Apparatus &#38; Instruments Co. LTD.</td>
			<td>SB1-074(IV)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C57/B6J&#160;</td>
			<td>Gempharmatech Experimental Animals Company, Chengdu, China</td>
			<td>C57/B6J</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAPI Staining Solution&#160;</td>
			<td>Beyotime&#160;</td>
			<td>Cat#C1005</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Embedding Cassettes</td>
			<td>CITOTEST Scientific</td>
			<td>80106-1100-16</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hematoxylin and Eosin Stain Kit</td>
			<td>Biosharp</td>
			<td>BL700B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>RWD Life Science Co.,Ltd</td>
			<td>R510-22-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Masson&#8217;s Trichrome Stain Kit</td>
			<td>Solarbio</td>
			<td>G1340</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtome&#160;</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>RM2235</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pentobarbital Sodium</td>
			<td>Huaxia Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd</td>
			<td>2018042001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit polyclonal&#160;</td>
			<td>anti-Sp7&#160;</td>
			<td>Abcam Cat# ab22552</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tweezers</td>
			<td>Chengdu Xinjin Shifeng Medical Apparatus &#38; Instruments Co. LTD.</td>
			<td>SB2-115</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

the establishment of a murine mandibular molar extraction socket healing model

This study introduces the development of a molar extraction model in the murine mandible to provide a practicable model for studying alveolar bone regeneration and intramembranous ossification. C57/J6 mice were used to extract the mandibular first molar to establish this model. They were euthanized, and the bilateral mandibles harvested, at 1 week and 4 weeks post-surgery, respectively. Subsequent serial stereoscopic harvest, histological assessment, and immunofluorescence staining were performed to demonstrate successful surgery. Immediately after surgery, the stereoscopic images displayed an empty extraction socket. The hematoxylin and eosin (H&#38;E) at 1 week and Masson staining at 4 weeks post-surgery showed that the area of the original root was partially and fully filled with bone trabeculae, respectively. The immunofluorescence staining showed that, compared with the homeostasis side, the Sp7 expression increased at 1 week post-surgery, suggesting vigorous osteogenesis in the alveolar fossa. All these results demonstrated a practicable murine tooth extraction socket healing model. Upcoming studies revealing the mechanisms of jawbone defect healing or socket healing could adopt this method.

To elucidate the practical use of this method, the right mandibular first molar of two healthy C57BL/6 mice (3 months old, both female) were extracted and followed for 1 week and 4 weeks, respectively. The undamaged left mandibles were used as healthy controls. Figure 1A shows the specific features of the surgical appliance, including 26-23 G needles and a toothed ophthalmic tweezer. The 26 G needle is pinpoint-removed and bent. The 25 G needle is bent at approximately 25&#176; at the pinpoi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about The Establishment of a Murine Mandibular Molar Extraction Socket Healing Model at JoVE.com

The Establishment of a Murine Mandibular Molar Extraction Socket Healing Model

This protocol demonstrates step-by-step details of how to extract the mandibular first molar in the mouse. It provides an alternative method for researchers focusing on jawbone healing and regeneration.

This study introduces the development of a molar extraction model in the murine mandible to provide a practicable model for studying alveolar bone ...

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3.6K Views.  Sichuan University. This protocol demonstrates step-by-step details of how to extract the mandibular first molar in the mouse. It provides an alternative method for researchers focusing on jawbone healing and regeneration.

Video: The Establishment of a Murine Mandibular Molar Extraction Socket Healing Model

Murine Renal Transplantation Procedure

Renal orthotopic transplantation in mice is a technically challenging procedure. Although the first kidney transplants in mice were performed by Russell et al over 30 years ago (1) and refined by Zhang et al years later (2), few people in the world have mastered this procedure. In our laboratory we have successfully performed 1200 orthotopic kidney transplantations with &gt; 90% survival rate. The key points for success include stringent control of reperfusion injury, bleeding and thrombosis, both during the procedure and post-transplantation, and use of 10-0 instead of 11-0 suture for anastomoses.
Post-operative care and treatment of the recipient is extremely important to transplant success and evaluation. All renal graft recipients receive antibiotics in the form of an injection of penicillin immediately post-transplant and sulfatrim in the drinking water continually. Overall animal health is evaluated daily and whole blood creatinine analyses are performed routinely with a portable I-STAT machine to assess graft function.

Renal transplantation in mice is a technically challenging procedure that requires careful post-operative care and treatment for success.

Renal orthotopic transplantation in mice is a technically challenging procedure. Although the first kidney transplants in mice were performed by Russell ...

