Name: a standardized liquid biopsy preanalytical protocol for downstream circulating-free dna applications
Uploaded: 2022-09-16T13:40:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Standardized Liquid Biopsy Preanalytical Protocol for Downstream Circulating-Free DNA Applications at JoVE.com

We would like to thank the Biomedical Research Network in Cancer (CIBERONC) for their support and the following project grant: LB CIBERONC PLATFORM: CIBERONC platform for the standardization and promotion of liquid biopsy. PI Rodrigo Toledo, (CIBERONC), 2019-2021.

Prior ethical approval was obtained from participating centers before the extraction of blood samples. The following protocols for serum and plasma isolation were performed in accordance with the ethical principles for biomedical research.
NOTE: Prior considerations before beginning the protocol are provided here. Prior ethical approval is required for the use of human samples in biomedical research, with the corresponding informed consent. A class II biosafety cabinet is required to handle bl...

<ol>
	<li>Alix-Panabi&#232;res, C., Pantel, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clinical+applications+of+circulating+tumor+cells+and+circulating+tumor+DNA+as+liquid+biopsy.">Clinical applications of circulating tumor cells and circulating tumor DNA as liquid biopsy.</a> Cancer Discovery. 6 (5), 479-491 (2016).</li><li>Zhou, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Application+of+exosomes+as+liquid+biopsy+in+clinical+diagnosis.">Application of exosomes as liquid biopsy in clinical diagnosis.</a> Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. 5 (1), 144 (2020).</li><li>Bettegowda, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Liquid+biopsies:+Genotyping+circulating+tumor+DNA.">Liquid biopsies: Genotyping circulating tumor DNA.</a> Nature Medicine. 4 (6), (2014).</li><li>Heitzer, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recommendations+for+a+practical+implementation+of+circulating+tumor+DNA+mutation+testing+in+metastatic+non-small-cell+lung+cancer.">Recommendations for a practical implementation of circulating tumor DNA mutation testing in metastatic non-small-cell lung cancer.</a> ESMO Open. 7 (2), 100399 (2022).</li><li>Gennari, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ESMO+Clinical+Practice+Guideline+for+the+diagnosis,+staging+and+treatment+of+patients+with+metastatic+breast+cancer.">ESMO Clinical Practice Guideline for the diagnosis, staging and treatment of patients with metastatic breast cancer.</a> Annals of Oncology: Official Journal of the European Society for Medical Oncology. 32 (12), 1475-1495 (2021).</li><li>Van Buren, T., Arwatz, G., Smits, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+simple+method+to+monitor+hemolysis+in+real+time.">A simple method to monitor hemolysis in real time.</a> Scientific Reports. 10 (1), 5101 (2020).</li><li>Ignatiadis, M., Sledge, G. W., Jeffrey, S. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Liquid+biopsy+enters+the+clinic+-+implementation+issues+and+future+challenges.">Liquid biopsy enters the clinic - implementation issues and future challenges.</a> Nature Reviews. Clinical Oncology. 18 (5), 297-312 (2021).</li><li>Sidstedt, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inhibition+mechanisms+of+hemoglobin,+immunoglobulin+G,+and+whole+blood+in+digital+and+real-time+PCR.">Inhibition mechanisms of hemoglobin, immunoglobulin G, and whole blood in digital and real-time PCR.</a> Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 410 (10), 2569-2583 (2018).</li><li>Maass, K. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=From+sampling+to+sequencing:+A+liquid+biopsy+pre-analytic+workflow+to+maximize+multi-layer+genomic+information+from+a+single+tube.">From sampling to sequencing: A liquid biopsy pre-analytic workflow to maximize multi-layer genomic information from a single tube.