LAD-Ligation: A Murine Model of Myocardial Infarction

Research models of infarction and myocardial ischemia are essential to investigate the acute and chronic pathobiological and pathophysiological processes in myocardial ischemia and to develop and optimize future treatment.
Two different methods of creating myocardial ischemia are performed in laboratory rodents. The first method is to create cryo infarction, a fast but inaccurate technique, where a cryo-pen is applied on the surface of the heart (1-3). Using this method the scientist can not guarantee that the cryo-scar leads to ischemia, also a vast myocardial injury is created that shows pathophysiological side effects that are not related to myocardial infarction. The second method is the permanent ligation of the left anterior descending artery (LAD). Here the LAD is ligated with one single stitch, forming an ischemia that can be seen almost immediately. By closing the LAD, no further blood flow is permitted in that area, while the surrounding myocardial tissue is nearly not affected. This surgical procedure imitates the pathobiological and pathophysiological aspects occurring in infarction-related myocardial ischemia.
The method introduced in this video demonstrates the surgical procedure of a mouse infarction model by ligating the LAD. This model is convenient for pathobiological and pathophysiological as well as immunobiological studies on cardiac infarction. The shown technique provides high accuracy and correlates well with histological sections.

This video demonstrates how to use a fast and reliable model to study pathobiological and pathophysiological processes of myocardial ischemia.

Research models of infarction and myocardial ischemia are essential to investigate the acute and chronic pathobiological and pathophysiological processes ...

Isolation of Murine Coronary Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells

While the isolation and culture of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) from large vessels is well established, we sought to isolate and culture VSMCs from the coronary circulation. Hearts with intact aortic arches were removed and perfused via retrograde Langendorff with digestion solution containing 300 Units/ml of collagenase type II, 0.1 mg/ml soybean trypsin inhibitor and 1 M CaCl2. The perfusates were collected at 15 min intervals for 90 min, pelleted by centrifugation, resuspended in plating media, and plated on tissue culture dishes. VSMCs were characterized by presence of SM22&#945;, &#945;-SMA, and vimentin. One of the main advantages of using this technique is the ability to isolate VSMCs from the coronary circulation of mice. Although the small number of cells obtained can limit some of the applications for which the cells can be utilized, isolated coronary VSMCs can be used in a variety of well-established cell culture techniques and assays. Studies investigating VSMCs from genetically modified mice can provide further information about structure-function and signaling processes associated with vascular pathologies.

The purpose of this protocol is to demonstrate the isolation and culture techniques of murine primary vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) from the coronary circulation. Once VSMCs have been isolated, they can be used for many standard culture techniques.

While the isolation and culture of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) from large vessels is well established, we sought to isolate and culture VSMCs ...

A Morphometric and Cellular Analysis Method for the Murine Mandibular Condyle

The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) has the capacity to adapt to external stimuli, and loading changes can affect the position of condyles, as well as the structural and cellular components of the mandibular condylar cartilage (MCC). This manuscript describes methods for analyzing these changes and a method for altering the loading of the TMJ in mice (i.e., compressive static TMJ loading). The structural evaluation illustrated here is a simple morphometric approach that uses the Digimizer software and is performed in radiographs of small bones. In addition, the analysis of cellular changes leading to alterations in collagen expression, bone remodeling, cell division, and proteoglycan distribution in the MCC is described. The quantification of these changes in histological sections - by counting the positive fluorescent pixels using image software and measuring the distance mapping and stained area with Digimizer - is also demonstrated. The methods shown here are not limited to the murine TMJ, but could be used on additional bones of small experimental animals and in other regions of endochondral ossification.

This manuscript presents methods for analyzing morphometric and cellular changes within the mandibular condyle of rodents.

The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) has the capacity to adapt to external stimuli, and loading changes can affect the position of condyles, as well as the ...

The Murine Choline-Deficient, Ethionine-Supplemented (CDE) Diet Model of Chronic Liver Injury

Chronic liver diseases, such as viral hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, are characterized by continual inflammation, progressive destruction and regeneration of the hepatic parenchyma, liver progenitor cell proliferation, and fibrosis. The end-stage of every chronic liver disease is cirrhosis, a major risk factor for the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. To study processes regulating disease initiation, establishment, and progression, several animal models are used in laboratories. Here we describe a six-week time course of the choline-deficient and ethionine-supplemented (CDE) mouse model, which involves feeding six-week old male C57BL/6J mice with choline-deficient chow and 0.15% DL-ethionine-supplemented drinking water. Monitoring of animal health and a typical body weight loss curve are explained. The protocol demonstrates the gross examination of a CDE-treated liver and blood collection by cardiac puncture for subsequent serum analyses. Next, the liver perfusion technique and collection of different hepatic lobes for standard evaluations are shown, including liver histology assessments by hematoxylin and eosin or Sirius Red stainings, immunofluorescent detection of hepatic cell populations as well as transcriptome profiling of the liver microenvironment. This mouse model is suitable for studying inflammatory, fibrogenic, and liver progenitor cell dynamics induced through chronic liver disease and can be used to test potential therapeutic agents that may modulate these processes.