</a> Cancers. 13 (12), 3002 (2021).</li><li>Greytak, S. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Harmonizing+cell-free+DNA+collection+and+processing+practices+through+evidence-based+guidance.">Harmonizing cell-free DNA collection and processing practices through evidence-based guidance.</a> Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research. 26 (13), 3104-3109 (2020).</li><li>Trigg, R. M., Martinson, L. J., Parpart-Li, S., Shaw, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Factors+that+influence+quality+and+yield+of+circulating-free+DNA:+A+systematic+review+of+the+methodology+literature.">Factors that influence quality and yield of circulating-free DNA: A systematic review of the methodology literature.</a> Heliyon. 4 (7), 00699 (2018).</li><li>Boissier, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+centrifuge+brake+impacts+neither+routine+coagulation+assays+nor+platelet+count+in+platelet-poor+plasma.">The centrifuge brake impacts neither routine coagulation assays nor platelet count in platelet-poor plasma.</a> Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine. 58 (9), 185-188 (2020).</li><li>Johansson, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Considerations+and+quality+controls+when+analyzing+cell-free+tumor+DNA.">Considerations and quality controls when analyzing cell-free tumor DNA.</a> Biomolecular Detection and Quantification. 17, 100078 (2019).</li><li>Casas-Arozamena, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genomic+profiling+of+uterine+aspirates+and+cfDNA+as+an+integrative+liquid+biopsy+strategy+in+endometrial+cancer.">Genomic profiling of uterine aspirates and cfDNA as an integrative liquid biopsy strategy in endometrial cancer.</a> Journal of Clinical Medicine. 9 (2), 585 (2020).</li><li>Alcoceba, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Liquid+biopsy:+a+non-invasive+approach+for+Hodgkin+lymphoma+genotyping.">Liquid biopsy: a non-invasive approach for Hodgkin lymphoma genotyping.</a> British Journal of Haematology. 195 (4), 542-551 (2021).</li><li>Szpechcinski, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell-free+DNA+levels+in+plasma+of+patients+with+non-small-cell+lung+cancer+and+inflammatory+lung+disease.">Cell-free DNA levels in plasma of patients with non-small-cell lung cancer and inflammatory lung disease.</a> British Journal of Cancer. 113 (3), 476-483 (2015).</li><li>Earl, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Somatic+mutation+profiling+in+the+liquid+biopsy+and+clinical+analysis+of+hereditary+and+familial+pancreatic+cancer+cases+reveals+kras+negativity+and+a+longer+overall+survival.">Somatic mutation profiling in the liquid biopsy and clinical analysis of hereditary and familial pancreatic cancer cases reveals kras negativity and a longer overall survival.</a> Cancers. 13 (7), 1612 (2021).</li><li>Lampignano, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multicenter+evaluation+of+circulating+cell-free+DNA+extraction+and+downstream+analyses+for+the+development+of+standardized+(pre)analytical+work+flows.">Multicenter evaluation of circulating cell-free DNA extraction and downstream analyses for the development of standardized (pre)analytical work flows.</a> Clinical Chemistry. 66 (1), 149-160 (2020).</li><li>Febbo, P. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Minimum+technical+data+elements+for+liquid+biopsy+data+submitted+to+public+databases.">Minimum technical data elements for liquid biopsy data submitted to public databases.</a> Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 107 (4), 730-734 (2020).</li><li>De Mattos-Arruda, L., Siravegna, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+to+use+liquid+biopsies+to+treat+patients+with+cancer.">How to use liquid biopsies to treat patients with cancer.</a> ESMO Open. 6 (2), 100060 (2021).</li></ol>

The liquid biopsy has numerous potential applications at different times during the management of cancer. First, at diagnosis to identify tumor molecular markers that would suggest the presence of a potential tumor lesion that might be further investigated clinically. Second, during treatment for real-time monitoring of the disease, assessment of treatment molecular response, clonal evolution, and early detection of disease relapses or treatment resistance. Finally, after the surgical treatment, as a tool for the detecti...

The term "liquid biopsy" was defined in 20101 as the presence of molecules (e.g., protein, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA)), cells, or extracellular vesicles (e.g., exosomes) in blood and other bodily fluids that originate from the primary tumor. The use of liquid biopsy samples has revolutionized translational oncology research as tissue biopsies, limited to a particular region at a particular moment, may miss relevant clones due to tumor heterogeneity. In addition, liquid biopsy plays a relevant role in tumor types where primary tissue is scarce or not accessible, as it may avoid an invasive biopsy, reducing costs and risk to patients. Furthermore, the tumor molecular characteristics are constantly evolving mainly due to the therapy pressure, and liquid biopsy samples can capture the tumor clonal dynamics as they can be taken longitudinally, in different clinical and therapeutic times of the disease such as baseline, on treatment, best response, and at disease progression or even before. The concept of the "real-time liquid biopsy" means that dynamic changes in the tumor can be monitored in real-time, thus allowing precision medicine in this disease. The liquid biopsy has numerous potential applications in the clinic, including screening and early detection of cancer, real-time monitoring of disease, detection of minimal residual disease, studying mechanisms for treatment resistance, and stratification of patients at the therapeutic level1. The early detection of disease recurrence and progression are an unmet clinical need in many tumor types and is a key factor in increasing the survival and quality of life of cancer patients. Routine imaging modalities and soluble tumor markers may lack the sensitivity and/or specificity required for this task. Thus, novel predictive markers are urgently needed in the clinic, such as those based on circulating free nucleic acids.
The types of samples that are used for liquid biopsy studies include but are not limited to blood, urine, saliva, and stool samples. Other tumor-specific samples can be cell aspirates, cerebrospinal fluid, pleural fluid, cyst and ascites fluid, sputum, and pancreatic juice2. The former liquids may contain different types of cancer-derived materials, circulating tumor cells (CTC), or fragments such as exosomes and cell-free circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA). Nucleic acids may be encapsulated in extracellular vesicles (EVs) or released into body fluids due to cell death and damage. Circulating free DNA (cfDNA) is mainly released into the bloodstream from apoptotic or necrotic cells and is present in all individuals, showing increased levels in inflammatory or oncological diseases3. Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles (~30-150 nm) secreted by cells containing nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. These vesicles form part of the intercellular communication network and are commonly found in many types of body fluids2. The nucleic acids enclosed inside EVs are protected from the harsh environment within bodily fluids, thus providing a more robust way to study these molecules in the liquid biopsy setting.
Overall, the levels of circulating nucleic acids in liquid biopsy samples are very low, and therefore sensitive methods are needed for detection, such as digital PCR or next-generation sequencing (NGS). Preanalytical management of the sample is crucial to prevent blood cell lysis and release of intact DNA, causing contamination of the cfDNA with the genomic DNA. Furthermore, care must be taken when extracting samples to avoid the presence of inhibitors of enzyme-based analysis methods.
Here we present a standardized method for the collection and storage of plasma and serum samples, which is a crucial first step for liquid biopsy-based downstream applications, including circulating nucleic acid analyses.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 mL Eppendorf tubes</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>0030 120.086</td>
			<td>Any standard tubes/equipment can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 mL serological disposable pipettes</td>
			<td>BIOFIL</td>
			<td>GSP010010</td>
			<td>Any standard tubes/equipment can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 mL Vacutainer K2 EDTA tube</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td>367525</td>
			<td>These tubes can be used for plasma collection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>15 mL polypropylene centrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>BIOFIL</td>
			<td>CFT411150</td>
			<td>Any standard tubes/equipment can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3.5 mL BD Vacutainer tube without anticoagulant</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td>368965</td>
			<td>Either 8.5 or 3.5 mL tubes can be used for serum collection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4 mL polypropylene cryogenic vial, round bottom, self-standing</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>430662</td>
			<td>Any standard tubes/equipment can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4 mL Vacutainer K2 EDTA tube</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td>367864</td>
			<td>These tubes can be used for plasma collection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4200 TapeStation System</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>G2991BA</td>
			<td>Several quantification methods are available with a&#160; specific application for cfDNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5 mL serological disposable pipettes</td>
			<td>BIOFIL</td>
			<td>GSP010005</td>
			<td>Any standard tubes/equipment can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>8.5 mL BD Vacutainer tube without anticoagulant</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td>366468</td>
			<td>Either 8.5 or 3.5 mL tubes can be used for serum collection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge, capable of ~3000 x g with a swing bucket rotor</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>Sorvall ST 16 &#160;10688725</td>
			<td>Any standard tubes/equipment can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Freezer storage boxes for 1&#8211;4 mLcryogenic vials</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>431120</td>
			<td>These boxes are needed when using 4 mL vials for storage</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p1000 pipette tips</td>
			<td>CORNING</td>
			<td>4809</td>
			<td>Any standard tubes/equipment can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>QIAamp Circulating Nucleic Acid Kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>55114</td>
			<td>Any commercially available kit that is specific for cfDNA isolation can be used with this blood prcessing protocol.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Streck&#160;Cell-Free DNA BCT CE tubes 10 mL</td>
			<td>Streck</td>
			<td>218997</td>
			<td>These tubes can be used for plasma collection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Temperature Freezer (-80 &#176;C)</td>
			<td>ESCO</td>
			<td>2180104</td>
			<td>Any standard tubes/equipment can be used</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a standardized liquid biopsy preanalytical protocol for downstream circulating-free dna applications