The Murine Choline-Deficient, Ethionine-Supplemented CDE Diet Model of Chronic Liver Injury

Here we describe a common method to induce chronic liver injury in mice by feeding of a choline-deficient and ethionine-supplemented (CDE) diet. We demonstrate health monitoring, liver perfusion, isolation, and preservation. A time course of six weeks can inform about liver injury, pathohistology, fibrosis, inflammatory, and liver progenitor cell responses.

Chronic liver diseases, such as viral hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, are characterized by continual ...

A Murine Model of Vertical Sleeve Gastrectomy

Bariatric surgery, such as vertical sleeve gastrectomy (VSG), is a surgery of the gastrointestinal tract that is performed for the purpose of weight loss. Bariatric surgery is currently the most effective long-term treatment for obesity. In addition to weight loss, bariatric surgery produces additional health benefits such as remission of type 2 diabetes, remission of hypertension, and decreased risk of developing certain types of cancer. The mechanisms beyond weight loss for these benefits remain incompletely defined. Therefore, animal models of bariatric surgery are being developed and validated to identify the mechanisms leading to these benefits, with the goal of improving understanding of gastrointestinal physiology and identifying new therapeutic targets. VSG has become the most commonly performed bariatric procedure in the clinic in the United States because it is highly effective at producing weight loss and metabolic improvement, and is simpler to perform than other bariatric procedures. Therefore, we have developed and validated a murine model of VSG. This murine VSG model recapitulates many of the effects of VSG seen in humans, including improved glucose and blood pressure regulation. The method is based on isolation of the stomach, ligation of gastric vessels, and removal of 70% of the stomach by transecting along the greater curvature of the stomach. We have successfully applied this surgical protocol to various genetically modified mouse lines to define the mechanistic contributors to the benefits of VSG. Furthermore, this murine VSG model has been combined with other surgical techniques, to achieve deeper mechanistic insight. Therefore, this is a simple and versatile model for studying gastrointestinal physiology and the health benefits of bariatric surgery.

The following describes the performance of vertical sleeve gastrectomy in mice. This is a type of weight-loss surgery that involves removal of approximately 70% of the stomach.

Bariatric surgery, such as vertical sleeve gastrectomy (VSG), is a surgery of the gastrointestinal tract that is performed for the purpose of weight loss. ...

Establishment of an Extracellular Acidic pH Culture System

Conditions of the tumor microenvironment, such as hypoxia or nutrient starvation, play critical roles in cancer progression and malignancy. However, the role of acidic extracellular pH in tumor aggressiveness and its underlying mechanism has not been extensively studied compared to hypoxic or nutrient starvation conditions. In addition, a well-defined culture method to mimic the acidic extracellular tumor microenvironment has not been fully reported.
Here we present a simple in vitro culture method to maintain acidic extracellular pH using reduced bicarbonate and increased lactate or HCl concentrations in the culture medium. The medium pH was sustained for at least 24 h and gradually decreased by 72 h following culture of PANC-1 and AsPC-1 pancreatic cancer cells. Three distinct acidic media conditions in this study highly upregulated pH-responsive genes such as MSMO1, INSIG1, and IDI1 compared to hypoxia or nutrient starvation. The upregulation of these genes can be used as a marker of acidic pH. These simple techniques are beneficial to elucidate underlying mechanisms of tumor malignancy under acidic tumor microenvironment. Therefore, our extracellular acidic pH culture system enables discovery of cellular acidic pH responses not only in cancer cells but also in primary cells, such as renal tubular cells, in relation to the other acidic disorders including, diabetic ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis, renal tubular acidosis, and respiratory acidosis.

The acidic tumor microenvironment plays critical roles in tumor progression. To assess the effects of acidic extracellular pH on cancer cells in vitro, we established simple acidic culture systems.

Conditions of the tumor microenvironment, such as hypoxia or nutrient starvation, play critical roles in cancer progression and malignancy. However, the ...

Mass Spectrometry Analysis to Identify Ubiquitylation of EYFP-tagged CENP-A (EYFP-CENP-A)

Studying the structure and the dynamics of kinetochores and centromeres is important in understanding chromosomal instability (CIN) and cancer progression. How the chromosomal location and function of a centromere (i.e., centromere identity) are determined and participate in accurate chromosome segregation is a fundamental question. CENP-A is proposed to be the non-DNA indicator (epigenetic mark) of centromere identity, and CENP-A ubiquitylation is required for CENP-A deposition at the centromere, inherited through dimerization between cell division, and indispensable to cell viability.
Here we describe mass spectrometry analysis to identify ubiquitylation of EYFP-CENP-A K124R mutant suggesting that ubiquitylation at a different lysine is induced because of the EYFP tagging in the CENP-A K124R mutant protein. Lysine 306 (K306) ubiquitylation in EYFP-CENP-A K124R was successfully identified, which corresponds to lysine 56 (K56) in CENP-A through mass spectrometry analysis. A caveat is discussed in the use of GFP/EYFP or the tagging of high molecular weight protein as a tool to analyze the function of a protein. Current technical limit is also discussed for the detection of ubiquitylated bands, identification of site-specific ubiquitylation(s), and visualization of ubiquitylation in living cells or a specific single cell during the whole cell cycle.
The method of mass spectrometry analysis presented here can be applied to human CENP-A protein with different tags and other centromere-kinetochore proteins. These combinatory methods consisting of several assays/analyses could be recommended for researchers who are interested in identifying functional roles of ubiquitylation.

Mass Spectrometry Analysis to Identify Ubiquitylation of EYFP-tagged CENP-A EYFP-CENP-A

CENP-A ubiquitylation is an important requirement for CENP-A deposition at the centromere, inherited through dimerization between cell division, and indispensable to cell viability. Here we describe mass spectrometry analysis to identify ubiquitylation of EYFP-tagged CENP-A (EYFP-CENP-A) protein.

Studying the structure and the dynamics of kinetochores and centromeres is important in understanding chromosomal instability (CIN) and cancer ...

Establishment and Genetic Manipulation of Murine Hepatocyte Organoids

The liver is the largest organ in mammals. It plays an important role in glucose storage, protein secretion, metabolism and detoxification. As the executor for most of the liver functions, primary hepatocytes have limited proliferating capacity. This requires the establishment of ex vivo hepatocyte expansion models for liver physiological and pathological research. Here, we isolated murine hepatocytes by two steps of collagenase perfusion and established a 3D organoid culture as the 'mini-liver' to recapitulate cell-cell interactions and physical functions. The organoids consist of heterogeneous cell populations including progenitors and mature hepatocytes. We introduce the process in detailed to isolate and culture the murine hepatocytes or fetal hepatocyte to form organoids within 2-3 weeks and show how to passage them by mechanically pipetting up and down. In addition, we will also introduce how to digest the organoids into single cells for lentivirus infection of shRNA/ectopic construction, siRNA transfection and CRISPR-Cas9 engineering. The organoids can be used for drug screens, disease modelling, and basic liver research by modeling liver biology and pathobiology.

A long-term ex vitro 3D organoid culture system was established from mouse hepatocytes. These organoids can be passaged and genetically manipulated by lentivirus infection of shRNA/ectopic construction, siRNA transfection and CRISPR-Cas9 engineering.

The liver is the largest organ in mammals. It plays an important role in glucose storage, protein secretion, metabolism and detoxification. As the ...

Assessment of Bone Fracture Healing Using Micro-Computed Tomography

Micro-computed tomography (&#181;CT) is the most common imaging modality to characterize the three-dimensional (3D) morphology of bone and newly formed bone during fracture healing in translational science investigations. Studies of long bone fracture healing in rodents typically involve secondary healing and the formation of a mineralized callus. The shape of the callus formed and the density of the newly formed bone may vary substantially between timepoints and treatments. Whereas standard methodologies for quantifying parameters of intact cortical and trabecular bone are widely used and embedded in commercially available software, there is a lack of consensus on procedures for analyzing the healing callus. The purpose of this work is to describe a standardized protocol that quantitates bone volume fraction and callus mineral density in the healing callus. The protocol describes different parameters that should be considered during imaging and analysis, including sample alignment during imaging, the size of the volume of interest, and the number of slices that are contoured to define the callus.

Micro-computed tomography (&#181;CT) is a non-destructive imaging tool that is instrumental in assessing bone structure in preclinical studies, however there is a lack of consensus on &#181;CT procedures for analyzing the bone healing callus. This study provides a step-by-step &#181;CT protocol that allows the monitoring of fracture healing.

Micro-computed tomography (&#181;CT) is the most common imaging modality to characterize the three-dimensional (3D) morphology of bone and newly formed ...