The term liquid biopsy (LB) refers to molecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA, cells, or extracellular vesicles in blood and other bodily fluids that originate from the primary and/or metastatic tumor. LB has emerged as a mainstay in translational research and has started to become part of clinical oncology practice, providing a minimally invasive alternative to solid biopsy. The LB allows real-time monitoring of a tumor via a minimally invasive sample extraction, such as blood. The applications include early cancer detection, patient follow-up for the detection of disease progression, assessment of minimal residual disease, and potential identification of molecular progression and mechanism of resistance. In order to achieve a reliable analysis of these samples that can be reported in the clinic, the preanalytical procedures should be carefully considered and strictly followed. Sample collection, quality, and storage are crucial steps that determine their usefulness in downstream applications. Here, we present standardized protocols from our liquid biopsy working module for collecting, processing, and storing plasma and serum samples for downstream liquid biopsy analysis based on circulating-free DNA. The protocols presented here require standard equipment and are sufficiently flexible to be applied in most laboratories focused on biological procedures.

After centrifugation of the blood tubes without anticoagulant, the upper phase appears a pale yellow and corresponds to the serum fraction (Figure 2). This fraction is carefully removed and aliquoted for subsequent analysis.
Hemolysis may be present in either the plasma or serum fraction, and the upper phase will have a reddish appearance, which indicates the presence and degree of hemolysis (Figure 3).
Aft...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Standardized Liquid Biopsy Preanalytical Protocol for Downstream Circulating-Free DNA Applications at JoVE.com

A Standardized Liquid Biopsy Preanalytical Protocol for Downstream Circulating-Free DNA Applications

The liquid biopsy has revolutionized our approach to oncology translational studies, with sample collection, quality, and storage being crucial steps for its successful clinical application. Here we describe a standardized and validated protocol for downstream circulating-free DNA applications that can be applied in most translational research laboratories.

The term liquid biopsy (LB) refers to molecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA, cells, or extracellular vesicles in blood and other bodily fluids that ...

This is a standard protocol for the processing and storage of blood samples for downstream liquid biopsy applications based on circulating free DNA. This is the first standard protocol published, although the technique has been in use for several years. It is easy to follow with standard equipment available in most translational or scientific laboratories.The protocol can be performed by all laboratory staff. The protocol helps to standardize how we collect and store samples, which will ultimately impact in the clinic and reduce variability between different centers performing the same or similar downstream analysis where precision is of the outmost importance. This method is particularly useful in oncology research and also in clinical applications.However, it may also be applied in other non-cancer diseases where the liquid biopsy is also used. After the blood sample has been centrifuged, knowing how much plasma or serum to remove can be difficult, but following this specific guidelines will help with this. The rest of the protocol is very easy to follow with limited experience in the laboratory.Demonstrating the procedure will be Jorge, a technician from our laboratory. To begin, centrifuge the tube containing fresh blood at room temperature for 10 minutes at 1600 times g, with the maximum break applied. Carefully remove the tube from the centrifuge.The upper phase of the serum supernatant will appear clear and yellowish. Check whether the sample shows signs of hemolysis and record the presence of hemolysis when appropriate. In a Class II biosafety cabinet, transfer the serum to collection tubes as 250-microliter aliquots.The aliquots must be correctly labeled. Immediately freeze the serum upright in the storage box at minus 80 degrees Celsius, and record the time of sample storage. Verify that the samples were processed within the required four hours timeframe.Centrifuge the EDTA tube at room temperature for 10 minutes at 1600 times g, with the maximum break applied. After centrifugation, the plasma supernatant will appear clear and yellowish. Check whether the sample shows signs of hemolysis and transfer the plasma to a 15-milliliter centrifuge tube without disturbing the cellular layer using a disposable serological pipette.Leave a small residual volume of plasma above the cell layer at approximately five millimeters. If hemolysis is observed, discard the sample for further analysis. Centrifuge the plasma and a 15-milliliter centrifuge tube to remove any residual intact blood cells carried over from the first centrifugation step.Carefully remove the tube from the centrifuge, not the cell pellet at the bottom of the tube, and transfer one to four milliliters of plasma to one to four milliliter polypropylene cryogenic bios or Eppendorfs using a disposable serological pipette. A residual volume of plasma must be left at the bottom of the tube to avoid contaminating the plasma with blood cells. Immediately freeze the plasma upright in the storage box at minus 80 degrees Celsius, and record the time of sample storage.Verify that the samples are correctly labeled and were processed within the required four hours timeframe. Collect the cellular layer using a P1000 and filtered tip and transfer it to a two-milliliter tube. Immediately freeze and store at minus 80 degrees Celsius.An example of a high quality cfDNA extraction that can be used for downstream applications is shown here, whereas this graphical image represents an example of an unsuitable sample with a high level of genomic contamination. The plasma or serum fraction must be a yellow color. This may vary depending on the individual sample.Samples with hemolysis should be discarded. Be careful not to remove any cell pellet when removing the plasma fraction. This protocol can also be used for other nucleic acid based and protein applications, such as the detection of non-coding RNAs or proteins in serum and plasma samples using immuno detection techniques.This is a very standard technique used in many laboratories. This protocol helps researchers to standardize how we perform our analysis as this is a crucial aspect, necessary for future clinical applications.

a-standardized-liquid-biopsy-preanalytical-protocol-for-downstream

Research

JoVE Journal

Cancer Research

A Detailed Protocol for Characterizing the Murine C1498 Cell Line and its Associated Leukemia Mouse Model

The intravenous injection of C1498 cells into syngeneic or congenic mice has been performed since 1941. These injections result in the development of acute leukemia. However, the nature of this disease has not been well documented in the literature. Here, we provide a technical protocol for characterizing C1498 cells in vitro and for determining the nature of the induced leukemia in vivo. The first part of this procedure is focused on determining the hematopoietic lineage and the stage of differentiation of cultured C1498 cells. To achieve this, multi-parametric flow cytometric staining is used to detect hematopoietic cell markers. Immunofluorescence microscopy, cytochemistry and a May-Gr&#252;nwald Giemsa staining are then performed to assess the expression of myeloperoxidase, the activity of esterases and cellular morphology, respectively. The second part of this protocol is dedicated to describing the leukemia disease that is induced in vivo. The latter can be achieved by determining the frequencies of leukemic and inherent cells in the blood, hematopoietic organs (e.g., bone marrow and spleen) and non-lymphoid tissues (e.g., the liver and lungs) using specific staining and flow cytometry analyses. The nature of the leukemia is then confirmed using May-Gr&#252;nwald Giemsa staining and staining for specific esterases in the bone marrow. Here, we present the results that were obtained using this protocol in age-matched C1498- and PBS-injected mice.

This manuscript provides a technical procedure that can be used to characterize C1498 cell cultures in vitro and the acute leukemia induced in mice after their injection. Phenotypic and functional analyses are performed using flow cytometry, immunofluorescence microscopy, cytochemistry and May-Gr&#252;nwald Giemsa staining.

The intravenous injection of C1498 cells into syngeneic or congenic mice has been performed since 1941. These injections result in the development of ...

A Protocol for Rapid Post-mortem Cell Culture of Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Glioma (DIPG)

Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Glioma (DIPG) is a childhood brainstem tumor that carries a universally fatal prognosis. Because surgical resection is not a viable treatment strategy and biopsy is not routinely performed, the availability of patient samples for research is limited. Consequently, efforts to study this disease have been challenged by a paucity of faithful disease models. To address this need, we describe here a protocol for the rapid processing of post-mortem autopsy tissue samples in order to generate durable patient-derived cell culture models that can be used in in vitro assays or in vivo orthotopic xenograft experiments. These models can be used to screen for potential drug targets and to study fundamental pathobiological processes within DIPG. This protocol can further be extended to analyze and isolate tumor and microenvironmental cells using Fluorescence-activated Cell Sorting (FACS), which enables subsequent analysis of gene expression, protein expression, or epigenetic modifications of DNA at the bulk cell or single cell level. Finally, this protocol can also be adapted to generate patient-derived cultures for other central nervous system tumors.

A Protocol for Rapid Post-mortem Cell Culture of Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Glioma DIPG

This protocol describes a method for the rapid processing of post-mortem diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma samples for the establishment of patient-derived cell culture models or direct characterization of tumor and microenvironmental cells.

Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Glioma (DIPG) is a childhood brainstem tumor that carries a universally fatal prognosis. Because surgical resection is not a ...

MicroRNA Based Liquid Biopsy: The Experience of the Plasma miRNA Signature Classifier (MSC) for Lung Cancer Screening

The development of a minimally invasive test, such as liquid biopsy, for early lung cancer detection in its preclinical phase is crucial to improve the outcome of this deadly disease. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are tissue specific, small, non-coding RNAs regulating gene expression, which may act as extracellular messengers of biological signals derived from the cross-talk between the tumor and its surrounding microenvironment. They could thus represent ideal candidates for early detection of lung cancer. In this work, a methodological workflow for the prospective validation of a circulating miRNA test using custom made microfluidic cards and quantitative Real-Time PCR in plasma samples of volunteers enrolled in a lung cancer screening trial is proposed. In addition, since the release of hemolysis-related miRNAs and more general technical issues may affect the analysis, the quality control steps included in the standard operating procedures are also presented. The protocol is reproducible and gives reliable quantitative results; however, when using large clinical series, both pre-analytical and analytical features should be cautiously evaluated.

MicroRNA Based Liquid Biopsy: The Experience of the Plasma miRNA Signature Classifier MSC for Lung Cancer Screening

Here, we present the detailed protocol adopted in the BioMILD screening trial to perform the circulating microRNA signature classifier test for early lung cancer detection.

The development of a minimally invasive test, such as liquid biopsy, for early lung cancer detection in its preclinical phase is crucial to improve the ...

Target Cell Pre-enrichment and Whole Genome Amplification for Single Cell Downstream Characterization

Rare target cells can be isolated from a high background of non-target cells using antibodies specific for surface proteins of target cells. A recently developed method uses a medical wire functionalized with anti-epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) antibodies for in vivo isolation of circulating tumor cells (CTCs)1. A patient-matched cohort in non-metastatic prostate cancer showed that the in vivo isolation technique resulted in a higher percentage of patients positive for CTCs as well as higher CTC counts as compared to the current gold standard in CTC enumeration. As cells cannot be recovered from current medical devices, a new functionalized wire (referred to as Device) was manufactured allowing capture and subsequent detachment of cells by enzymatic treatment. Cells are allowed to attach to the Device, visualized on a microscope and detached using enzymatic treatment. Recovered cells are cytocentrifuged onto membrane-coated slides and harvested individually by means of laser microdissection or micromanipulation. Single-cell samples are then subjected to single-cell whole genome amplification allowing multiple downstream analysis including screening and target-specific approaches. The procedure of isolation and recovery yields high quality DNA from single cells and does not impair subsequent whole genome amplification (WGA). A single cell&#39;s amplified DNA can be forwarded to screening and/or targeted analysis such as array comparative genome hybridization (array-CGH) or sequencing. The device allows ex vivo isolation from artificial rare cell samples (i.e. 500 target cells spiked into 5 mL of peripheral blood). Whereas detachment rates of cells are acceptable (50 - 90%), the recovery rate of detached cells onto slides spans a wide range dependent on the cell line used (&#60;10 - &#62;50%) and needs some further attention. This device is not cleared for the use in patients.

This protocol is to recover and prepare rare target cells from a mixture with non-target background cells for molecular genetic characterization at the single-cell level. DNA quality is equal to non-treated single cells and allows for single-cell application (both screening based and targeted analysis).

Rare target cells can be isolated from a high background of non-target cells using antibodies specific for surface proteins of target cells. A recently ...

Moving Upwards: A Simple and Flexible In Vitro Three-dimensional Invasion Assay Protocol

Although 3D invasion assays have been developed, the challenge remains to study cells without affecting the integrity of their microenvironment. Traditional 3D assays such as the Boyden Chamber require that cells are displaced from the original culture location and moved to a new environment. Not only does this disrupt the cellular processes that are intrinsic to the microenvironment, but it often results in a loss of cells. These problems are especially challenging when dealing with cells that are either rare, or extremely sensitive to their microenvironment. Here, we describe the development of a 3D invasion assay that avoids both concerns. In this assay, cells are plated within a small well and an ECM matrix containing a chemoattractant is laid atop the cells. This requires no cell displacement, and allows the cells to invade upwards into the matrix. In this assay, cell invasion as well as cell morphology can be assessed within the collagen gel. Using this assay, we characterize the invasive capacity of rare and sensitive cells; the hybrid cells resulting from fusion between breast cancer cells MCF7 and mesenchymal/multipotent stem/stroma cells (MSCs).

Moving Upwards: A Simple and Flexible In Vitro Three-dimensional Invasion Assay Protocol

This protocol describes an inverted vertical invasion assay that could be used to quantify the migration and invasion capabilities of cells in a three-dimensional setting while preserving the cell microenvironment. This assay is suitable for rare and/or sensitive cells.

Although 3D invasion assays have been developed, the challenge remains to study cells without affecting the integrity of their microenvironment. ...

The Application of 1% Methylene Blue Dye As a Single Technique in Breast Cancer Sentinel Node Biopsy

In this study, we injected 1% methylene blue dye (MBD) into the subareolar or peritumoral space of the breast. In the case of breast conserving surgery (BCS), a separate incision in the lower axilla hairline was made to find the sentinel nodes (SNs). In mastectomy, the SNs were identified through the same mastectomy incision. The SNs were described as blue nodes or nodes with lymphatic blue channels. An anatomical landmark in the axilla was used to facilitate SNs identification. The SNs metastases were evaluated by intraoperative frozen section analysis and histopathology examination as it is a gold standard. Here, we described the MBD as the lone technique in breast cancer sentinel node biopsy (SNB) which could be useful when radioisotope tracer or patent or isosulfan blue dye (PBD) cannot be provided.

In Indonesia, sentinel node biopsy (SNB) is not routinely performed for breast cancer surgery because of the limitation to provide radioisotope tracer and isosulfan or patent blue dye (PBD). To overcome this obstacle, we applied 1% methylene blue dye (MBD) as a single agent to map the sentinel nodes (SNs).

In this study, we injected 1% methylene blue dye (MBD) into the subareolar or peritumoral space of the breast. In the case of breast conserving surgery ...

Characterizing DNA Repair Processes at Transient and Long-lasting Double-strand DNA Breaks by Immunofluorescence Microscopy

The repair of double-stranded breaks (DSBs) in DNA is a highly coordinated process, necessitating the formation and resolution of multi-protein repair complexes. This process is regulated by a myriad of proteins that promote the association and disassociation of proteins to these lesions. Thanks in large part to the ability to perform functional screens of a vast library of proteins, there is a greater appreciation of the genes necessary for the double-strand DNA break repair. Often knockout or chemical inhibitor screens identify proteins involved in repair processes by using increased toxicity as a marker for a protein that is required for DSB repair. Although useful for identifying novel cellular proteins involved in maintaining genome fidelity, functional analysis requires the determination of whether the protein of interest promotes localization, formation, or resolution of repair complexes. 
The accumulation of repair proteins can be readily detected as distinct nuclear foci by immunofluorescence microscopy. Thus, association and disassociation of these proteins at sites of DNA damage can be accessed by observing these nuclear foci at representative intervals after the induction of double-strand DNA breaks. This approach can also identify mis-localized repair factor proteins, if repair defects do not simultaneously occur with incomplete delays in repair. In this scenario, long-lasting double-strand DNA breaks can be engineered by expressing a rare cutting endonuclease (e.g., I-SceI) in cells where the recognition site for the said enzyme has been integrated into the cellular genome. The resulting lesion is particularly hard to resolve as faithful repair will reintroduce the enzyme's recognition site, prompting another round of cleavage. As a result, differences in the kinetics of repair are eliminated. If repair complexes are not formed, localization has been impeded. This protocol describes the methodology necessary to identify changes in repair kinetics as well as repair protein localization.

Repair of double-strand DNA breaks is a dynamic process, requiring not only formation of repair complexes at the breaks, but also their resolution after the lesion is addressed. Here, we use immunofluorescence microscopy for transient and long-lasting double-stranded breaks as a tool to dissect this genome maintenance mechanism.

The repair of double-stranded breaks (DSBs) in DNA is a highly coordinated process, necessitating the formation and resolution of multi-protein repair ...

Longitudinal Intravital Imaging of Brain Tumor Cell Behavior in Response to an Invasive Surgical Biopsy

Biopsies are standard of care for cancer treatment and are clinically beneficial as they allow solid tumor diagnosis, prognosis, and personalized treatment determination. However, perturbation of the tumor architecture by biopsy and other invasive procedures has been associated with undesired effects on tumor progression, which need to be studied in depth to further improve the clinical benefit of these procedures. Conventional static approaches, which only provide a snapshot of the tumor, are limited in their ability to reveal the impact of biopsy on tumor cell behavior such as migration, a process closely related to tumor malignancy. In particular, tumor cell migration is the key in highly aggressive brain tumors, where local tumor dissemination makes total tumor resection virtually impossible. The development of multiphoton imaging and chronic imaging windows allows scientists to study this dynamic process in living animals over time. Here, we describe a method for the high-resolution longitudinal imaging of brain tumor cells before and after a biopsy in the same living animal. This approach makes it possible to study the impact of this procedure on tumor cell behavior (migration, invasion, and proliferation). Furthermore, we discuss the advantages and limitations of this technique, as well as the ability of this methodology to study changes in the cancer cell behavior for other surgical interventions, including tumor resection or the implantation of chemotherapy wafers.

Here we describe a method for high-resolution time-lapse multiphoton imaging of brain tumor cells before and after invasive surgical intervention (e.g., biopsy) within the same living animal. This method allows studying the impact of these invasive surgical procedures on tumor cells&#39; migratory, invasive, and proliferative behavior at a single cell level.

Biopsies are standard of care for cancer treatment and are clinically beneficial as they allow solid tumor diagnosis, prognosis, and personalized ...

Micromanipulation of Circulating Tumor Cells for Downstream Molecular Analysis and Metastatic Potential Assessment

Blood-borne metastasis accounts for&#160;most cancer-related deaths and involves circulating tumor cells (CTCs) that are successful in establishing new tumors at distant sites. CTCs are found in the bloodstream of patients as single cells (single CTCs) or as multicellular aggregates (CTC clusters and CTC-white blood cell clusters), with the latter displaying a higher metastatic ability. Beyond enumeration, phenotypic and molecular analysis is extraordinarily important to dissect CTC biology and to identify actionable vulnerabilities. Here, we provide a detailed description of a workflow that includes CTC immunostaining and micromanipulation, ex vivo culture to assess&#160;proliferative and survival capabilities of individual cells, and in vivo metastasis-formation assays. Additionally, we provide a protocol to achieve the dissociation of CTC clusters into individual cells and the investigation of intra-cluster heterogeneity. With these approaches, for instance, we precisely quantify survival and proliferative potential of single CTCs and individual cells within CTC clusters, leading us to the observation that cells within clusters display better survival and proliferation in ex vivo cultures compared to single CTCs. Overall, our workflow offers a platform to dissect the characteristics of CTCs at the single cell level, aiming towards the identification of metastasis-relevant pathways and a better understanding of CTC biology.

Here, we present an integrated workflow to identify phenotypic and molecular features that characterize circulating tumor cells (CTCs). We combine live immunostaining and robotic micromanipulation of single and clustered CTCs with single cell-based techniques for downstream analysis and assessment of metastasis-seeding ability.

Blood-borne metastasis accounts for&#160;most cancer-related deaths and involves circulating tumor cells (CTCs) that are successful in establishing new ...

Immunofluorescence Imaging of DNA Damage and Repair Foci in Human Colon Cancer Cells

The purpose of the manuscript is to provide a step-by-step protocol for performing immunofluorescence microscopy to study the radiation-induced DNA damage response induced by neutron-gamma mixed-beam used in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT). Specifically, the proposed methodology is applied for the detection of repair proteins activation which can be visualized as foci using antibodies specific to DNA double-strand breaks (DNA-DSBs). DNA repair foci were assessed by immunofluorescence in colon cancer cells (HCT-116) after irradiation with the neutron-mixed beam. DNA-DSBs are the most genotoxic lesions and are repaired in mammalian cells by two major pathways: non-homologous end-joining pathway (NHEJ) and homologous recombination repair (HRR). The frequencies of foci, immunochemically stained, for commonly used markers in radiobiology like &#947;-H2AX, 53BP1 are associated with DNA-DSB number and are considered as efficient and sensitive markers for monitoring the induction and repair of DNA-DSBs. It was established that &#947;-H2AX foci attract repair proteins, leading to a higher concentration of repair factors near a DSB. To monitor DNA damage at the cellular level, immunofluorescence analysis for the presence of DNA-PKcs representative repair protein foci from the NHEJ pathway and Rad52 from the HRR pathway was planned. We have developed and introduced a reliable immunofluorescence staining protocol for the detection of radiation-induced DNA damage response with antibodies specific for repair factors from NHEJ and HRR pathways and observed radiation-induced foci (RIF). The proposed methodology can be used for investigating repair protein that is highly activated in the case of neutron-mixed beam radiation, thereby indicating the dominance of the repair pathway.

Radiation-induced DNA damage response activated by neutron mixed-beam used in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) has not been fully established. This protocol provides a step-by-step procedure to detect radiation-induced foci (RIF) of repair proteins by immunofluorescence staining in human colon cancer cell lines after irradiation with the neutron-mixed beam.

The purpose of the manuscript is to provide a step-by-step protocol for performing immunofluorescence microscopy to study the radiation-induced DNA damage ...